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{{redirect|Arabian||Arab (disambiguation)}} {{redirect|Arabian||Arab (disambiguation)}}
] ]
The '''Arabian Peninsula''' (in ]: شبه الجزيرة العربية ''šibh al-jazīra al-{{Unicode|ʻ}}arabīya'' or جزيرة العرب ''jazīrat al-{{Unicode|ʻ}}arab''), Arabia, Arabistan,<ref>see of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd Edition, entry for '''Arabian Peninsula'''</ref> and the Arabian subcontinent<ref></ref> is a ] in ] at the junction of ] and ]. The area is an important part of the ] and plays a critically important ] role because of its vast reserves of ] and ]. The '''Arabian Peninsula''' (in ]: شبه الجزيرة العربية ''šibh al-jazīra al-{{Unicode|ʻ}}arabīya'' or جزيرة العرب ''jazīrat al-{{Unicode|ʻ}}arab''), Arabia, or Arabistan <ref>see of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd Edition, entry for '''Arabian Peninsula'''</ref> is a ] in ] at the junction of ] and ]. The area is an important part of the ] and plays a critically important ] role because of its vast reserves of ] and ].


==Geography== ==Geography==
The Arabian peninsula can refer to either the Gulf States region, the ],<ref>, and </ref> or the entire subcontinent of Arabia.<ref>see for example the </ref>
⚫ The coasts of the peninsula in its most usual sense are, on the west the ] and the ], on the southeast the ] (part of the ]), and on the northeast, the ], the ], and the ].
⚫ The peninsula and the ] have no clear line of demarcation, but the commonly accepted boundary is the northern border of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait.<ref></ref>. The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.


⚫ The coasts of the peninsula are, on the west the ] and the ], on the southeast the ] (part of the ]), and on the northeast, the ], the ], and the ].
]
⚫ The peninsula and the ] have no clear line of demarcation, but a common definition of the border it to take the northern boundaries of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait <ref></ref>. The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.

]
Arabia is also a NNW-SSE four-sided peninsula<ref></ref> or subcontinent in Southwest Asia. It is flanked by seas on three of its sides: the Red and Mediterranean Seas to the west, and the Arabian sea to the southeast. On the north and northeast it abuts the southern edge of Turkey and northwest Iran where it forms the Zagros and Bitlis mountains.<ref>see and Brittanica in mountain: The Zagros and Bitlis mountains</ref>
⚫ The following countries are considered part of the peninsula:
⚫
⚫ The following Gulf region countries are considered to be part of the peninsula:


*], an ] nation off the east coast of the peninsula. *], an ] nation off the east coast of the peninsula.
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*] *]
*], the sole republic on the peninsula. *], the sole republic on the peninsula.
⚫

⚫ Six countries of the above list, excluding Yemen, form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), mainly known as the ].
The following Syrian Desert countries are also considered to be part of the peninsula:

*]
*]
*]

The mountains of southern Turkey and Iran, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and the Sinai peninsula are all geological provinces of the Arabian Peninsula.<ref>see the </ref>
⚫ Six countries of the Gulf region list above, excluding Yemen, form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), mainly known as the ].
The ] covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in ] and in ]. The peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of ]. It is home to the ]ic holy cities of ] and ], both of which are in Saudi Arabia. The ] and ] are economically the wealthiest in the region. ], a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the famous ] television station ] and its English-language subsidiary ]. ], on the border with ], was claimed as an Iraqi province and invaded by ] during the first ]; it is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the ] in 2003. The ] covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in ] and in ]. The peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of ]. It is home to the ]ic holy cities of ] and ], both of which are in Saudi Arabia. The ] and ] are economically the wealthiest in the region. ], a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the famous ] television station ] and its English-language subsidiary ]. ], on the border with ], was claimed as an Iraqi province and invaded by ] during the first ]; it is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the ] in 2003.


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===History of the term=== ===History of the term===

The inhabitants used a north-south division of Arabia: Al Sham-Al Yaman, or Arabia Deserta-Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix had originally been used for the whole peninsula, and at other times only for the southern region. Because its use became limited to the south, the whole peninsula was simply called Arabia. Arabia Deserta was the entire desert region extending north from Arabia Felix to Palmyra and the Euphrates, including all the area between Pelusium on the Nile and Babylon. This area was also called Arabia and not sharply distinguished from the peninsula.<ref>See </ref> The Hejaz, or the 'barrier', is assumed to refer to its location between Al Sham (Syria) in the north and Al Yaman (Yemen) in the south.


The ] named three regions with the prefix "arabia", encompassing a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula": The ] named three regions with the prefix "arabia", encompassing a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula":
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*] ("Happy Arabia"): was used by geographers to describe what is now modern-day ], which enjoys more rainfall, is much greener than the rest of the peninsula and has long enjoyed much more productive fields. *] ("Happy Arabia"): was used by geographers to describe what is now modern-day ], which enjoys more rainfall, is much greener than the rest of the peninsula and has long enjoyed much more productive fields.
The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the entire region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' - bilad al-Arab (Arabia or Arabistan). The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the subcontinent itself starting from ], where the Euphrates river makes its descent into ], through ], and on through the remainder of the Sinai and Arabian peninsulas. The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the entire region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' - bilad al-Arab (Arabia or Arabistan). The peninsula itself was called al-jazīra al-{{Unicode|ʻ}}arabīya <ref>Joshua Teitelbaum, '''The Rise and Fall of the Hashimite Kingdom of Arabia''', C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2001, page 236. </ref>. The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the entire region starting from ], where the Euphrates river makes its descent into ], through ], and the remainder of the Arabian peninsula. The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was based at Damascus and was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.<ref> see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0521291666, page 85</ref>

''The provinces of Arabia were:'' Al Tih, the Sinai peninsula, Hedjaz, Asir, Yemen, Hadramaut, Mahra and Shilu, Oman, Hasa, Bahrian, Dahna, Nejd, Nufud, the Hammad, which included the deserts of Syria, Mesopotamia and Babylonia.<ref>see and the </ref>

The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was based at Damascus and was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.<ref> see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0521291666, page 85</ref>


==Ancient history== ==Ancient history==

Revision as of 16:00, 2 February 2009

"Arabia" redirects here. For other uses, see Arabia (disambiguation). "Arabian" redirects here. For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation).
The Arabian Peninsula

The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab), Arabia, or Arabistan is a peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia. The area is an important part of the Middle East and plays a critically important geopolitical role because of its vast reserves of oil and natural gas.

Geography

The coasts of the peninsula are, on the west the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba, on the southeast the Arabian Sea (part of the Indian Ocean), and on the northeast, the Gulf of Oman, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Persian Gulf. The peninsula and the Syrian Desert have no clear line of demarcation, but a common definition of the border it to take the northern boundaries of Saudi Arabia and Kuwait . The most prominent feature of the peninsula is desert, but in the southwest there are mountain ranges which receive greater rainfall than the rest of the Arabian Peninsula.

Closeup of the Arabian plate boundaries with the Eurasian, African and Indian plates.

The following countries are considered part of the peninsula:

Six countries of the above list, excluding Yemen, form the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), mainly known as the Arab gulf states. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia covers the greater part of the peninsula. The majority of the population of the peninsula live in Saudi Arabia and in Yemen. The peninsula contains the world's largest reserves of oil. It is home to the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, both of which are in Saudi Arabia. The UAE and Saudi Arabia are economically the wealthiest in the region. Qatar, a small peninsula in the Persian Gulf on the larger peninsula, is home of the famous Arabic-language television station Al Jazeera and its English-language subsidiary Al Jazeera English. Kuwait, on the border with Iraq, was claimed as an Iraqi province and invaded by Saddam Hussein during the first Persian Gulf War; it is an important country strategically, forming one of the main staging grounds for coalition forces mounting the invasion of Iraq in 2003.

The Arabian plate, one of the tectonic plates, extends from the Red Sea to the Zagros mountains and from the Gulf of Aden along the Mediterranean Sea coast to the northwestern limit defined by the Taurus Mountains of southern Turkey.

As of 2008, the estimated population of the Arabian Peninsula is 77,983,936.

The Arabian Peninsula

History of the term

The Romans named three regions with the prefix "arabia", encompassing a larger area than the current term "Arabian Peninsula":

The Arabs and the Ottoman Empire considered the entire region where the Arabs lived 'the land of the Arabs' - bilad al-Arab (Arabia or Arabistan). The peninsula itself was called al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya . The Ottomans used the term Arabistan in a broad sense for the entire region starting from Cilicia, where the Euphrates river makes its descent into Syria, through Palestine, and the remainder of the Arabian peninsula. The provincial Ottoman Army for Arabia (Arabistan Ordusu) was based at Damascus and was put in charge of Syria, Cilicia, Iraq, and the Arabian Peninsula.

Ancient history

Main article: Pre-Islamic Arabia

Until comparatively recent times knowledge of the Arabian Peninsula was limited to that provided by ancient Greek and Roman writers and by earlyArab geographers; much of this material was unreliable. In the 20th century, however, archaeological exploration has added considerably to the knowledge of the area.

In his book, 'The Real Eve', Oppenheimer claims based on mitochondrial evidence in conjunction with the contemporary environment (ie glaciation, sea levels) corresponding to these molecular clock timelines that the first humans to leave Africa crossed the virtually dry mouth of the Red Sea onto the Arabian peninsula. They travelled along the coastline of the peninsula before crossing into Southern Asia.

Wadi Shab, Oman
The old part of Sana, Yemen
File:Emirates towers123.jpg
Emirates towers in United Arab Emirates; the eastern part of Arabian Peninsula

The peninsula is one of the possible original homelands of the Proto-Semitic language ancestors of all the Semitic-speaking peoples in the region — the Akkadians, Arabs, Assyrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, etc. Linguistically, the peninsula was the cradle of the Arabic language (spread beyond the peninsula with the Islamic religion during the expansion of Islam beginning in the 7th century AD) and still maintains tiny populations of speakers of Semitic languages such as Mehri and Shehri, remnants of the language family that was spoken in earlier historical periods to the East of the kingdoms of Sheba and Hadramout which flourished in the southern part of the peninsula (modern-day Yemen and Oman). Bernard Lewis mentions in his book The Arabs in History:

"According to this, Arabia was originally a land of great fertility and the first home of the Semitic peoples. Through the millennia it has been undergoing a process of steady desiccation, a drying up of wealth and waterways and a spread of the desert at the expense of the cultivable land. The declining productivity of the peninsula, together with the increase in the number of the inhabitants, led to a series of crises of overpopulation and consequently to a recurring cycle of invasions of the neighbouring countries by the Semitic peoples of the peninsula. It was these crises that carried the Assyrians, Aramaeans, Canaanites (including the Phoenicians and Hebrews), and finally the Arabs themselves into the Fertile Crescent."

The better-watered, higher portions of the extreme south-west portion of the Arabian Peninsula supported three early kingdoms. The first, the Minaean, was centered in the interior of what is now Yemen, but probably embraced most of southern Arabia. Although dating is difficult, it is generally believed that the Minaean Kingdom existed from 1200 to 650 BC The second kingdom, the Sabaean (see Sheba), was founded around 930 BC and lasted until around 115 BC; it probably supplanted the Minaean Kingdom and occupied substantially the same territory. The Sabaean capital and chief city, Ma’rib, probably flourished as did no other city of ancient Arabia, partly because of its controlling position on the caravan routes linking the seaports of the Mediterranean with the frankincense-growing region of the Hadhramaut and partly because a large nearby dam provided water for irrigation. The Sabaean Kingdom was widely referred to as Saba, and it has been suggested that the Queen of Sheba mentioned in the Bible and the Quran, who visited King Solomon of Israel in Jerusalem in the 10th century BC, was Sabaean. Both the Bible and the Quran mention that under Soloman's rule the Kingdom of Israel included territories on the peninsula east of the Jordan river. The Islamic view of Solomon holds that those territories reached as far south as Yemen. The Himyarites followed the Sabaeans as the leaders in southern Arabia; the Himyarite Kingdom lasted from around 115 BC to around AD 525. In 24 BC the Roman emperor Augustus sent the prefect of Egypt, Aelius Gallus, against the Himyarites, but his army of 10,000, which was unsuccessful, returned to Egypt. The Himyarites prospered in the frankincense, myrrh, and spice trade until the Romans began to open the sea routes through the Red Sea.

During the Roman period the peninsula was divided by three districts: Arabia Felix, Arabia Deserta, and Arabia Petraea. The latter included the Sinai Peninsula, which is no longer considered part of the modern Arabian Peninsula.

Sabaean inscription addressed to the moon-god Almaqah, mentioning five South Arabian gods, two reigning sovereigns and two governors, 7th century BCE.

In the 3rd century, The East African Christian Kingdom of Aksum began interfering in South Arabian affairs, controlling at times the western Tihama region among other areas. The Kingdom of Aksum at its height extended its territory in Arabia across most of Yemen and southern and western Saudi Arabia before being eventually driven out by the Persians. There is evidence of a Sabaean inscription about the alliance between the Himyarite king Shamir Yuhahmid and Aksum under King `DBH in the first quarter of the 3rd century AD. They have been living alongside the Sabaeans who lived across the Red Sea from them for many centuries:

Shamir of Dhu-Raydan and Himyar had called in the help of the clans of Habashat for war against the kings of Saba; but Ilmuqah granted . . . the submission of Shamir of Dhu-Raydan and the clans of Habashat.

The ruins of Siraf, a legendary ancient port, are located on the north shore of the Iranian coast on the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf was a boat route between the Arabian Peninsula and India made feasible for small boats by staying close to the coast with land always in sight. The historical importance of Siraf to ancient trade is only now being realised. Discovered there in past archaeological excavations are ivory objects from east Africa, pieces of stone from India, and lapis from Afghanistan. Sirif dates back to the Parthian era.

There is a lost city in The Empty Quarter known as Iram of the Pillars and Thamud. It is estimated that it lasted from around 3000 BC to the first century AD.

Medieval history

Main articles: Muslim conquests, Arab Empire, and Islamic Golden Age
Age of the Caliphs   Expansion under Muhammad, 622-632/A.H. 1-11   Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632-661/A.H. 11-40   Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750/A.H. 40-129

The seventh century saw the introduction of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The Islamic prophet Muhammad established a new unified political polity in the Arabian peninsula which under the subsequent Rashidun and Umayyad Caliphates saw a century of rapid expansion of Arab power well beyond the Arabian peninsula in the form of a vast Muslim Arab Empire with an area of influence that stretched from northwest India, across Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, southern Italy, and the Iberian Peninsula, to the Pyrenees.

Muhammad began preaching Islam at Mecca before migrating to Medina, from where he united the tribes of Arabia into a singular Arab Muslim religious polity. With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's intimate friend and collaborator. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated his successor. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine (or Eastern Roman Empire) forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan and Ali ibn Abi Talib. These four are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories.

Modern history

The Damascus Protocol of 1914 provides an illustration of the regional relationships. Arabs living in one of the existing districts of the Arabian peninsula, the Emirate of Hejaz, asked for a British guarantee of independence on behalf of 'the whole Arab nation'. Their proposal included all Arab lands south of a line roughly corresponding to the northern frontiers of present-day Syria and Iraq. They envisioned a new Arab state, or confederation of states, adjoining the southern Arabian Peninsula. It would have been comprised of Cilicia - İskenderun and Mersin, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine.

The oil boom in Kuwait converted Kuwait City from a small city to a financial hub.

A major develpment of the early 20th century has been the unification of Saudi Arabia under King Abdulaziz Ibn Saud. In 1902 Ibn Saud captured Riyadh. Continuing his conquests, Abdul Aziz subdued Al-Hasa, the rest of Nejd, and the Hejaz between 1913 and 1926 and founded the modern state of Saudi Arabia

Landscape

Ras Aljinz, southeastern Arabia (Oman) also known as the 'Turtle Beach'

Geologically, this region is perhaps more appropriately called the Arabian subcontinent because it lies on a tectonic plate of its own, the Arabian Plate, which has been moving incrementally away from northeast Africa (forming the Red Sea) and north into the Eurasian plate (forming the Zagros mountains). The rocks exposed vary systematically across Arabia, with the oldest rocks exposed in the Arabian-Nubian Shield near the Red Sea, overlain by earlier sediments that become younger towards the Persian Gulf. Perhaps the best-preserved ophiolite on Earth, Semail ophiolite, lies exposed in the mountains of the UAE and northern Oman.

The peninsula consists of:

  1. a central plateau, known as Nejd, with fertile valleys and pastures used for the grazing of sheep and other livestock.
  2. a range of deserts, the Nefud in the north, stony; the Rub' Al-Khali or Great Arabian Desert, in the south, with sand estimated to extend 600 ft. below the surface; and between them, the Dahna.
  3. stretches of dry or marshy coastland with coral reefs on the Red Sea side (Tihamah).
  4. ranges of mountains, primarily paralleling the Red Sea on the western (e.g. Asir province) and southeastern end (Oman). The highest, Jabal Al-Nabi Sho'aib in Yemen, is 3666 m high.

Arabia has few lakes or permanent rivers. Most are drained by ephemeral watercourses called wadis, which are dry except during the rainy season. Plentiful ancient aquifers exist beneath much of the peninsula, however, and where this water surfaces, oases form (e.g. Al-Hasa and Qatif, two of the worlds largest oases) and permit agriculture, especially palm trees, which allowed the peninsula to produce more dates than any other region in the world. The climate being extremely hot and arid, the peninsula has no forests, although desert-adapted wildlife is present throughout the region.

A plateau more than 2,500 feet high extends across much of the Arabian Peninsula. The plateau slopes eastwards from the massive, rifted escarpment along the coast of the Red Sea, to the shallow waters of The Gulf. The interior is characterised by cuestas and valleys, drained by a system of wadis. A crescent of sand and gravel deserts lies to the east.

Land and sea

Most of the Arabian Peninsula is unsuited to settled agriculture, making irrigation and land reclamation projects essential. The narrow coastal plain and isolated oases, amounting to less than 1% of the land area, are used to cultivate grains, coffee and exotic fruits. Goats, sheep, and camels are widespread throughout the region.

The fertile soils of Yemen have encouraged settlement of almost all of the land from sea level up to the mountains at 10,000 feet. In the higher reaches elaborate terraces have been constructed to facilitate crop cultivation.

Transport and industry

The extraction and refining of oil and gas are the major industrial activities in the Arabian Peninsula. The region also has an active construction sector, with many cities reflecting the wealth generated by the oil industry. The service sector is dominated by financial and technical institutions, which, like the construction sector, mainly serve the oil industry. Traditional handicrafts such as carpet-weaving are found in rural areas.

References

  1. see page 61 of Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary, 3rd Edition, entry for Arabian Peninsula
  2. Arabia in Encyclopedia Britannica
  3. "[[The World Fact book]]". Central Intelligence Agency. 2007-08-07. {{cite web}}: URL–wikilink conflict (help); Unknown parameter |access date= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. Joshua Teitelbaum, The Rise and Fall of the Hashimite Kingdom of Arabia, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, 2001, page 236.
  5. see History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey, Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw, Cambridge University Press, 1977, ISBN 0521291666, page 85
  6. Bernard Lewis (2002), The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, USA; 6New Ed edition, page 17
  7. Stuart Munro-Hay. Aksum: A Civilization of Late Antiquity. Edinburgh: University Press. 1991. pp. 66.
  8. "The Seas of Sindbad". Retrieved 2006-12-11.
  9. "Foreign Experts Talk of Siraf History". Cultural Heritage News Agency. Retrieved 2006-12-11.
  10. See:
    • Holt (1977a), p.57
    • Hourani (2003), p.22
    • Lapidus (2002), p.32
    • Madelung (1996), p.43
    • Tabatabaei (1979), p.30–50
  11. See
    • Holt (1977a), p.74
    • L. Gardet. "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. {{cite encyclopedia}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. As cited by R, John and S. Hadawi's, Palestine Diary, pp. 30-31, the 'Damascus Protocol' stated:"The recognition by Great Britain of the independence of the Arab countries lying within the following frontiers: North: The Line Mersin_Adana to parallel 37N. and thence along the line Birejek-Urga-Mardin-Kidiat-Jazirat (Ibn 'Unear)-Amadia to the Persian frontier; East: The Persian frontier down to the Persian Gulf; South: The Indian Ocean (with the exclusion of Aden, whose status was to be maintained). West: The Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea back to Mersin. The abolition of all exceptional privileges granted to foreigners under the capitulations. The conclusion of a defensive alliance between Great Britain and the future independent Arab State. The grant of economic preference to Great Britain." see King Husain and the Kingdom of Hejaz, By Randall Baker, Oleander Press, 1979, ISBN 0900891483, pages 64-65
  • Global Nomads - Multi-media website documenting the current perspective of living in a diverse Oil Company Expatriate Community.

External links

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