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| '''Bioelectrogenesis''' is the generation of electricity by living organisms, a phenomenon that belongs to the science of ]. In biological cells, electrochemically active transmembrane ion channel and transporter proteins, such as the ], make electricity generation possible by maintaining a voltage imbalance from an ] between the intracellular and extracellular space. The sodium-potassium pump simultaneously releases three Na ions away from, and influxes two K ions towards, the intracellular space. This generates an ] gradient from the uneven charge separation created. The process consumes metabolic energy in the form of ].<ref>Baptista, V. "." Advances in Physiology Education, vol. 39, no. 4, 2015, pp. 397-404. {{doi|10.1152/advan.00051.2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | doi=10.1007/978-94-009-2143-6_2|chapter = Cell Membranes and Bioelectrogenesis|title = Molecular Basis and Thermodynamics of Bioelectrogenesis| volume=5| pages=30–53|series = Topics in Molecular Organization and Engineering|year = 1990|last1 = Schoffeniels|first1 = E.| last2=Margineanu| first2=D.| isbn=978-94-010-7464-3}}</ref> | |||
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| ==Bioelectrogenesis in fish == | |||
| The term usually refers to the electricity-generating ability in some aquatic creatures, such as the ], ], two genera of ], ]s and, to a lesser extent, the ]. Fish exhibiting such bioelectrogenesis often also possess ] abilities (which are more widespread) as part of an integrated electric system.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bullock|first1=T. H. |last2=Hopkins|first2=C. D.| last3=Ropper|first3=A. N.|last4=Fay|first4=R. R. |year=2005 |title=From Electrogenesis to Electroreception: An Overview |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-387-23192-1 |doi=10.1007/0-387-28275-0_2 }}</ref> Electrogenesis may be utilized for ], self-defense, electrocommunication and sometimes the stunning of prey.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Castello, M. E. |author2=A. Rodriguez-Cattaneo |author3=P. A. Aguilera |author4=L. Iribarne|author5=A. C. Pereira |author6=A. A. Caputi |name-list-style=amp |title=Waveform generation in the weakly electric fish ''Gymnotus coropinae'' (Hoedeman): the electric organ and the electric organ discharge |journal=] |volume=212 |year=2009 |pages=1351–1364 |doi=10.1242/jeb.022566 |issue=9 |pmid=19376956|doi-access=free }}</ref> | |||
| ==Bioelectrogenesis in microbial life== | |||
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| The first examples of bioelectrogenic microbial life was identified in ] (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) by M. C. Potter in 1911, using an early iteration of a ] (MFC). It was founded that chemical action in the breakdown of carbon such as ] and carbon decomposition in yeast is linked to the production of electricity.<ref>Potter, M. C. (1911). Electrical effects accompanying the decomposition of organic compounds. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Containing Papers of a Biological Character, 84(571), 260-276. {{jstor|80609}}</ref> | |||
| Decomposition of organic or inorganic carbon by bacteria is paired with the release of electrons extracellularly towards electrodes, which generate electric currents. The microbe's released electrons are transferred by ] or redox-active compounds from the cell to the anode in the presence of a viable carbon source. This creates an electrical current as electrons move from ] to a physically separated ].<ref>Raghavulu, SV, et al. "." Bioresource Technology, vol. 146, 2013, pp. 696-703.</ref><ref>Velvizhi, G., and S. Venkata Mohan. "." International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, vol. 37, no. 7, 2012, pp. 5969-5978.</ref> | |||
| There are several mechanisms for extracellular electron transport. Some bacteria use ] in ] to transfer electrons towards the anode. The nanowires are made of ] that act as a conduit for the electrons to pass towards the anode.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/cssc.201100733| pmid=22614997|title = Microbial Nanowires: A New Paradigm for Biological Electron Transfer and Bioelectronics| journal=ChemSusChem| volume=5| issue=6| pages=1039–1046|year = 2012|last1 = Malvankar|first1 = Nikhil S.| last2=Lovley| first2=Derek R.}}</ref><ref>Gorby, Yuri A., et al. "." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, vol. 103, no. 30, 2006, pp. 11358-11363. {{pmc|1544091}}</ref> | |||
| Electron shuttles in the form of redox-active compounds like ], which is a ], are also able to transport electrons. These cofactors are secreted by the microbe and reduced by redox participating enzymes such as ] embedded on the microbe's cell surface. The reduced cofactors then transfer electrons to the anode and are oxidized.<ref>Kotloski, NJ, and JA Gralnick. "." Mbio, vol. 4, no. 1, 2013, pp. e00553-12-e00553-12. {{doi|10.1128/mBio.00553-12}}</ref><ref>Kumar, Ravinder, et al. "." ], vol. 39, no. 8, 2015, pp. 1048-1067. {{doi|10.1002/er.3305}}</ref> | |||
| In some cases, electron transfer is mediated by the cellular membrane embedded redox participating enzyme itself. Cytochrome C on the microbe's cell surface directly interacts with the anode to transfer electrons.<ref>Bond, Daniel R., and Derek R. Lovley. "." Applied and Environmental Microbiology, vol. 69, no. 3, 2003, pp. 1548-1555. {{doi|10.1128/AEM.69.3.1548-1555.2003}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1111/j.1758-2229.2010.00210.x| pmid=23761253|title = Specific localization of the c-type cytochrome OmcZ at the anode surface in current-producing biofilms of Geobacter sulfurreducens| journal=Environmental Microbiology Reports| volume=3| issue=2| pages=211–217|year = 2011|last1 = Inoue|first1 = Kengo| last2=Leang| first2=Ching| last3=Franks| first3=Ashley E.| last4=Woodard| first4=Trevor L.| last5=Nevin| first5=Kelly P.| last6=Lovley| first6=Derek R.}}</ref> | |||
| Electron hopping from one bacteria to another in biofilm towards an anode through their outer membrane cytochromes is also another electron transport mechanism.<ref>Bonanni, PS, D. Massazza, and JP Busalmen. "." Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics, vol. 15, no. 25, 2013, pp. 10300-10306. {{doi|10.1039/C3CP50411E}}</ref> | |||
| These bacteria that transfer electrons in the microbe's exterior environment are called exoelectrogens.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1002/er.3305|title = Exoelectrogens in microbial fuel cells toward bioelectricity generation: A review| journal=International Journal of Energy Research| volume=39| issue=8| pages=1048–1067|year = 2015|last1 = Kumar|first1 = Ravinder| last2=Singh| first2=Lakhveer| last3=Wahid| first3=Zularisam A.| last4=Din| first4=Mohd Fadhil Md.|url = http://umpir.ump.edu.my/id/eprint/8969/1/ftech-2015-zularisam-Exoelectrogens%20in%20Microbial.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| Electrogenic bacteria are present in all ecosystems and environments. This includes environments under extreme conditions such as ] and highly acidic ecosystems, as well as common natural environments such as soil and lakes. These electrogenic microbes are observed through the identification of microbes that reside in electrochemically active ] formed on MFC electrodes such as '']''.<ref>Chabert, N., Amin Ali, O., & Achouak, W. (2015). . Bioelectrochemistry (Amsterdam, Netherlands), 106(Pt A), 88. {{doi|10.1016/j.bioelechem.2015.07.004}} | |||
| </ref><ref>Garcia-Munoz, J., et al. "." International Microbiology, vol. 14, no. 2, 2011, pp. 73-81.</ref> | |||
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| ==See also== | |||
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| ==References== | |||
| {{Reflist|30em}} | |||
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