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{{use mdy dates|date=March 2011}} {{use mdy dates|date=March 2011}}
{{year dab|1453}} {{about year|1453}}
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{{C15 year in topic}} {{C15 year in topic}}

]: The Entry of Mehmed II into Constantinople]] Year '''1453''' (''']''') was a ] (link will display the full calendar) of the ], the 1453rd year of the ] (CE) and '']'' (AD) designations, the 453rd year of the ], the 53rd year of the ], and the 4th year of the ] decade. It is sometimes cited as the notional end of the ] by historians who define the medieval period as the time between the Fall of the ] and the fall of the ].<ref>G. R. Potter, "The Fall of Constantinople? ''History Today'' (Jan 1953) 3#1 pp 41-49. </ref>
Year '''1453''' (''']''') was a ] ] of the ], the 1453rd year of the ] (CE) and '']'' (AD) designations, the 453rd year of the ], the 53rd year of the ], and the 4th year of the ] decade.

In April, the forces of the ] began besieging the ] capital of ]. The ] and the destruction of the empire in May sparked fear and religious fervor against the Ottomans across Europe. ] issued a ] and attempted to negotiate a peace in the ongoing war in northern Italy, which saw ] and ] fight with the forces of ], ], and their ]. In July, France routed the forces of ] at the ], and subdued the last English holdouts over the following months, ending the ] and English territorial control in France. The ] of China was troubled by the growing power of the newly-proclaimed ] ] in Mongolia. A diplomatic incident occurred when an embassy mission from the Japanese ] rioted and attacked Chinese civilians. Violent succession disputes broke out in several countries, including the ] in Okinawa and the ].

A "]" occurred at an unknown location in the northern hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453, beginning a 15-year period of colder weather across the hemisphere. A major drought continued in ], leading to famine and many deaths. China was devastated by catastrophic flooding along the ] and an exceptionally cold winter.


== Events == == Events ==
<onlyinclude>


* January – ] forces began to mobilize in preparation for war against the ]. ] sends ships to aid the defense of the city.{{Sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|p=573}}
=== January&ndash;December ===
* March – A large cohort of English troops depart to reinforce ].{{Sfn|Vale|1969|pp=132–133}}
* ] &ndash; ] and ] are taken by the ], in preparation for the assault on ], as are the ], by the Ottoman fleet under Admiral Baltaoglu.
* April – ] deposes the young sultan ], who had come to power after his father's death two months prior.{{Sfn|Petry|2022|p=41}}
]'s entry into ], ] (1854–1929)]]
* ] – The Ottoman Empire declares war against the Byzantines, beginning the ].{{Sfn|Somel|2003|p=xxiii}}{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2009|p=221}}
* ]&ndash;] &ndash; Siege and ]: The ] ] ] ends the ] after more than a thousand years, by capturing the capital, ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.hisdates.com/years/1453-historical-events.html|title=What Happened In 1453|website=Hisdates|access-date=2017-08-08}}</ref> ]s are (perhaps) used in battle for the first time in this action. The consequent closure of the traditional overland route from ] to the ], and need to identify new ] routes, leads to the ], and ends the ].<ref>{{cite book|first=Roger|last=Crowley|title=Constantinople: The Last Great Siege, 1453|publisher=Faber|year=2006|isbn=0-571-22185-8}} (reviewed by {{cite web|first=Charles|last=Foster|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920054.html|title=The Conquest of Constantinople and the end of empire|work=Contemporary Review|date=22 September 2006|quote=It is the end of the Middle Ages|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070327061447/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G1-155920054.html|archive-date=March 27, 2007|df=mdy}}) (Archived Link)</ref>
* ] &ndash; ], a partial eclipse, is visible during the siege of Constantinople. * ] – Ottoman forces, led by Sultan ], launch their first assault against Constantinople.{{Sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|p=575}}
* ] – Ottoman forces capture ], destroying the ] -the successor state of the ].{{Sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|p=|pp=577–578}}
]
* ] – ] defends the city against ] forces led by his brother ].{{sfn|Swain|1989|p=443}}
* ] &ndash; ]: In the last pitched battle of the ], the ] under ] defeat the ] under the ], who is killed.
* ] – The ] is completed.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Crump |first=Francis J. |date=1952 |title=The Gutenberg Bible |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43720372 |journal=] |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=216–217 |jstor=43720372}}</ref>
* ] &ndash; ] in ]: ], Duke of Burgundy, is victorious over the rebels of ], leading to surrender of their city and the end of the ].
* ] – The French destroy the English army at the ].{{Sfn|Vale|1969|pp=132–133}}
* ] &ndash; The French recapture ], ending the ] and leaving the English retaining only ] on French soil.
* ] – The ] army led by Duke ] defeats the rebel forces of ] at the ]{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|pp=328–332}}
* ] &ndash; ] is crowned ], although ] remains in control of the government.
* August – French forces led by ] arrive in the ], seeking to assist ] and ] against Venice.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=139–140}}
* ] &ndash; ] kills his enemy ] and gains control of the government in ] Korea (where this rebellion is called ''Gyeyujeongnan'').</onlyinclude>
* ] – ] issues a ] against the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Hardy|2024|p=6}}
* ] – The last English holdouts in Gascony (including ]) surrender to France, ending the ].{{Sfn|Vale|1969|pp=132–133}}
* December – An exceptionally cold winter leads to heavy snows across ], with many deaths reported in the ] valley.{{Sfn|Twitchett|1988|p=336}}


== Births == == Global events ==
A ] likely occurred somewhere in the Northern Hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453. The ] caldera in ] was previously seen as a candidate for this eruption, but ] analysis has instead linked it to another ]. Attested through ] (analysis of tree rings) across the northern hemisphere, temperatures decreased by 0.4–6.9°C (0.7–12.4°F), beginning a 15-year cold period.{{Sfn|Abbott et al.|2021|pp=565–567, 575}}{{Sfn|Sigl et al.|2013|p=1151}}
* ] &ndash; ], Croatian nobleman, diplomat and soldier (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], Florentine poet (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], German doctor, astronomer and astrologer (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ]-Eisenberg (1486–1524) (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], co-ruler of Florence with ] (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], abbess of the Poor Clares monastery at Hof (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], Scottish princess (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], Catholic cardinal (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ], Spanish general and statesman (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ] (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ] (1475–1515) (d. ])
* ] &ndash; ] (d. ])
* ''date unknown'' &ndash; ], Flemish composer (d. ])
* ''probable'' &ndash; ], Portuguese admiral (d. ])


== Deaths == == Africa ==
], sultan of the ] since 1438, died on February 13. His son ], only 18 years old, ascended to the throne; desperate to avoid being overthrown for his youth, Uthman attempted to purchase the loyalty of various high-ranking ]s using heavily debased coinage. Supreme Commander ] led a ] alongside his ] emir allies against the young sultan, seizing the ]. Inal was accepted as sultan by ] Caliph ] in April.{{Sfn|Petry|2022|p=41}}
]

* ] &ndash; ] (b. ])
==Asia==
Hostile relationships continued between the ] and the growing ] confederation of ]. Esen had captured the ] in battle four years prior, and killed ] leader ] early in the previous year. Early in the year, the Minister of War ] considered a plan for an offensive campaign against the Oirat and Mongols, but ultimately focused on maintaining the northern border, unwilling to disrupt the newly reformed command structure of the ]. Having dominated the Mongol tribes after his defeat of Taisun, Esen declared himself ] of the Northern Yuan, becoming the first non-] to do so. The alarmed Ming government heightened border security, and debated whether to recognize Esen as Khagan.{{sfn|De Heer|1986|pp=90–91, 95–98}} However, Esen's declaration led to significant internal conflict against his rule.{{Sfn|Twitchett|1988|p=331}}

A recent series of annual floods worsened in central China, with the ] devastating ]. Urgent repairs to dikes along the ] were initially unsuccessful, leading to the appointment of the engineer ] to supervise efforts to maintain the canal and vital grain shipments to ].{{sfn|De Heer|1986|pp=94–95}}{{sfn|Zhou|Deng|2021|p=213}}{{Sfn|Twitchett|1988|p=335}} An exceptionally cold winter caused heavy snow across northern and central China at the end of the year, with many deaths reported in the icebound ] valley. Following years of unrest among the ] and ] peoples, a regional uprising against Ming rule broke out in ] and ].{{Sfn|Twitchett|1988|p=336}} The somewhat unstable political legitimacy of the Jingtai Emperor in the wake of Yingzong's capture was heightened after the death of {{Interlanguage link|Zhu Jianji|zh|朱见济}}, his son and heir apparent, on December 18.{{sfn|De Heer|1986|pp=95–98}}

After a twenty-year halt, a large Japanese tribute mission was dispatched by the ] to the Ming court. The envoys were angered by court officials' refusal to pay high prices for the wares, and rioted along their return journey, looting civilian houses in Lingqing, ], and attacking officials sent to investigate. The ] decided not to capture the riotous diplomats, hesitant to upset diplomatic relations with Japan.{{sfn|Wang|2023|p=109}}

On the island of ], a succession dispute between the princes Shiro and Furi of the ] resulted in the burning of ]. ], possibly a third party to the conflict, would be enthroned as king the following year.{{Sfn|Smits|2024|pp=231–232}}

==Europe==

===Central and Eastern Europe===

In 1452–1453, the twelve-year-old ] assumed power in Hungary without a coronation. The previous ''de facto'' ruler, regent ], maintained a position in government. On October 28, Ladislaus was crowned ] in Prague, ending an interregnum that had lasted since the death of ] in 1439.{{Sfn|Oslanský|1996|pp=21–26}}{{Sfn|Bak|1998|pp=716–717}}

], the Grand Prince of ], solidified his power in the waning years of the ]. Rival throne claimant ] had been forced to flee to the ] several years prior after a military defeat in Galich. He continued his efforts to take control of Moscow, with his strongholds in the rural northern areas along the ] and ]. In 1453, he returned to ], where he was fatally poisoned, possibly on Vasily's orders.{{Sfn|Martin|2006|p=175}}{{Sfn|Crummey|1987|p=75}}

==== Fall of Constantinople ====
] depicting the ]]]
], the Sultan of the ], began preparations to conquer the city of ], the capital of the declining ], soon after his ascension to the throne in 1451. He had fortified the European coast north of the city, giving him full control over the ].{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2009|p=221}} Mehmed mobilized the ] in early January, and arranged for large ] to be brought to the staging areas. Some Ottoman forces attacked the Byzantine strongholds of ] and ] later in January; Mesambria quickly surrendered, while Selybria held out until March.{{sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|pp=411, 573}}{{Sfn|Harris|2010|pp=185–186}} Mercenary forces led by the ] captain ] arrived in the city on January 26, joining ] forces stationed in the city.{{Sfn|Harris|2010|p=189}}

Ottoman forces began besieging Constantinople itself on April 6, with Mehmed hoping to starve the city into surrender. Although the city's population had declined greatly since its peak, food shortages set in quickly; an emergency order was given to distribute bread to the family of soldiers, as many had abandoned their posts to care for their starving families.{{Sfn|Necipoğlu|2009|pp=220–221}} With the entrance to the city's harbor, the ], blocked by the Byzantines, Ottoman forces transported their ships from the Bosporous into the Golden Horn by hauling them over the hills of ]. After three smaller assaults over the prior weeks, the Ottomans launch a mass assault on the morning of May 29. The third wave of the assault takes the city's walls and subdues the defenders, with the Byzantine emperor ] dying in unclear circumstances. Ottoman forces sack the city for three days.{{sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|pp=575–578}}]
Some rump states of the Byzantine Empire still remained — the ] and the separatist ]. The ] scions ] and ] shared the title of Despot of the Morea, and fought among themselves. Later in 1453, a rebel leader named ] led a group of Albanians in the Morea into ] against the despots. Mehmed dispatched the Ottoman general ] to put down the revolt, although he would not see immediate success.{{sfn|Bartusis|1992|pp=134–135}}

The fall of Constantinople caused great fear, anxiety, and anger among Christian leaders throughout Europe. ] spread widely. As the news spread across Europe, songs and poems were composed lamenting the fall of the city and condemning the Ottoman Empire. Prominent examples from 1453 include Balthasar Mandelreiß's poem {{lang|de|]}}, commissioned by the Holy Roman imperial court, and ]'s song-poem {{lang|de|Von den Türken und dem adel sagt dis}}.{{sfn|McDonald|2017|pp=372–373}} ] called for a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, issuing a ] on September 30.{{sfn|Hardy|2024|p=6}}

===Italy===
In ], a plot by the humanist nobleman ] to overthrow Pope Nicholas V was discovered and put down by Papal forces in early January. Porcari escaped capture multiple times, but was eventually discovered hiding in a chest, and was executed on January 9.{{sfn|D'Elia|2007|pp=210–212}}

A ] across ] centered on ] continued in 1453.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=129–138}} ], who had risen to power in Milan, allied with the Republic of Florence against their mutual enemies, Venice and the ] under ]. In 1452, the Milan and Florence entered into an alliance with ], whose was opposed to the potential expansion of Alfonso's control in Italy. Held up by its campaign against the English, France was initially unable to offer any direct aid, but was able to prevent the ], a Venetian ally, from invading Lombardy.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=136–138}}{{Sfn|Mallett|1998|pp=556–558}}

On June 14, ] defended ] against Venetian forces led by his brother, ].{{sfn|Swain|1989|p=443}} ], a French nobleman who had previously ruled Naples, allied with Florence and invaded Italy in August 1453 with a force of 2,000 soldiers, which soon grew to 3,000. Initially attempting to negotiate with the Venetians, Rene declared war on the republic on 10 October. Together with Milan and Florence, his forces managed to capture the region around ], ], and ] by late November, although the onset of winter put a halt to the campaign.{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=139–140}} Concerned by the fall of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas V attempted to negotiate peace in the region in order to unite Christian Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Peace talks sponsored by Nicholas began in November. His efforts would materialize in April of the following year as the ].{{Sfn|Ilardi|1959|pp=139–140}}{{Sfn|Mallett|1998|p=558}}

=== Western Europe ===
The ] met at ] on March 6. The members of the parliament were highly receptive to King ]'s rule due to the crushing of ] in 1450 and the reconquest of Gascony by ] in 1452. The parliament approved a grant giving Henry the ability to raise an army of 20,000 archers for a period of six months, likely intend for a future reconquest of Gascony or ].{{Sfn|Wolffe|2001|pp=264–266}}{{multiple image|image1=Français 5054, fol. 229v, Bataille de Castillon (1453).jpg|image2=15th-century painters - Surrender of the Burghers of Ghent in 1453 - WGA15789 (cropped).jpg|width=200|caption1=1484 depiction of the ]|alt1=A colorful illustration of a group of English and French knights fighting outside a castle. The French have several cannons|caption2=1450s depiction of the surrender of ] after the ]|alt2=A group of burghers are kneeling on the ground outside a castle on a starry night. They are surrendering to a group of men on horseback, including Duke Philip the Good, holding a sword}}A reinforcement of over 2,000 men led by a number of prominent noblemen was sent to Gascony in March, increasing Talbot's forces to upwards of 7,300. However, the French navy was able to cut off English access to Bordeaux via the ], preventing further reinforcement. On July 17, the French routed the English army at the ], killing Talbot. Charles VII's forces moved further into Gascony, ] in August. The city, alongside the holdout of ], surrendered on October 20, ending the English presence in the region and bringing a close to the last phase of the ].<ref name=":0" />{{Sfn|Vale|1969|pp=132–133}}
The town of ] was embroiled in ] against the ] under Duke ]. Originating from a political dispute between Philip and Ghent, Philip declared war on the town in 1452. In February–March 1453, a Ghenter raiding party attacked several towns in the surrounding region, including ].{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|pp=303–328}} Philip's rival, Charles VII of France, supported the Ghent rebels, although was unable to offer direct military support due to his ongoing war against the English.{{Sfn|Vale|1998|p=402}} With peace negotiations over the spring stalled, Philip attacked the castles around Ghent in June and July, and decisively defeated the rebels at the ] on July 23. The town was forced to pay reparations to pay for Philip's campaign, although it was not occupied or plundered.{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|pp=328–332}}

The ] was finished on July 9, 1453. It possibly served as an inspiration for the ],<ref name=":1" /> the first large-scale book produced using a ] and ]. ] was overseeing preparations for his bible in 1453 after beginning work on it in 1450. Early copies would be ] and distributed by 1456.{{Sfn|Miner|1952|pp=4–6}}{{Sfn|Füssel|2005|pp=18–20, 54}}

== The Americas ==
A major drought which began in 1450 continued to effect the ]. Although famine conditions had already began to set in, they worsened in 1453, and people resorted to ]s such as the roots of wild plants, ], and ]. Some sold themselves into slavery in exchange for maize. Many died from starvation, especially due to early frosts in the autumn of 1453. The drought and famine would only intensify in the following year.{{Sfn|Hassig|1981|pp=174–175}}{{Sfn|Therrell|Stahle|Soto|2004|pp=1265–1267}}

==Births==

* ] – ], Italian poet<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mariani |first=Giacomo |date=2017 |title=''Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy'': Benivieni, Girolamo |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-02848-4_713-1 |website=]}}</ref>
* ] &ndash; ], German doctor, astronomer and astrologer<ref>{{cite book |last1=Trimble |first1=Virginia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C&pg=PA339 |title=Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |last2=Williams |first2=Thomas R. |last3=Bracher |first3=Katherine |last4=Jarrell |first4=Richard |last5=Marché |first5=Jordan D. |last6=Ragep |first6=F. Jamil |date=2007 |publisher=] |isbn=9780387304007 |page=339 |language=en}}</ref>
* ] &ndash; ], Spanish general and statesman{{sfn|Gerli|Armistead|2003|p=324}}
* ] &ndash; ], only son of Henry VI<ref>{{Cite web |last=Griffiths |first=R. A. |date=2004 |title=Edward , Prince of Wales |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8524 |access-date=July 20, 2024 |website=] |doi=}}</ref>
* ] – ], Italian nobleman<ref>{{Cite web |title=Medici, Giuliano di Piero de' |url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giuliano-di-piero-de-medici_%28Enciclopedia-machiavelliana%29/ |access-date=30 December 2024 |website=]}}</ref>
* ] – ], philosopher and scholar{{Sfn|Bietenholz|Deutscher|1986|p=135}}
* ] – ]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Muñiz |first=Dolores Carmen Morales |title=Alfonso XII de Trastámara |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/6419/alfonso-xii-de-trastamara |access-date=30 December 2024 |website=]}}</ref>

=== Date unknown ===

* ], Portuguese naval and military commander<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Estela |first=Vieira |date=2020 |title=Maritime Disasters and Collective Identities: Surviving Shipwreck in Early Modern Portugal |journal=] |volume=103 |issue=4 |pages=549 |jstor=27026456}}</ref>
* {{Interlanguage link|Firdevsī-i Rūmī|lt=Firdevsī-i Rūmī|de|Firdevsî}}, Turkish poet<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bläsing |first=Uwe |date=2020 |title=Just an Etymological Note: The Case of Megrelian aӡmax-i, azmax-i ‘puddle, pool, pond’ |journal=] |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=180 |jstor=27058084}}</ref>
* ], Burmese poet<ref>{{Cite book |last=Osipov |first=Yuriy M. |title=The Canon in Southeast Asian Literatures: Literatures of Burma, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam |date=2012 |publisher=] |isbn=9781136816123 |editor-last=Smyth |editor-first=David |pages=2–3}}</ref>
* ], Sultan of the ]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Erkinov |first=Aftandil |date=2015 |title=From Herat to Shiraz: the Unique Manuscript (876/1471) of ‘Alī Shīr Nawā’ī’s Poetry from Aq Qoyunlu Circle |url=https://journals.openedition.org/asiecentrale/2791#ftn7 |journal=Cahiers d’Asie Centrale |volume=24 |pages=53}}</ref>

==Deaths==
* ] – ], Italian nobleman and humanist politician{{sfn|D'Elia|2007|p=212}}
* ] – ], Egyptian Mamluk sultan{{Sfn|Petry|2022|p=41}}
* ] * ]
** ], last ] (b. ]) ** ], Byzantine emperor{{sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|pp=577–578}}{{sfn|Bartusis|1992|p=134}}
** ], Byzantine noble and ambassador{{Sfn|Harris|2010|p=207}}
** ], Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople
** ], Ottoman prince{{Sfn|Harris|2010|p=207}}
** ], Byzantine grammarian, humanist and mathematician. Cousin of Constantine XI.
* ] or ] – ], Byzantine statesman and naval commander{{sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|p=597}}
** ], last governor of Constantinople
* ] – ], Spanish knight and statesman{{Sfn|Gerli|Armistead|2003|pp=520–521}}{{Sfn|MacKay|1998|p=615}}
** ], Ottoman prince (b. ])
* July – ], Burgundian knight{{Sfn|Vaughan|1970|p=328}}
* ]
* ]
** ], Ottoman grand vizier
** ], English nobleman and military leader<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Pollard |first=A. J. |date=2004 |title=Talbot, John, First Earl of Shrewsbury and First Earl of Waterford |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-26932 |access-date=July 20, 2024 |website=]}}</ref>
** ], Italian captain
** ], English nobleman, son of the Earl of Shrewsbury<ref name=":0" />
* ] &ndash; ], Constable of Castille
*] – {{Interlanguage link|Zhu Jianji|zh|朱见济}}, crown prince of the Ming Dynasty{{Sfn|De Heer|1986|p=97}}
* ] &ndash; ], last '']'' of the Byzantine Empire (b. ])
*] – ], English composer<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bent |first=Margaret |date=2006 |title=Dunstaple , John |url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/display/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-8286 |access-date=July 20, 2024 |website=]}}</ref>
* ] &ndash; ], last ] of the Byzantine Empire

* ]
=== Date unknown ===
** ], ]

** ], English military leader
* ], claimant to the ]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alef |first=Gustave |date=1959 |title=The Political Significance of the Inscriptions on Muscovite Coinage in the Reign of Vasili II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2847975 |journal=] |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=10–14 |doi=10.2307/2847975 |jstor=2847975}}</ref>
* ] &ndash; ], French chronicler
* ], Genoese mercenary{{Sfn|Philippides|Hanak|2011|pp=522–544}}
* ] &ndash; ] (1431-1453) (b. ])
* ], Vietnamese-born Ming Dynasty court eunuch and architect{{Sfn|Chan|1988|p=241}}
* ] &ndash; ], English composer (b. ])
* ], Grand Princess of Moscow<ref>{{Cite book |last=Clements |first=Barbara Evans |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16gz5pn |title=A History of Women in Russia: From Earliest Times to the Present |date=2012 |publisher=] |isbn=9780253001047 |pages=18 |jstor=j.ctt16gz5pn}}</ref>
* ], former co-king of ] (b. c. ])

==References==
<references />


== References == ===Bibliography===
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*{{cite book|first=Mark C.|last=Bartusis|title=The Late Byzantine Army: Arms and Society, 1204–1453|url=https://archive.org/details/latebyzantinearm0000bart|date=1992|publisher=]|isbn=9781512821314}}
*{{cite book|first1=P. G.|last1=Bietenholz|first2=Thomas B.|last2=Deutscher|title=Contemporaries of Erasmus: A Biological Register of the Renaissance and Reformation|publisher=]|date=1986|volume=1, A–E}}
*{{cite book|first=Robert O.|last=Crummey|title=The Formation of Muscovy, 1304–1613|publisher=]|date=1987|isbn=9780582491533}}
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{{refend}}
{{div col end}}


{{DEFAULTSORT:1453}} {{DEFAULTSORT:1453}}

Latest revision as of 16:39, 19 January 2025

Calendar year
Millennium: 2nd millennium
Centuries:
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Years:
1453 by topic
Arts and science
Leaders
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Births – Deaths
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Establishments – Disestablishments
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1453 in poetry
1453 in various calendars
Gregorian calendar1453
MCDLIII
Ab urbe condita2206
Armenian calendar902
ԹՎ ՋԲ
Assyrian calendar6203
Balinese saka calendar1374–1375
Bengali calendar859–860
Berber calendar2403
English Regnal year31 Hen. 6 – 32 Hen. 6
Buddhist calendar1997
Burmese calendar815
Byzantine calendar6961–6962
Chinese calendar壬申年 (Water Monkey)
4150 or 3943
    — to —
癸酉年 (Water Rooster)
4151 or 3944
Coptic calendar1169–1170
Discordian calendar2619
Ethiopian calendar1445–1446
Hebrew calendar5213–5214
Hindu calendars
 - Vikram Samvat1509–1510
 - Shaka Samvat1374–1375
 - Kali Yuga4553–4554
Holocene calendar11453
Igbo calendar453–454
Iranian calendar831–832
Islamic calendar856–857
Japanese calendarKyōtoku 2
(享徳２年)
Javanese calendar1368–1369
Julian calendar1453
MCDLIII
Korean calendar3786
Minguo calendar459 before ROC
民前459年
Nanakshahi calendar−15
Thai solar calendar1995–1996
Tibetan calendar阳水猴年
(male Water-Monkey)
1579 or 1198 or 426
    — to —
阴水鸡年
(female Water-Rooster)
1580 or 1199 or 427

Year 1453 (MCDLIII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1453rd year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 453rd year of the 2nd millennium, the 53rd year of the 15th century, and the 4th year of the 1450s decade.

In April, the forces of the Ottoman Empire began besieging the Byzantine capital of Constantinople. The city's fall and the destruction of the empire in May sparked fear and religious fervor against the Ottomans across Europe. Pope Nicholas V issued a crusading bull and attempted to negotiate a peace in the ongoing war in northern Italy, which saw Venice and Naples fight with the forces of Florence, Milan, and their French allies. In July, France routed the forces of England at the Battle of Castillon, and subdued the last English holdouts over the following months, ending the Hundred Years' War and English territorial control in France. The Ming dynasty of China was troubled by the growing power of the newly-proclaimed Khagan Esen Taishi in Mongolia. A diplomatic incident occurred when an embassy mission from the Japanese Ashikaga shogunate rioted and attacked Chinese civilians. Violent succession disputes broke out in several countries, including the Ryukyu Kingdom in Okinawa and the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt.

A "mystery eruption" occurred at an unknown location in the northern hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453, beginning a 15-year period of colder weather across the hemisphere. A major drought continued in Aztec Empire, leading to famine and many deaths. China was devastated by catastrophic flooding along the Yellow River and an exceptionally cold winter.

Events

Global events

A major volcanic eruption of unknown source likely occurred somewhere in the Northern Hemisphere in late 1452 or early 1453. The Kuwae caldera in Vanuatu was previously seen as a candidate for this eruption, but ice core analysis has instead linked it to another mystery eruption in 1458. Attested through dendrochronology (analysis of tree rings) across the northern hemisphere, temperatures decreased by 0.4–6.9°C (0.7–12.4°F), beginning a 15-year cold period.

Africa

Sayf al-Din Jaqmaq, sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt since 1438, died on February 13. His son Al-Mansur Uthman, only 18 years old, ascended to the throne; desperate to avoid being overthrown for his youth, Uthman attempted to purchase the loyalty of various high-ranking mamluks using heavily debased coinage. Supreme Commander Sayf al-Din Inal led a coup d'état alongside his Zahiri emir allies against the young sultan, seizing the Cairo Citadel. Inal was accepted as sultan by Abbasid Caliph Al-Qa'im in April.

Asia

Hostile relationships continued between the Ming Dynasty and the growing Oirat confederation of Esen Taishi. Esen had captured the Yingzong Emperor in battle four years prior, and killed Northern Yuan leader Taisun Khan early in the previous year. Early in the year, the Minister of War Yu Qian considered a plan for an offensive campaign against the Oirat and Mongols, but ultimately focused on maintaining the northern border, unwilling to disrupt the newly reformed command structure of the Ming military. Having dominated the Mongol tribes after his defeat of Taisun, Esen declared himself Khagan of the Northern Yuan, becoming the first non-Borjigin to do so. The alarmed Ming government heightened border security, and debated whether to recognize Esen as Khagan. However, Esen's declaration led to significant internal conflict against his rule.

A recent series of annual floods worsened in central China, with the Yellow River devastating Henan. Urgent repairs to dikes along the Grand Canal were initially unsuccessful, leading to the appointment of the engineer Xu Youzhen to supervise efforts to maintain the canal and vital grain shipments to Beijing. An exceptionally cold winter caused heavy snow across northern and central China at the end of the year, with many deaths reported in the icebound Huai River valley. Following years of unrest among the Yao and Miao peoples, a regional uprising against Ming rule broke out in Guizhou and Huguang. The somewhat unstable political legitimacy of the Jingtai Emperor in the wake of Yingzong's capture was heightened after the death of Zhu Jianji [zh], his son and heir apparent, on December 18.

After a twenty-year halt, a large Japanese tribute mission was dispatched by the Ashikaga Shogunate to the Ming court. The envoys were angered by court officials' refusal to pay high prices for the wares, and rioted along their return journey, looting civilian houses in Lingqing, Shandong, and attacking officials sent to investigate. The Jingtai Emperor decided not to capture the riotous diplomats, hesitant to upset diplomatic relations with Japan.

On the island of Okinawa, a succession dispute between the princes Shiro and Furi of the Ryukyu Kingdom resulted in the burning of Shuri Castle. Shō Taikyū, possibly a third party to the conflict, would be enthroned as king the following year.

Europe

Central and Eastern Europe

In 1452–1453, the twelve-year-old Ladislaus the Posthumous assumed power in Hungary without a coronation. The previous de facto ruler, regent János Hunyadi, maintained a position in government. On October 28, Ladislaus was crowned King of Bohemia in Prague, ending an interregnum that had lasted since the death of Albert II in 1439.

Vasily II, the Grand Prince of Moscow, solidified his power in the waning years of the Muscovite War of Succession. Rival throne claimant Dmitry Shemyaka had been forced to flee to the Novgorod Republic several years prior after a military defeat in Galich. He continued his efforts to take control of Moscow, with his strongholds in the rural northern areas along the Northern Dvina and Vychegda. In 1453, he returned to Veliky Novgorod, where he was fatally poisoned, possibly on Vasily's orders.

Fall of Constantinople

A labeled miniature painting showing the fall of Constantinople in 1453
Mid-1450s French miniature depicting the Fall of Constantinople

Mehmed II, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, began preparations to conquer the city of Constantinople, the capital of the declining Byzantine Empire, soon after his ascension to the throne in 1451. He had fortified the European coast north of the city, giving him full control over the Bosporus Strait. Mehmed mobilized the Ottoman army in early January, and arranged for large bombards to be brought to the staging areas. Some Ottoman forces attacked the Byzantine strongholds of Mesambria and Selybria later in January; Mesambria quickly surrendered, while Selybria held out until March. Mercenary forces led by the Genoese captain Giovanni Giustiniani arrived in the city on January 26, joining Venetian forces stationed in the city.

Ottoman forces began besieging Constantinople itself on April 6, with Mehmed hoping to starve the city into surrender. Although the city's population had declined greatly since its peak, food shortages set in quickly; an emergency order was given to distribute bread to the family of soldiers, as many had abandoned their posts to care for their starving families. With the entrance to the city's harbor, the Golden Horn, blocked by the Byzantines, Ottoman forces transported their ships from the Bosporous into the Golden Horn by hauling them over the hills of Pera. After three smaller assaults over the prior weeks, the Ottomans launch a mass assault on the morning of May 29. The third wave of the assault takes the city's walls and subdues the defenders, with the Byzantine emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos dying in unclear circumstances. Ottoman forces sack the city for three days.

A map of the Byzantine Empire and Ottoman Empire in 1453. Successor states, including Morea, Athens, Epirus, Trebizond, and Theodoro, are also featured
The Byzantine Empire and its successor states before the fall of Constantinople in 1453

Some rump states of the Byzantine Empire still remained — the Despotate of the Morea and the separatist Empire of Trebizond. The Palaiologos scions Demetrios and Thomas shared the title of Despot of the Morea, and fought among themselves. Later in 1453, a rebel leader named Manuel Kantakouzenos led a group of Albanians in the Morea into a rebellion against the despots. Mehmed dispatched the Ottoman general Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey to put down the revolt, although he would not see immediate success.

The fall of Constantinople caused great fear, anxiety, and anger among Christian leaders throughout Europe. Anti-Turkish sentiment spread widely. As the news spread across Europe, songs and poems were composed lamenting the fall of the city and condemning the Ottoman Empire. Prominent examples from 1453 include Balthasar Mandelreiß's poem Türkenschrei, commissioned by the Holy Roman imperial court, and Michael Beheim's song-poem Von den Türken und dem adel sagt dis. Pope Nicholas V called for a crusade against the Ottoman Empire, issuing a crusading bull on September 30.

Italy

In Rome, a plot by the humanist nobleman Stefano Porcari to overthrow Pope Nicholas V was discovered and put down by Papal forces in early January. Porcari escaped capture multiple times, but was eventually discovered hiding in a chest, and was executed on January 9.

A series of regional military conflicts across Northern Italy centered on Lombardy continued in 1453. Francesco Sforza, who had risen to power in Milan, allied with the Republic of Florence against their mutual enemies, Venice and the Kingdom of Naples under Alfonso V of Aragon. In 1452, the Milan and Florence entered into an alliance with Charles VII of France, whose was opposed to the potential expansion of Alfonso's control in Italy. Held up by its campaign against the English, France was initially unable to offer any direct aid, but was able to prevent the Duchy of Savoy, a Venetian ally, from invading Lombardy.

On June 14, Ludovico Gonzaga of Mantua defended Mantua against Venetian forces led by his brother, Carlo Gonzaga. René of Anjou, a French nobleman who had previously ruled Naples, allied with Florence and invaded Italy in August 1453 with a force of 2,000 soldiers, which soon grew to 3,000. Initially attempting to negotiate with the Venetians, Rene declared war on the republic on 10 October. Together with Milan and Florence, his forces managed to capture the region around Cremona, Bergamo, and Brescia by late November, although the onset of winter put a halt to the campaign. Concerned by the fall of Constantinople, Pope Nicholas V attempted to negotiate peace in the region in order to unite Christian Europe against the Ottoman Empire. Peace talks sponsored by Nicholas began in November. His efforts would materialize in April of the following year as the Treaty of Lodi.

Western Europe

The Parliament of England met at Reading on March 6. The members of the parliament were highly receptive to King Henry VI's rule due to the crushing of Jack Cade's Rebellion in 1450 and the reconquest of Gascony by John Talbot in 1452. The parliament approved a grant giving Henry the ability to raise an army of 20,000 archers for a period of six months, likely intend for a future reconquest of Gascony or Normandy.

A colorful illustration of a group of English and French knights fighting outside a castle. The French have several cannons1484 depiction of the Battle of CastillonA group of burghers are kneeling on the ground outside a castle on a starry night. They are surrendering to a group of men on horseback, including Duke Philip the Good, holding a sword1450s depiction of the surrender of Ghent after the Battle of Gavere

A reinforcement of over 2,000 men led by a number of prominent noblemen was sent to Gascony in March, increasing Talbot's forces to upwards of 7,300. However, the French navy was able to cut off English access to Bordeaux via the Gironde estuary, preventing further reinforcement. On July 17, the French routed the English army at the Battle of Castillon, killing Talbot. Charles VII's forces moved further into Gascony, laying siege to Bordeaux in August. The city, alongside the holdout of Rions, surrendered on October 20, ending the English presence in the region and bringing a close to the last phase of the Hundred Years' War.

The town of Ghent was embroiled in a rebellion against the Burgundian State under Duke Philip the Good. Originating from a political dispute between Philip and Ghent, Philip declared war on the town in 1452. In February–March 1453, a Ghenter raiding party attacked several towns in the surrounding region, including Kortrijk. Philip's rival, Charles VII of France, supported the Ghent rebels, although was unable to offer direct military support due to his ongoing war against the English. With peace negotiations over the spring stalled, Philip attacked the castles around Ghent in June and July, and decisively defeated the rebels at the Battle of Gavere on July 23. The town was forced to pay reparations to pay for Philip's campaign, although it was not occupied or plundered.

The Giant Bible of Mainz was finished on July 9, 1453. It possibly served as an inspiration for the Gutenberg Bible, the first large-scale book produced using a printing press and moveable type. Johannes Gutenberg was overseeing preparations for his bible in 1453 after beginning work on it in 1450. Early copies would be bound and distributed by 1456.

The Americas

A major drought which began in 1450 continued to effect the Aztec Empire. Although famine conditions had already began to set in, they worsened in 1453, and people resorted to famine foods such as the roots of wild plants, corn silk, and agave. Some sold themselves into slavery in exchange for maize. Many died from starvation, especially due to early frosts in the autumn of 1453. The drought and famine would only intensify in the following year.

Births

Date unknown

Deaths

Date unknown

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Bibliography

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