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Repressed memory is a term used to describe a significant memory, usually of a traumatic nature that has become unavailable for recall. The term is somewhat of a misnomer because it is often used to describe memories that have been dissociated from awareness as well as those pushed from awareness (i.e., repression) entirely without dissociation. Although there has been much debate on the topic of repressed memories in the media and public arena, studies consistently demonstrate that amnesia can occur in survivors of trauma. Repressed memories may sometimes be recovered years or decades after the event, most often spontaneously, triggered by a particular smell, taste, or other identifier related to the lost memory; or rarely, via suggestion during psychotherapy.

History

The concept was originated by Sigmund Freud in his 1896 essay Zur Ätiologie der Hysterie ("On the etiology of hysteria"), however Freud himself abandoned his theory between 1897-1905, and during 1920-1923 replaced it with his impulse-based concept of Id, Super-ego, and Ego. Friedrich Nietzsche was the first to suggest an active, conscious thought management method in the second essay of his On the Genealogy of Morals as a necessary fundament of efficiency, responsibility, and maturity.

Research

Repressed memory syndrome, the clinical entity used to describe repressed memories, is often compared to psychogenic amnesia, and some sources compare the two as equivalent. There is research to indicate that memories of child sexual abuse and other traumatic incidents can be forgotten and that any study that has looked for evidence of traumatic or dissociative amnesia after child sexual abuse has found it. There is evidence of the spontaneous recovery of traumatic memories, and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated. Although the science of repressed memory is limited, studies suggest that memories of trauma that are forgotten and later recalled have a similar accuracy rate as trauma memories that had not been forgotten. It has been speculated that repression may be one method used by individuals to cope with traumatic memories, by pushing them out of awareness, perhaps as an adaptation via psychogenic amnesia to allow a child to maintain attachment to a person on whom they are dependent for survival. Researchers have proposed that repression can operate on a social level as well.

The existence of repressed memories has not been accepted by mainstream psychology or unequivocally proven to exist and many experts in the field of human memory feel there is no credible scientific support for the notions of repressed and recovered memories. The theory of repressed memories is supported by many clinical psychologists, while many research psychologists believe that there is little support for such a theory.

Legal issues

In a 1996 ruling, a US District Court allowed repressed memories to be entered into evidence in court cases. Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross Cheit’s case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.

Recovered memory therapy

Recovered memory therapy (RMT) is a term coined by affiliates of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation to refer what they described as a range of psychotherapy methods based on recalling memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten by the patient. The term is not listed in DSM-IV or used by any mainstream formal psychotherapy modality. The idea that therapy can create false memories has not been proven though there is evidence that the use of extreme therapy techniques can create false memories. Even when patients who decide their recovered memories are false and retract their claims, they can suffer posttraumatic stress disorder due to the traumatic of illusory memories. The number of reported retractions is small when compared to the large number of actual child sexual abuse cases.Some have suggested that a child may retract their story of abuse due to guilt, a feeling of obligation to protect their family or may be reacting to the familial stress brought on by their allegations.

Repressed memories in popular culture

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Repressed memories were a frequent topic among talk-show hosts in the 1990s and have frequently been portrayed in popular entertainment, especially as a plot device.

• The film Tommy: the title character is coerced into forgetting that he has witnessed the killing of his father.
• The film The Machinist: Christian Bale's character represses the memory of killing a child in a hit-and-run car accident.
• The film Nurse Betty: Betty also witnesses a murder and as a result of the trauma forgets her entire reality for a time, deluded into being a character in her favourite soap opera.
• The film The Butterfly Effect: Evan has blackouts throughout his childhood when in traumatic situations. As a college student, he attempts to recover these memories and finds that he can change the past.
• The film Spellbound: a horrible childhood memory has been suppressed and causes nightmares for years afterwards.
• The film Mysterious Skin: two teenage boys repress memories of sexual abuse by their Little League coach.
• The video game Final Fantasy VII: the protagonist Cloud Strife carries false memories of his service in SOLDIER, the real memories suppressed after his Mako treatment.
• The anime/manga Elfen Lied: one of the main characters, Kouta, suppressed the majority of his childhood after seeing his little sister being murdered by the protagonist Lucy.
• The anime/manga Fruits Basket: the supporting character, Hatori Sohma had to suppress the memories of his love, Kana, after Akito Sohma blinded Hatori's left eye by throwing a vase at him and blamed Hatori's injury on Kana. The guilt from the accident drove her into madness and Hatori was forced to suppress her memories so that she could once again smile. Hatori has also had to suppress the memories of Yuki Sohma's friends, and Momiji Sohma's mother.
• The anime/manga His and Her Circumstances: When Arima visits his girlfriend, Yukino's house for the first time he realizes he doesn't have a deep bond with his adoptive parents and is confronted with repressed memories of abuse and abandonment from his real parents.
• The novel The Perks of Being a Wallflower: Charlie is confronted with repressed memories of being sexually abused by his aunt in the end of the novel after being upset and confused by sexual contact with his crush/friend, Sam.
• The protagonist of the video game Silent Hill 2, James Sunderland, repressed his memory of murdering his wife prior to the game's events.
• In the movie Total Recall, set in the year 2084, a man travels to Mars for a virtual vacation that implants memories of the trip in his mind, to recall those memories in exact detail. During his trip he recalls the truth about himself.

See also

• Memory inhibition
• Dissociative identity disorder
• Interference theory

References

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2. Widom, Cathy Spatz (1997). "Accuracy of Adult Recollections of Childhood Victimization: Part 2. Childhood Sexual Abuse". Psychological Assessment. 9 (1). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association: 34–46. ISSN 1040-3590. EJ545434. Retrieved 2007-12-18. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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External links

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• Articles lacking sources from March 2008
• Memory disorders