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{{Keralahistory}} {{Keralahistory}}
{{Sri Lankan Tamil history}} {{Sri Lankan Tamil history}}
⚫ '''{{unicode|Tamiḻakam}}''' or '''Ancient Tamil country'''{{sfn|Unknown author|1990}} (] தமிழகம் "the Tamil homeland") refers to the ] (3rd century BCE - 4th century CE){{refn|group=note|"Sangam period" ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=சங்ககால பருவம்|trans=Cankakāla paruvam}}) is the period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam) spanning from c. 3rd century BCE to c. 4th century CE. It is named after the famous ] of poets and scholars centered in the city of ].}} territory of old ]n royalties covering modern ], ] and southern parts of ], ].


⚫ '''{{unicode|Tamiḻakam}}''' or '''Ancient Tamil country'''{{sfn|Unknown author|1990}} (] தமிழகம் "the Tamil homeland") refers to the ] (3rd century BCE - 4th century CE){{refn|group=note|"Sangam period" ({{indic|lang=ta|indic=சங்ககால பருவம்|trans=Cankakāla paruvam}}) is the period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam) spanning from c. 3rd century BCE to c. 4th century CE. It is named after the famous ] of poets and scholars centered in the city of ].}} territory of old ]n royalties covering modern ], ] and southern parts of ], ].
Although traditional accounts use to refer to these territories as a single cultural area, where Tamil was the natural language and culture of all people{{refn|group=note|See, for example, Kanakasabhai.{{sfn|Kanakasabhai|1997|p=10}}}}, archaeological data from protohistoric Kerala and Tamil Nadu challenge this notion of a separate culture region.{{sfn|Abraham|2003}}


Historians use the term synonymous with ] to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of ], including ] and ].{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p=163}} Historians use the term synonymous with ] to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of ], including ] and ].{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p = 163}}


==Etymology== ==Etymology==
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==Geographical boundaries== ==Geographical boundaries==
{{See also|Tamil nationalism|Indigenous Aryans|Neo-Vedanta}} {{See also|Tamil nationalism|Dravida Nadu}}


The history of the Tamil people is complex, and intertwined with the regional and pan-regional history of other people and nations. The definition of geographical and cultural boundaries of Tamilakam, and of the Tamil history, is therefor intertwined with these histories, and occasionally gves rise to heathed debate. The history of the Tamil people is complex, and intertwined with the regional and pan-regional history of other people and nations. The definition of geographical and cultural boundaries of Tamilakam, and of the Tamil history, is therefor intertwined with these histories, and occasionally gves rise to heathed debate.

Until recently, the interpretation and understanding of India's past has largely been based on textual sources.{{sfn|Abraham|2003}} According to Abraham,
{{quote|In the southern portion of the peninsula--the region that corresponds roughly to the present-day states of Kerala and Tamil Nadu--the existence of a large documentary corpus, both indigenous and foreign, and the occurrence of inscribed coins and cave inscriptions, have given rise to the idea of a separate ethnic and linguistic region known as "Tamilakam".{{sfn|Abraham|2003}}}}

The role of archaeology has often been secondary, as "a source of correlates for information gleaned from the texts".{{sfn|Abraham|2003}} Yet, also according to Abraham,
{{quote|... the archaeological data from protohistoric Kerala and Tamil Nadu is not so clear--cut and, in fact, appears to challenge the very notion of a separate culture region.{{sfn|Abraham|2003}}}}


===Classical era territory=== ===Classical era territory===
{{See also|Sangam literature|Tolkappiyam}} ====Tolkappiyam====

The 2nd or 1st century BCE {{refn|group=note|Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tolkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973}}}} Tamil chronicle ], a work on the ] of the ] and the earliest extant work of ], contains several references to ''centamiḷ nilam'', "land of refined ]").{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=xi}} According to the Tolkappiyam, the limits of Tamilakam were between the hills of ] in the north, and ] in the south.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}{{refn|group=note|Various contemporary sources also refer to the Tolkappiyam, and mention the hills of ] and ] in the south as the historical limits of Tamilakam. Other sources mention somewhat different limits, or use a different wording. The 2nd or 1st century BCE {{refn|group=note|Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tolkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE{{sfn|Zvelebil|1973}}}} Tamil chronicle ], a work on the ] of the ] and the earliest extant work of ], contains several references to ''centamiḷ nilam'', "land of refined ]").{{sfn|Zvelebil|1992|p=xi}} According to the Tolkappiyam, the limits of Tamilakam were between the hills of ] in the north, and ] in the south.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}}{{refn|group=note|Various contemporary sources also refer to the Tolkappiyam, and mention the hills of ] and ] in the south as the historical limits of Tamilakam. Other sources mention somewhat different limits, or use a different wording.
{{sfn|Kanakasabhai|1997|p=10}} {{sfn|Kanakasabhai|1997|p=10}}
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<ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India - Ireland - Robert MacHenry - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=hHKiJGzJ5ewC&q=%22tamilakam+was+divided+into%22&dq=%22tamilakam+was+divided+into%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Lv-aT8G_C-ip4gSRvOypDg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg | publisher = | date = }} page 45</ref> <ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India - Ireland - Robert MacHenry - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=hHKiJGzJ5ewC&q=%22tamilakam+was+divided+into%22&dq=%22tamilakam+was+divided+into%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Lv-aT8G_C-ip4gSRvOypDg&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAg | publisher = | date = }} page 45</ref>
<ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = A Primer of Tamil Literature - M. S. Purnalingam Pillai - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=JwkrAAAAYAAJ&q=Tamilakam%2BComorin&dq=Tamilakam%2BComorin&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHacT6HaG8bT4QS0zIiqDg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgK | publisher = | date = }} page 6</ref> <ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = A Primer of Tamil Literature - M. S. Purnalingam Pillai - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=JwkrAAAAYAAJ&q=Tamilakam%2BComorin&dq=Tamilakam%2BComorin&hl=en&sa=X&ei=bHacT6HaG8bT4QS0zIiqDg&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgK | publisher = | date = }} page 6</ref>
<ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach - Aijazuddin Ahmad - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA88&dq=comorin+%22Tamil+country%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TXicT5eDNozP4QTtu6CqDg&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=comorin%20%22Tamil%20country%22&f=false | publisher = | date = }} page 88</ref>}}
⚫ <ref>{{Cite book | last = | first = | title = Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach - Aijazuddin Ahmad - Google Books | url = http://books.google.lk/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA88&dq=comorin+%22Tamil+country%22&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TXicT5eDNozP4QTtu6CqDg&ved=0CFYQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=comorin%20%22Tamil%20country%22&f=false | publisher = | date = }} page 88</ref>}} Tolkappiar, the writer of the Tolkappiyam, does not mention a Tamil part of Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Indrapala|1969}}{{refn|group=note|According to A. Rajayyan, it is possible that the Tolkappiar and Sikiandiyar were "not aware of the Tamil part of the island of Lanka."{{sfn|Rajayyan|2005}}}}{{refn|group=note|The 6th century CE ] "speaks of the great ] king Valai Vanan and his queen Vdcamayilai who ruled the prosperous Naga Nadu with great splendour and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition"<ref group=web name="Thiagarajah"></ref>{{refn|group=note|In ''Manimekalai'' Ch.14, 24<ref group=web name="Thiagarajah" />}}{{refn|group=note|The aim of the author, Sīthalai Sāttanār (or Cīttalai Cāttanār) was to compare Buddhism favourably with the other prevailing religions in South India in order to propagate Buddhism.}} This might suggest the existence of early Tamil settlements at Sri Lanka, since "some scholars suggest that the Yakshas and the Nagas were Tamil-speaking people who worshipped the cobra (Naga) in the prehistorical period dating back to 1000 BCE".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21}} But those same scholars also "have postulated that the Yakshas and Nagas are the aboriginal tribes of Sri Lanka".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21}} John Holt writes that "in the early Sri Lankan chronicles as well as in the early Tamil literary works the nagas appear as a distinct group".{{sfn|Holt|2011|p=73}} Holt also writes that "the adoption of the Tamil language was helping the Nagas in the Tamil chiefdoms to be assimilated into the major ethnic group there".{{sfn|Holt|2011|p=74}} And Manogaran notes: "... there is general consensus among historians that Sinhalese settlements preceded Tamil settlements on the island by a few centuries".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21-22}} Manogaran also notes: "... we can only speculate that the ancestors of the present-day Tamils were already in Sri Lanka when the Sinhalese began colonizing the island." {{sfn|Manogaran|1987|22}}}}


According to the Tolkappiyam, at the time of Tamilakam Malayalam had not formed into a separate dialect at this period, and only one language, Tamil, was spoken from the Eastern to the Western Sea.{{sfn|Abraham|2003}}{{sfn|Aiyaṅgār|1994|p=6}}{{sfn|Smith|1999|p=438}}{{sfn|Rajayyan|2005|p=9}}{{sfn|Hanumanthan|1979}}{{sfn|Aiyangar|1986|p=9}} According to the Tolkappiyam, at the time of Tamilakam Malayalam had not formed into a separate dialect at this period, and only one language, Tamil, was spoken from the Eastern to the Western Sea.{{sfn|Abraham|2003}}{{sfn|Aiyaṅgār|1994|p=6}}{{sfn|Smith|1999|p=438}}{{sfn|Rajayyan|2005|p=9}}{{sfn|Hanumanthan|1979}}{{sfn|Aiyangar|1986|p=9}}

====Manimekalai and Silapthikaram====
⚫ While, Tolkappiar, the writer of the Tolkappiyam, does not mention a Tamil part of Sri Lanka probably due to the fact that both himself and Sikiandiyar were unaware of the fact{{refn|group=note|According to A. Rajayyan, it is possible that the Tolkappiar and Sikiandiyar were "not aware of the Tamil part of the island of Lanka."{{sfn|Rajayyan|2005}}}} that there existed an ] in the ]. This is documented by the 6th Century CE Tamil epic ] which speaks of a prosperous ] kingdom in the island.<ref name="Noolaham.net"/> The Manimekalai speaks of the great Naga king Valai Vanan and his queen Vdcamayilai who ruled the prosperous Naga Nadu with great splendor and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition. Their daughter, the princess Pilli Valai had a liaison at ] islet with the early ] Killivalavan; out of this union was born Prince Tondai Eelam Thiraiyar, who historians note was the early progenitor of the ] who were the rulers of the ] till 9th Century CE. {{sfn|Indrapala|1969}}{{refn|group=note|The 6th century CE ] "speaks of the great ] king Valai Vanan and his queen Vdcamayilai who ruled the prosperous Naga Nadu with great splendour and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition"<ref group=web name="Thiagarajah"></ref>{{refn|group=note|In ''Manimekalai'' Ch.14, 24<ref group=web name="Thiagarajah" />}}{{refn|group=note|The aim of the author, Sīthalai Sāttanār (or Cīttalai Cāttanār) was to compare Buddhism favourably with the other prevailing religions in South India in order to propagate Buddhism.}} This might suggest the existence of early Tamil settlements at Sri Lanka, since "some scholars suggest that the Yakshas and the Nagas were Tamil-speaking people who worshipped the cobra (Naga) in the prehistorical period dating back to 1000 BCE".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21}} But those same scholars also "have postulated that the Yakshas and Nagas are the aboriginal tribes of Sri Lanka".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21}} John Holt writes that "in the early Sri Lankan chronicles as well as in the early Tamil literary works the nagas appear as a distinct group".{{sfn|Holt|2011|p=73}} Holt also writes that "the adoption of the Tamil language was helping the Nagas in the Tamil chiefdoms to be assimilated into the major ethnic group there".{{sfn|Holt|2011|p=74}} And Manogaran notes: "... there is general consensus among historians that Sinhalese settlements preceded Tamil settlements on the island by a few centuries".{{sfn|Manogaran|1987|p=21-22}} Manogaran also notes: "... we can only speculate that the ancestors of the present-day Tamils were already in Sri Lanka when the Sinhalese began colonizing the island." {{sfn|Manogaran|1987|22}}}}

], the author of the ''Manimekalai'' reflected Tamilakam's perception at the time that Naga Nadu was an autonomous administrative entity, kingdom or ''nadu'' stretching across coastal districts, distinguished from the rest of the island also ruled intermittently by Tamil kings; Eela or Irattina Tivu-Nadu.<ref name="ReferenceA">Peter Shalk. SERENDIPITY - ISSUE 02 - THE VALLIPURAM BUDDHA IMAGE - AGAIN</ref> Naka Nadu included ] in the northwest, ] in the northeast and ] in the middle of the island.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>

====Other Sources====
] the ancient Greek traveler described the ] and the ] as the aboriginal Tamil-speaking people of the island who worshipped the cobra(Naga) and demons(Yakshas) in 1000 BC.<ref name="Noolaham.net">{{cite web | url=http://noolaham.net/project/36/3524/3524.pdf | title=The Untold Story of Ancient Tamils in Sri Lanka | publisher=C. Manokaran | accessdate=21 July 2013}}</ref><ref name="Ancient Jaffna"> {{cite web |http://books.google.co.in/books?id=k9DpMY206bMC&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=ptolemy+nagadiboi&source=bl&ots=5ZpRDSZK0Y&sig=CaLFCrbNeO42sHV6d6axiBkT1pc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=PZPrUbTTMcyJrAfd14HQCw&ved=0CDAQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=ptolemy%20nagadiboi&f=false| title=Ancient Jaffna | publisher=C. Rasanayagam | accessdate=21 July 2013}}</ref><ref>http://archive.org/stream/ancientindiaasd00mccrgoog/ancientindiaasd00mccrgoog_djvu.txt</ref>

The Yakshas and the Nagas are further depicted in the ] epic ] as the original inhabitants of the island when the ] arrived in the island in 500 B.C.<ref name="The Story of Vijaya and Kuveni"></ref>


===Modern use=== ===Modern use===
Historians use the term synonymous with ] to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of ], including ] and ].{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p=163}} Today the term is synonymous with ] to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of ], including ] and ].{{sfn|Kumar|2008|p=163}}


==Kingdoms in Ancient Tamilakam==
==Tamilakam kingdoms==
{{Main|History of Tamil Nadu}} {{Main|History of Tamil Nadu}}


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==Cultural influence== ==Cultural influence==
:''See also ] and ]'' :''See also ] and ]''


With the advent of the early historical period in South India,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} and the ascent of the three Tamil kingdoms in Southern India in the 3th century BCE,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. In the third centurie BCE the first Tamil settlers arrived at Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Wenzlhuemer|2008|p=19-20}} The Jaffna-seal, dated to the 3rd century BCE, contains a bilingual inscription.{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}}{{refn|group=note|An archaeological team led by K.Indrapala of the University of Jaffna excavated a megalithic burial complex at Anaikoddai in Jaffna District, SriLanka. In one of the burials, a metal seal was found assigned by the excavators to ca.3rd century B.C.E.{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}}}} Excavations in the area of ] in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters,<ref>Mahadevan, I. "Ancient Tamil coins from Sri Lanka", pp. 152–154</ref> which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.<ref>Bopearachchi, O. "Ancient Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu", pp. 546–549</ref> Around 237 BCE, "two adventurers from southern India"{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} established the first Tamil rule at Sri Lanka. In 145 BCE Elara, a Chola general, took over the throne at Anuradaphura and ruled for fourty-four years.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} Dutthagamani, a Sinhalese, started a war against him, defated him, and took over the throne.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}}{{sfn|Deegalle|2006|p=30}} With the advent of the early historical period in South India,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} and the ascent of the three Tamil kingdoms in Southern India in the 3th century BCE,{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=384}} Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. In the third centurie BCE the first Tamil settlers arrived at Sri Lanka.{{sfn|Wenzlhuemer|2008|p=19-20}} The Jaffna-seal, dated to the 3rd century BCE, contains a bilingual inscription.{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}}{{refn|group=note|An archaeological team led by K.Indrapala of the University of Jaffna excavated a megalithic burial complex at Anaikoddai in Jaffna District, SriLanka. In one of the burials, a metal seal was found assigned by the excavators to ca.3rd century B.C.E.{{sfn|Mahadevan|2002}}}} Excavations in the area of ] in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters,<ref>Mahadevan, I. "Ancient Tamil coins from Sri Lanka", pp. 152–154</ref> which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period.<ref>Bopearachchi, O. "Ancient Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu", pp. 546–549</ref> Around 237 BCE, "two adventurers from southern India"{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} established the first Tamil rule at Sri Lanka. In 145 BCE Elara, a Chola general, took over the throne at Anuradaphura and ruled for fourty-four years.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}} Dutthagamani, a Sinhalese, started a war against him, defated him, and took over the throne.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=45}}{{sfn|Deegalle|2006|p=30}}

Revision as of 10:03, 21 July 2013

Tamilakam (the Tamil country) in the Sangam Period
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Tamiḻakam or Ancient Tamil country (Tamil தமிழகம் "the Tamil homeland") refers to the Sangam period (3rd century BCE - 4th century CE) territory of old South Indian royalties covering modern Tamil Nadu, Kerala and southern parts of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.

Historians use the term synonymous with South India to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of India, including Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Etymology

"Tamilakam" is a portmanteau of two words from the Tamil language, namely Tamil and akam. It can be roughly translated as the 'homeland of Tamil'. According to Kamil Zvelebil, the term seems to be the most ancient term used to designate the Tamil territory in the Indian subcontinent.

Geographical boundaries

See also: Tamil nationalism and Dravida Nadu

The history of the Tamil people is complex, and intertwined with the regional and pan-regional history of other people and nations. The definition of geographical and cultural boundaries of Tamilakam, and of the Tamil history, is therefor intertwined with these histories, and occasionally gves rise to heathed debate.

Classical era territory

Tolkappiyam

The 2nd or 1st century BCE Tamil chronicle Tolkappiyam, a work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamil literature, contains several references to centamiḷ nilam, "land of refined Tamil"). According to the Tolkappiyam, the limits of Tamilakam were between the hills of Venkatam in the north, and Cape Comorin in the south.

According to the Tolkappiyam, at the time of Tamilakam Malayalam had not formed into a separate dialect at this period, and only one language, Tamil, was spoken from the Eastern to the Western Sea.

Manimekalai and Silapthikaram

While, Tolkappiar, the writer of the Tolkappiyam, does not mention a Tamil part of Sri Lanka probably due to the fact that both himself and Sikiandiyar were unaware of the fact that there existed an ancient Tamil kingdom in the North of Sri Lanka. This is documented by the 6th Century CE Tamil epic Manimekalai which speaks of a prosperous Tamil Buddhist kingdom in the island. The Manimekalai speaks of the great Naga king Valai Vanan and his queen Vdcamayilai who ruled the prosperous Naga Nadu with great splendor and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition. Their daughter, the princess Pilli Valai had a liaison at Nainativu islet with the early Chola king Killivalavan; out of this union was born Prince Tondai Eelam Thiraiyar, who historians note was the early progenitor of the Pallava Dynasty who were the rulers of the Thondai Nadu till 9th Century CE.

Cīttalai Cāttanār, the author of the Manimekalai reflected Tamilakam's perception at the time that Naga Nadu was an autonomous administrative entity, kingdom or nadu stretching across coastal districts, distinguished from the rest of the island also ruled intermittently by Tamil kings; Eela or Irattina Tivu-Nadu. Naka Nadu included Mannar in the northwest, Thirukonamalai in the northeast and Mahavillachi in the middle of the island.

Other Sources

Ptolemy the ancient Greek traveler described the Yakshas and the Nagas as the aboriginal Tamil-speaking people of the island who worshipped the cobra(Naga) and demons(Yakshas) in 1000 BC.

The Yakshas and the Nagas are further depicted in the Sinhala epic Mahavamsa as the original inhabitants of the island when the Sinhalese arrived in the island in 500 B.C.

Modern use

Today the term is synonymous with South India to refer to the Tamil speaking regions of India, including Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Kingdoms in Ancient Tamilakam

Main article: History of Tamil Nadu

Approximately during the period between 350 BCE to 200 CE, Tamilakam was ruled by the three Tamil dynasties of Chola, Pandya and Chera, and a few independent chieftains, the Velir.

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BC left by Asoka, of the Maurya Empire. The heartland of the Cholas was the fertile valley of the Kaveri River.

The Pandyan Dynasty ruled parts of South India until the 15th century AD. They initially ruled their country Pandya Nadu from Korkai, a seaport on the southernmost tip of the Indian Peninsula, and in later times moved to Madurai. Pandyan was well known since ancient times, with contacts, even diplomatic, reaching the Roman Empire.

The Chera Dynasty ruled from before the Sangam Age (3rd century BC – 3rd century AD) until the 12th century AD over an area corresponding to modern-day Kerala. During the time of Mauryas in northern India (c. 4th century BC — 3rd century BC) the Cheras (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) were in a late megalithic phase on the western coast of Tamilakam.

The Velirs (Template:Lang-ta) were a royal house of minor dynastic kings and aristocratic chieftains in Tamilakam in the early historic period of South India.

Cultural influence

See also Sri Lankan Tamil people and Giraavaru people

With the advent of the early historical period in South India, and the ascent of the three Tamil kingdoms in Southern India in the 3th century BCE, Tamil culture began to spread outside Tamilakam. In the third centurie BCE the first Tamil settlers arrived at Sri Lanka. The Jaffna-seal, dated to the 3rd century BCE, contains a bilingual inscription. Excavations in the area of Tissamaharama in southern Sri Lanka have unearthed locally issued coins, produced between the 2nd century BCE and the 2nd century CE, some of which carry local Tamil personal names written in early Tamil characters, which suggest that local Tamil merchants were present and actively involved in trade along the southern coast of Sri Lanka by the late classical period. Around 237 BCE, "two adventurers from southern India" established the first Tamil rule at Sri Lanka. In 145 BCE Elara, a Chola general, took over the throne at Anuradaphura and ruled for fourty-four years. Dutthagamani, a Sinhalese, started a war against him, defated him, and took over the throne.

Nadus of Tamilakam

Tamizhagam was divided into various provinces named nadu, meaning 'country'. These provinces changed throughout history, so the following list is not exhaustive:

See also

Notes

  1. "Sangam period" (Tamil: சங்ககால பருவம், Cankakāla paruvam) is the period in the history of ancient southern India (known as the Tamilakam) spanning from c. 3rd century BCE to c. 4th century CE. It is named after the famous Sangam academies of poets and scholars centered in the city of Madurai.
  2. Zvelebil dates the Ur-Tolkappiyam to the 1st or 2nd century BCE
  3. Various contemporary sources also refer to the Tolkappiyam, and mention the hills of Venkatam and Cape Comorin in the south as the historical limits of Tamilakam. Other sources mention somewhat different limits, or use a different wording.
  4. According to A. Rajayyan, it is possible that the Tolkappiar and Sikiandiyar were "not aware of the Tamil part of the island of Lanka."
  5. In Manimekalai Ch.14, 24
  6. The aim of the author, Sīthalai Sāttanār (or Cīttalai Cāttanār) was to compare Buddhism favourably with the other prevailing religions in South India in order to propagate Buddhism.
  7. The 6th century CE Manimekalai "speaks of the great Naga king Valai Vanan and his queen Vdcamayilai who ruled the prosperous Naga Nadu with great splendour and a rich Tamil Buddhist tradition" This might suggest the existence of early Tamil settlements at Sri Lanka, since "some scholars suggest that the Yakshas and the Nagas were Tamil-speaking people who worshipped the cobra (Naga) in the prehistorical period dating back to 1000 BCE". But those same scholars also "have postulated that the Yakshas and Nagas are the aboriginal tribes of Sri Lanka". John Holt writes that "in the early Sri Lankan chronicles as well as in the early Tamil literary works the nagas appear as a distinct group". Holt also writes that "the adoption of the Tamil language was helping the Nagas in the Tamil chiefdoms to be assimilated into the major ethnic group there". And Manogaran notes: "... there is general consensus among historians that Sinhalese settlements preceded Tamil settlements on the island by a few centuries". Manogaran also notes: "... we can only speculate that the ancestors of the present-day Tamils were already in Sri Lanka when the Sinhalese began colonizing the island."
  8. An archaeological team led by K.Indrapala of the University of Jaffna excavated a megalithic burial complex at Anaikoddai in Jaffna District, SriLanka. In one of the burials, a metal seal was found assigned by the excavators to ca.3rd century B.C.E.

References

  1. Unknown author 1990.
  2. ^ Kumar 2008, p. 163.
  3. ^ Zvelebil 1992, p. xi.
  4. Zvelebil 1973.
  5. Kanakasabhai 1997, p. 10.
  6. ^ Abraham 2003.
  7. ^ Aiyaṅgār 1994, p. 6.
  8. ^ Smith 1999, p. 438.
  9. ^ Rajayyan 2005, p. 9.
  10. ^ Hanumanthan 1979.
  11. ^ Aiyangar 1986, p. 9.
  12. Ramaswamy 1997, p. 89.
  13. Ramaswamy 2007, p. xxxix.
  14. Buddhism in Tamilnadu: a new perspective - Shu Hikosaka, Institute of Asian Studies (Madras, India) - Google Books. page 3
  15. Dravidian India - T.R. Sesha Iyengar - Google Books. page 55
  16. A handbook of Kerala - T. Madhava Menon, International School of Dravidian Linguistics - Google Books. page 87
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  18. South India and Ceylon - Kolappa Pillay Kanakasabhapathi Pillay - Google Books. page 40
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  20. The hill-shrine of Veṅgaḍam: art, architecture, and āgama of Tirumala temple - Saligrama Krishna Ramachandra Rao, Kalpatharu Research Academy - Google Books. pg14
  21. Immortal India - Jayantakr̥ṣṇa Harikr̥ṣṇa Dave - Google Books. page 173
  22. Indo-Iranian journal - Google Books. page 111
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  24. The Castes, Customs, Manners and Literature of the Tamils - Simon Casie Chitty - Google Books. page 3
  25. The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC Civil Services Preliminary ... - Singh - Google Books. page 147
  26. Sangam literature: its cults and cultures - Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri - Google Books.page 13
  27. The Tamils and their culture - K. S. Ramaswami Sastri - Google Books. page3
  28. Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh - S. S. Shashi - Google Books. page 6
  29. Origin of Saivism and Its History in the Tamil Land - K.R. Subramanian, Subramanian K R - Google Books. page 16
  30. Culture of the ancient Cheras: a study in cultural reconstruction - M. E. Manickavasagom Pillai - Google Books. page 16
  31. The surnames of the Caṅkam age: literary & tribal - M. A. Dorai Rangaswamy, Mor̲appākkam Appācāmi Turai Araṅkacāmi - Google Books. page 95
  32. Buddhism in Kerala - P. C. Alexander - Google Books. page 2
  33. Tolkappiyam and Astadhyayi - K. Meenakshi, International Institute of Tamil Studies - Google Books. page 7
  34. The new encyclopaedia Britannica: in 32 vol. Macropaedia, India - Ireland - Robert MacHenry - Google Books. page 45
  35. A Primer of Tamil Literature - M. S. Purnalingam Pillai - Google Books. page 6
  36. Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach - Aijazuddin Ahmad - Google Books. page 88
  37. Rajayyan 2005.
  38. ^ "The Untold Story of Ancient Tamils in Sri Lanka" (PDF). C. Manokaran. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  39. Indrapala 1969.
  40. ^ Manogaran 1987, p. 21.
  41. Holt 2011, p. 73.
  42. Holt 2011, p. 74.
  43. Manogaran 1987, p. 21-22.
  44. Manogaran, 1987 & 22. sfn error: no target: CITEREFManogaran198722 (help)
  45. ^ Peter Shalk. SERENDIPITY - ISSUE 02 - THE VALLIPURAM BUDDHA IMAGE - AGAIN
  46. "Ancient Jaffna". C. Rasanayagam. {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help); Unknown parameter |http://books.google.co.in/books?id= ignored (help)
  47. http://archive.org/stream/ancientindiaasd00mccrgoog/ancientindiaasd00mccrgoog_djvu.txt
  48. The Story of Vijaya and Kuveni
  49. Mahadevan, Iravatham (2009). "Meluhha and Agastya : Alpha and Omega of the Indus Script" (PDF). Chennai, India. p. 16. The Ventar - Velir - Vellalar groups constituted the ruling and land-owning classes in the Tamil country since the beginning of recorded history
  50. Fairservis, Walter Ashlin (1992) . The Harappan civilization and its writing. A model for the decipherment of the Indus Script. Oxford & IBH. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-81-204-0491-5.
  51. ^ Singh 2009, p. 384.
  52. Wenzlhuemer 2008, p. 19-20.
  53. ^ Mahadevan 2002. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMahadevan2002 (help)
  54. Mahadevan, I. "Ancient Tamil coins from Sri Lanka", pp. 152–154
  55. Bopearachchi, O. "Ancient Sri Lanka and Tamil Nadu", pp. 546–549
  56. ^ Reddy 2003, p. 45.
  57. Deegalle 2006, p. 30.
  58. Menon, T. Madhava (2000). A handbook of Kerala - Volume 1. International School of Dravidian Linguistics. p. 112.

Sources

Printed sources

Web-sources

  1. ^ Siva Thiagarajah (2010), People and cultures of prehistoric Sri Lanka, Srilanka Guardian Saturday, August 7, 2010
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