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| In the ], the word "Hindu" has been used in some places to denote persons professing any of these religions: ], ], ] or ],.<ref> Article 25:''"Explanation II: In sub-Clause (b) of clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion"''</ref> This however has been vehemently opposed, especially by the ]s,<ref name="Marty1996">{{cite book|author=Martin E. Marty|title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=doCmVaOnh_wC&pg=PA270|date=1 July 1996|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-50884-9|pages=270–}}</ref><ref name="Fazal2014">{{cite book|author=Tanweer Fazal|title="Nation-state" and Minority Rights in India: Comparative Perspectives on Muslim and Sikh Identities|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1WwtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136|date=1 August 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-75179-3|pages=136–}}</ref><ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book|author1=Kevin Boyle|author2=Juliet Sheen|title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PA191|date=7 March 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72229-7|pages=191–}}</ref><ref name="WolfeYang1996">{{cite book|author1=Alvin William Wolfe|author2=Honggang Yang|title=Anthropological Contributions to Conflict Resolution|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=521m3YG-N38C&pg=PA19|year=1996|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-1765-6|pages=19–}}</ref> as well as by the ]s.<ref name="School Bal Vidya Mandir 2003">para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, Uttar Pradesh v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21 August 2006, Supreme Court of India</ref> | In the ], the word "Hindu" has been used in some places to denote persons professing any of these religions: ], ], ] or ],.<ref> Article 25:''"Explanation II: In sub-Clause (b) of clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion"''</ref> This however has been vehemently opposed, especially by the ]s,<ref name="Marty1996">{{cite book|author=Martin E. Marty|title=Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=doCmVaOnh_wC&pg=PA270|date=1 July 1996|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-50884-9|pages=270–}}</ref><ref name="Fazal2014">{{cite book|author=Tanweer Fazal|title="Nation-state" and Minority Rights in India: Comparative Perspectives on Muslim and Sikh Identities|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1WwtBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA136|date=1 August 2014|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-75179-3|pages=136–}}</ref><ref name="BoyleSheen2013">{{cite book|author1=Kevin Boyle|author2=Juliet Sheen|title=Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JxgFWwK8dXwC&pg=PA191|date=7 March 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-72229-7|pages=191–}}</ref><ref name="WolfeYang1996">{{cite book|author1=Alvin William Wolfe|author2=Honggang Yang|title=Anthropological Contributions to Conflict Resolution|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=521m3YG-N38C&pg=PA19|year=1996|publisher=University of Georgia Press|isbn=978-0-8203-1765-6|pages=19–}}</ref> as well as by the ]s.<ref name="School Bal Vidya Mandir 2003">para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, Uttar Pradesh v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21 August 2006, Supreme Court of India</ref>. The Sikh representatives in the Indian constituent assembly actually did not provide their approval to the Constitution of India, citing discrimination and deceit. . | ||
| The ] is in the peculiar situation that the ] has repeatedly been called upon to define "Hinduism" because the ], while it prohibits "discrimination of any citizen" on grounds of religion in article 15, article 30 foresees special rights for "All minorities, whether based on religion or language". As a consequence, religious groups have an interest in being recognized as distinct from the Hindu majority in order to qualify as a "religious minority". Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether ] is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006. In the 2006 verdict, the Supreme Court found that the "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion".<ref name="School Bal Vidya Mandir 2003"/> | The ] is in the peculiar situation that the ] has repeatedly been called upon to define "Hinduism" because the ], while it prohibits "discrimination of any citizen" on grounds of religion in article 15, article 30 foresees special rights for "All minorities, whether based on religion or language". As a consequence, religious groups have an interest in being recognized as distinct from the Hindu majority in order to qualify as a "religious minority". Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether ] is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006. In the 2006 verdict, the Supreme Court found that the "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion".<ref name="School Bal Vidya Mandir 2003"/> | ||
Revision as of 20:28, 15 September 2015
For other uses, see Hindus (disambiguation).
Hindu (pronunciation) can refer to either a religious or cultural identity associated with the philosophical, religious and cultural systems that are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent. Starting with the Greek literature of 1st millennium BCE through the texts of the medieval era, the term Hindu implied a geographic, ethnic or cultural identifier for people living in Indian subcontinent. By the 16th-century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. In contemporary use, Hindu refers to an adherent of Hinduism.
The word Hindu is derived, through Greek indoi, and pre-Islamic Persian, from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, the historic local name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India). According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)". The term Hindu then was a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.
The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450). The Hindu religion (dharma) was set in apposition with Islam (turaka dharma) by poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath. 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata also made similar comparisons. Towards the end of the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus. The term Hinduism was introduced into the English language in the late 18th-century to denote the religious, philosophical, and cultural traditions native to India.
With more than 1 billion adherents, Hinduism is the world's third largest religion after Christianity and Islam. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 940 million, live in India. Other countries with large Hindu populations include Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Mauritius, Suriname, Guyana, Trinidad & Tobago, United States, Fiji, United Kingdom, Singapore, Canada and the island of Bali in Indonesia.
Etymology
The word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, the Indo-Aryan name for the Indus River in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (modern day Pakistan and Northern India). According to Gavin Flood, "The actual term 'hindu' first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: Sindhu)", more specifically in the 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I. The term 'Hindu' in these ancient records is a geographical term and did not refer to a religion.
Among the earliest known records of 'Hindu' with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by Xuanzang. The Chinese scholar recorded his 17 year travel to India and interactions with its people and religions. Preserved in Chinese language, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose "connotation overflows in the religious". Xuanzang describes Hindu Deva-temples of early 7th century CE, worship of Sun deity and Shiva, his debates with scholars of Samkhya and Vaisheshika schools of Hindu philosophies, monks and monasteries of Hindus, Jains and Buddhists (both Mahayana and Theravada), and the study of the Vedas along with Buddhist texts at Nalanda.
The word 'Hindu' is also found in medieval era Islamic texts such those relating to 8th-century Arab invasion of Sindh by Muhammad ibn Qasim, Al Biruni's 11th-century text Tarikh Al-Hind, and those of the Delhi Sultanate period, where the term 'Hindu' retains the ambiguities of including all non-Islamic people such as Buddhists and of being "a region or a religion".
Thapar states that the word Hindu is found as heptahindu in Avesta – equivalent to Rigvedic sapta sindhu, while hndstn (pronounced Hindustan) is found in a Sasanian inscription from the 3rd century CE, both of which refer to parts of northwestern South Asia. The Arabic term al-Hind referred to the people who live across the River Indus. This Arabic term was itself taken from the pre-Islamic Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians.
Gavin Flood states, "in Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices.
David Lorenzen, citing Richard Eaton, states "one of the earliest occurrences of the word 'Hindu' in Islamic literature appears in 'Abd al-Malik Isami's Persian work, Futuhu's-salatin, composed in the Deccan in 1350. In this text, 'Isami uses the word 'hindi' to mean Indian in the ethno-geographical sense and the word 'hindu' to mean 'Hindu' in the sense of a follower of the Hindu religion". One of the earliest uses of word 'Hindu' in religious context, in a European language (Spanish), was the publication in 1649 by Sebastiao Manrique.
David Lorenzen also mentions other non-Persian texts such as Prithvíráj Ráso by ~12th century Canda Baradai, and epigraphical inscription evidence from Andhra Pradesh kingdoms who battled military expansion of Muslim dynasties in 14th century, where the word 'Hindu' partly implies a religious identity in contrast to 'Turks' or Islamic religious identity. The term Hindu was later used occasionally in some Sanskrit texts such as the later Rajataranginis of Kashmir (Hinduka, c. 1450) and some 16th- to 18th-century Bengali Gaudiya Vaishnava texts including Chaitanya Charitamrita and Chaitanya Bhagavata. These texts used it to contrast Hindus from Muslims who are called Yavanas (foreigners) or Mlecchas (barbarians), with the 16th-century Chaitanya Charitamrita text and the 17th century Bhakta Mala text using the phrase "Hindu dharma".
History
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The notion of grouping the indigenous religions of India under a single umbrella term Hindu emerges as a result of various invasions in India bringing non-indigenous religions such as Islam to the Indian Subcontinent. Numerous Muslim invaders, such as Nader Shah, Mahmud of Ghazni, Ahmad Shāh Abdālī, Muhammad Ghori, Babur and Aurangzeb, destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted Hindus; some Muslim invaders, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes, in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva and Chaitanya. Followers of the Bhakti Movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards what they believed to be the more accessible Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.
Others, such as Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna, Paramahansa Yogananda, Sri Chinmoy, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama, have also been instrumental in raising the profiles of Yoga and Vedanta in the West. Today modern movements, such as ISKCON and the Swaminarayan Faith, attract a large number of followers around the world.
Definition
Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Because of the wide range of traditions and ideas covered by the term Hinduism, arriving at a comprehensive definition is difficult. The religion "defies our desire to define and categorize it".
In 1995, Chief Justice P. B. Gajendragadkar was quoted in an Indian Supreme Court ruling:
- When we think of the Hindu religion, unlike other religions in the world, the Hindu religion does not claim any one prophet; it does not worship any one god; it does not subscribe to any one dogma; it does not believe in any one philosophic concept; it does not follow any one set of religious rites or performances; in fact, it does not appear to satisfy the narrow traditional features of any religion or creed. It may broadly be described as a way of life and nothing more.
In 1995, while considering the question "who are Hindus and what are the broad features of Hindu religion", the Supreme Court of India highlighted Bal Gangadhar Tilak's formulation of seven defining features of Hinduism:
- Acceptance of the Vedas with reverence as the highest authority in religious and philosophic matter and acceptance with reverence of Vedas by Hindu thinkers and philosophers as the sole foundation of Hindu philosophy.
- Spirit of tolerance and willingness to understand and appreciate the opponent's point of view based on the realisation that truth was many-sided.
- Acceptance of great world rhythm, vast period of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each other in endless succession, by all six systems of Hindu philosophy.
- Acceptance by all systems of Hindu philosophy the belief in rebirth and pre-existence.
- Recognition of the fact that the means or ways to salvation are many.
- Realisation of the truth that Gods to be worshipped may be large, yet there being Hindus who do not believe in the worshipping of idols.
- Unlike other religions or religious creeds Hindu religion not being tied-down to any definite set of philosophic concepts, as such.
While Hinduism contains both "uniting and dispersing tendencies", it also has a common central thread of philosophical concepts (including dharma, moksha and samsara), practices (puja, bhakti etc.) and cultural traditions. These common elements originated (or were codified within) the Vedic, Upanishad and Puranic scriptures and epics. Thus a Hindu could:
- follow any of the Hindu schools of philosophy, such as Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (non-dualism of the qualified whole), Dvaita (dualism), Dvaitadvaita (dualism with non-dualism), etc.
- follow a tradition centered on any particular form of the Divine, such as Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Shaktism, etc.
- practice any one of the various forms of yoga systems; including bhakti (Hindu devotional movements) in order to achieve moksha.
Disputes
In the Constitution of India, the word "Hindu" has been used in some places to denote persons professing any of these religions: Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism or Sikhism,. This however has been vehemently opposed, especially by the Sikhs, as well as by the Jains.. The Sikh representatives in the Indian constituent assembly actually did not provide their approval to the Constitution of India, citing discrimination and deceit. .
The Republic of India is in the peculiar situation that the Supreme Court of India has repeatedly been called upon to define "Hinduism" because the Constitution of India, while it prohibits "discrimination of any citizen" on grounds of religion in article 15, article 30 foresees special rights for "All minorities, whether based on religion or language". As a consequence, religious groups have an interest in being recognized as distinct from the Hindu majority in order to qualify as a "religious minority". Thus, the Supreme Court was forced to consider the question whether Jainism is part of Hinduism in 2005 and 2006. In the 2006 verdict, the Supreme Court found that the "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion".
Some scholars argue that the Hinduism is not a religion per se but rather an umbrella term for a diverse set of traditions and practices. The usage may also have been necessitated by the desire to distinguish between "Hindus" and followers of other religions during the periodic census undertaken by the colonial British government in India. Other scholars, while seeing Hinduism as a 19th-century construct, view Hinduism as a response to British colonialism by Indian nationalists who forged a unified tradition centered on oral and written Sanskrit texts adopted as scriptures.
Some thinkers have attempted to distinguish between the concept of Hinduism as a religion, and a Hindu as a member of a nationalist or socio-political class. Such conceptualization of Hinduism has led to establishment of Hindutva as the dominant force in Hindu nationalism over the last century.
Ethnic and cultural fabric
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Hinduism and its religious doctrines, traditions and observances are very typical of and inextricably linked to the culture and demographics of India. Hinduism has one of the most ethnically diverse bodies of adherents in the world. It is hard to classify Hinduism as a religion because the framework, symbols, leaders and books of reference that make up some of the world's other religions are not uniquely identified in the case of Hinduism. As one of the oldest religions in the world, it is not clearly known exactly when it originated; some estimates put it around 5000 years old. Most commonly it can be seen as a "way of life" which gives rise to many other forms of religions.
Large tribes and communities indigenous to India are closely linked to the synthesis and formation of Hindu civilization. People of East Asian roots living in the states of north eastern India and Nepal were also a part of the earliest Hindu civilization. Immigration and settlement of people from Central Asia and people of Indo-Greek heritage have brought their own influence on Hindu society.
The roots of Hinduism in southern India and among tribal and indigenous communities are thought to be equally ancient and fundamentally contributive to the foundations of the religious and philosophical system.
Ancient Hindu kingdoms arose and spread the religion and traditions across Southeast Asia, particularly Thailand, Nepal, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, Cambodia, Laos, Philippines, and what is now central Vietnam. A form of Hinduism particularly different from Indian roots and traditions is practiced in Bali, Indonesia, where Hindus form 90% of the population. Indian migrants have taken Hinduism and Hindu culture to South Africa, Fiji, Mauritius and other countries in and around the Indian Ocean, and to the nations of the West Indies and the Caribbean.
See also
Notes
- The word Sindhu is first mentioned in the Rigveda.
- Gavin Flood adds: "In Arabic texts, Al-Hind is a term used for the people of modern-day India and 'Hindu', or 'Hindoo', was used towards the end of the eighteenth century by the British to refer to the people of 'Hindustan', the people of northwest India. Eventually 'Hindu' became virtually equivalent to an 'Indian' who was not a Muslim, Sikh, Jain or Christian, thereby encompassing a range of religious beliefs and practices. The '-ism' was added to Hindu in around 1830 to denote the culture and religion of the high-caste Brahmans in contrast to other religions, and the term was soon appropriated by Indians themselves in the context of building a national identity opposed to colonialism, though the term 'Hindu' was used in Sanskrit and Bengali hagiographic texts in contrast to 'Yavana' or Muslim as early as the sixteenth century".
- The Indo-Aryan word Sindhu means "river", "ocean". It is frequently being used in the Rigveda. The Sindhu-area is part of Āryāvarta, "the land of the Aryans".
References
- "Answer by Ram Madhav to Sr. Owaisi". www.youtube.com. You Tube. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
- http://www.freedictionary.com/Hinduism
- ^ John Stratton Hawley and Vasudha Narayanan (2006), The Life of Hinduism, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520249141, pages 10-11
- ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 6. ISBN 0521438780.
- "India", Oxford English Dictionary, second edition, 2100a.d. Oxford University Press.
- Rig Veda
- Subramuniyaswami, Satguru Sivaya (2003). Dancing With Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism. Himalayan Academy Publications. p. 1008. ISBN 9780945497967.
- Lorenzen, David N. (October 1999). "Who Invented Hinduism?". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 41 (4): 630–659. JSTOR 179424.
- O'Conell, Joseph T. (1973). "The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts". Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 93, no. 3. pp. 340–344.
- CIA World Factbook - India Demographics 79.8% of more than 121 crore Indians (as per 2011 census) are Hindus
- ^ Flood 2008, p. 3.
- ^ Flood 1996, p. 6. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFFlood1996 (help)
- ^ Arvind Sharma (2002), On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 2-3
- Stephen Gosch and Peter Stearns (2007), Premodern Travel in World History, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415229418, pages 88-99
- Arvind Sharma (2011), Hinduism as a Missionary Religion, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438432113, pages 5-12
- Bonnie Smith et al (2012), Crossroads and Cultures, Combined Volume: A History of the World's Peoples, Macmillan, ISBN 978-0312410179, pages 321-324
- Arvind Sharma (2002), On Hindu, Hindustān, Hinduism and Hindutva Numen, Vol. 49, Fasc. 1, pages 5-9
- Romila Thapar (2004), Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520242258, page 38
- Thapar 1993, p. 77.
- David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, page 33
- David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, page 15
- David Lorenzen (2006), Who Invented Hinduism: Essays on Religion in History, Yoda Press, ISBN 978-8190227261, pages 32-33
- O'Conell, Joseph T. (1973). "The Word 'Hindu' in Gauḍīya Vaiṣṇava Texts". Journal of the American Oriental Society. Vol. 93, no. 3. pp. 340–344. doi:10.2307/599467.
- ^ Basham 1999 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBasham1999 (help)
- J.T.F. Jordens, "Medieval Hindu Devotionalism" in & Basham 1999 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBasham1999 (help)
- Raymond Brady Williams (2004). Williams on South Asian Religions and Immigration: Collected Works. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. ISBN 0-7546-3856-1Template:Inconsistent citations
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: postscript (link)p.217 - Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-45677-7, page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."
- Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, ISBN 978-0123695031, Academic Press, 2008
- MK Gandhi, The Essence of Hinduism, Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."
- Knott, Kim (1998). Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University press. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-19-285387-5.
- ^ Supreme Court of India, "Bramchari Sidheswar Shai and others Versus State of West Bengal", 1995.
- Supreme Court of India 1966 AIR 1119, Sastri Yagnapurushadji vs Muldas Brudardas Vaishya (pdf), page 15, 14 January 1966
- Supreme Court of India 1995 AIR 2089, BRAMCHARI SIDHESWAR BHAI vs STATE OF WEST BENGAL (pdf), page 17, 2 July 1995
- Flood, Gavin, "Establishing the boundaries" in Flood (2003), pp. 1-17.
- Muller, F. Max. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga; Naya and Vaiseshika. 1899. This classic work helped to establish the major classification systems as we know them today. Reprint edition: (Kessinger Publishing: February 2003) ISBN 978-0-7661-4296-1.
-
Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy. Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) -
Tattwananda, Swami (1984). Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship (First revised ed.). Calcutta: Firma KLM Private Ltd.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) This work gives an overview of many different subsets of the three main religious groups in India. - India-Constitution:Religious rights Article 25:"Explanation II: In sub-Clause (b) of clause (2), the reference to Hindus shall be construed as including a reference to persons professing the Sikh, Jaina or Buddhist religion"
- Martin E. Marty (1 July 1996). Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. University of Chicago Press. pp. 270–. ISBN 978-0-226-50884-9.
- Tanweer Fazal (1 August 2014). "Nation-state" and Minority Rights in India: Comparative Perspectives on Muslim and Sikh Identities. Routledge. pp. 136–. ISBN 978-1-317-75179-3.
- Kevin Boyle; Juliet Sheen (7 March 2013). Freedom of Religion and Belief: A World Report. Routledge. pp. 191–. ISBN 978-1-134-72229-7.
- Alvin William Wolfe; Honggang Yang (1996). Anthropological Contributions to Conflict Resolution. University of Georgia Press. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-0-8203-1765-6.
- ^ para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, Uttar Pradesh v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21 August 2006, Supreme Court of India
- Frykenberg, Robert. "The emergence of modern 'Hinduism' as a concept and as an Institution: A reappraisal with special reference to South India" in Hinduism reconsidered, Manohar, Delhi, 1989. ISBN 81-7304-385-X
- Hardy, F. "A radical assessment of the Vedic heritage" in Representing Hinduism: The Construction of Religious and National Identity, Sage Publ., Delhi, 1995.
- Ram-Prasad, C. "Contemporary political Hinduism" in Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing, 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- Penney, Sue (1999). Discovering Religions. p. 6. ISBN 0435304720.
Sources
- Flood, Gavin (Editor) (2003). The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN 1-4051-3251-5.
{{cite book}}:|first=has generic name (help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Flood, Gavin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press
{{citation}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Flood, Gavin (2006), The Tantric Body. The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion, I.B Taurus
{{citation}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Flood, Gavin (2008), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, John Wiley & Sons
{{citation}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Thapar, R. (1993), Interpreting Early India, Delhi: Oxford University Press
{{citation}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Thapar, Romula (2003), The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300, Penguin Books India
{{citation}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
Further reading
- Esther Block; Marianne Keppens; Rajaram Hegde, eds. (2009). Rethinking Religion in India: The Colonial Construction of Hinduism. Routledge. ISBN 1135182795.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Dass, Baboo Ishuree (1860). Domestic manners and customs of the Hindoos of northern India, or, more strictly speaking, of the north west provinces of India. Medical Hall Press, Benares.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Lorenzen, David N. (2006). Who Invented Hinduism? Essays on Religion in History. Yoda Press. ISBN 8190227262.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
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