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Template:Globalize/US Political correctness (adjectivally, politically correct, commonly abbreviated to PC) is a term primarily used as a pejorative to object to language, actions, or policies intended not to offend or disadvantage any particular group of people in society; in such usage, the people using generally imply that they see these policies as excessive. The term had only scattered usage prior to the 1990s, usually as an ironic self-description, but entered more mainstream usage in the United States when it was the subject of a series of articles in The New York Times. The phrase was widely used in the debate about the 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind by Allan Bloom, and gained further currency in response to Roger Kimball's Tenured Radicals (1990), and conservative author Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education duology of books (1991, 1992) in which he condemned what he saw as liberal efforts to advance victimization, multiculturalism through language, affirmative action and changes to the content of school and university curriculums.

Scholars on the political left have said that conservatives and right-wing libertarians pushed the term in order to divert attention from more substantive matters of discrimination and as part of a broader culture war against liberalism. They have also said that conservatives have their own forms of political correctness, which are generally ignored.

History

The term "politically correct" was used infrequently in the U.S. until the latter part of the 20th century, and its earlier use did not communicate the social disapproval inherent in more recent usage. In 1793, the term "politically correct" appeared in a U.S. Supreme Court judgment of a political-lawsuit. William Safire states that the first recorded use of the term in the modern sense is by Toni Cade in the 1970 anthology The Black Woman. The term probably entered use in the United Kingdom around 1975.

Early-to-mid 20th century

In the early-to-mid 20th century, the phrase "politically correct" was associated with the dogmatic application of Stalinist doctrine, debated between Communist Party members and Socialists. This usage referred to the Communist party line, which provided for "correct" positions on many matters of politics. According to American educator Herbert Kohl, writing about debates in New York in the late 1940s and early 1950s,

The term "politically correct" was used disparagingly, to refer to someone whose loyalty to the CP line overrode compassion, and led to bad politics. It was used by Socialists against Communists, and was meant to separate out Socialists who believed in egalitarian moral ideas from dogmatic Communists who would advocate and defend party positions regardless of their moral substance.

— "Uncommon Differences", The Lion and the Unicorn Journal

In March 1968, the French philosopher Michel Foucault is quoted as saying: "a political thought can be politically correct ('politiquement correcte') only if it is scientifically painstaking", referring to leftist intellectuals attempting to make Marxism scientifically rigorous rather than relying on orthodoxy.

1970s

In the 1970s, the term became popular with the New Left as a form of self-critical satire. Debra L. Shultz said that "throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the New Left, feminists, and progressives... used their term 'politically correct' ironically, as a guard against their own orthodoxy in social change efforts." As such, PC is a popular usage in the comic book Merton of the Movement, by Bobby London, which then was followed by the term ideologically sound, in the comic strips of Bart Dickon. In her essay "Toward a feminist Revolution" (1992) Ellen Willis said: "In the early eighties, when feminists used the term 'political correctness', it was used to refer sarcastically to the anti-pornography movement's efforts to define a 'feminist sexuality.' "

Stuart Hall suggests one way in which the original use of the term may have developed into the modern one:

According to one version, political correctness actually began as an in-joke on the left: radical students on American campuses acting out an ironic replay of the Bad Old Days BS (Before the Sixties) when every revolutionary groupuscule had a party line about everything. They would address some glaring examples of sexist or racist behaviour by their fellow students in imitation of the tone of voice of the Red Guards or Cultural Revolution Commissar: "Not very 'politically correct', Comrade!"

1980s

Critics, including Camille Paglia and James Atlas, have pointed to Allan Bloom's 1987 book The Closing of the American Mind as the likely beginning of the modern debate about political correctness in higher education. Jeffrey Williams writes that the "assault on...political correctness that simmered through the Reagan years, gained bestsellerdom with Bloom's Closing of the American Mind." According to Z.F. Gamson, "Bloom's Closing of the American Mind...attacked the faculty for 'political correctness'." Professor of Social Work at CSU Tony Platt goes further and says the "campaign against 'political correctness'" was launched by the book in 1987.

Mass media use of the term is generally attributed to journalist Richard Bernstein's series of articles for The New York Times between 1988 and 1990. Lorna Weir, in a word search on the database Infomart of six "regionally representative Canadian metropolitan newspapers," found 153 articles in which the terms "politically correct" or "political correctness" appeared between January 1, 1987 and October 27, 1990.

1990s

In the 1990's, the term's use as a pejorative phrase became widespread amongst conservatives in the US. It became a key term encapsulating conservative concerns about the left in academia, culture and political debate. Two articles on the topic in late 1990 in Forbes and Newsweek both used the term "thought police" in their headlines, exemplifying the tone of the new usage, but it was Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education: The Politics of Race and Sex on Campus (1991) which "captured the press's imagination." Similar critical terminology was used by D'Souza for a range of policies in academia around victimization, supporting multiculturalism through affirmative action, sanctions against anti-minority hate speech, and revising curricula (sometimes referred to as "canon busting"). These trends were at least in part a response to multiculturalism and the rise of identity politics, with movements such as feminism, gay rights movements and ethnic minority movements. That response received funding from conservative foundations and think tanks such as the John M. Olin Foundation, which funded several books such as D'Souza's.

A 1991 New York Times article by Richard Bernstein was key in attracting attention to the term. At this time it was mainly used in relation to higher education: "Across the country the term p.c., as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities." Nexis citations in "arcnews/curnews" reveal only seventy total citations in articles to "political correctness" for 1990; but one year later, after the Bernstein article, Nexis records 1532 citations, with a steady increase to more than 7000 citations by 1994. The New York Times had a follow-up on the topic in May 1991, according to which the term was increasingly being used in a wider public arena only 7 months after the previous article:

What has come to be called "political correctness," a term that began to gain currency at the start of the academic year last fall, has spread in recent months and has become the focus of an angry national debate, mainly on campuses, but also in the larger arenas of American life.

— "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?" - Robert D. McFadden

The previously obscure term became common currency in the lexicon of the conservative social and political challenges against progressive teaching methods and curriculum changes in the secondary schools and universities of the U.S. Policies, behavior, and speech codes that the speaker or the writer regarded as being the imposition of a liberal orthodoxy, were described and criticized as "politically correct". In May 1991, at a commencement ceremony for a graduating class of the University of Michigan, then U.S. President George H.W. Bush used the term in his speech: "The notion of political correctness has ignited controversy across the land. And although the movement arises from the laudable desire to sweep away the debris of racism and sexism and hatred, it replaces old prejudice with new ones. It declares certain topics off-limits, certain expression off-limits, even certain gestures off-limits."

Herbert Kohl, in 1992, commented that a number of neoconservatives who promoted the use of the term "politically correct" in the early 1990s were former Communist Party members, and, as a result, familiar with the Marxist use of the phrase. He argued that in doing so, they intended "to insinuate that egalitarian democratic ideas are actually authoritarian, orthodox and Communist-influenced, when they oppose the right of people to be racist, sexist, and homophobic."

During the 1990s, conservative and right-wing politicians, think-tanks, and speakers adopted the phrase as a pejorative descriptor of their ideological enemies – especially in the context of the Culture Wars about language and the content of public-school curricula. Roger Kimball, for instance, in Tenured Radicals, described PC as "Left Eclecticism," a term defined by Kimball as "any of a wide variety of anti-establishment modes of thought from structuralism and poststructuralism, deconstruction, and Lacanian analyst to feminist, homosexual, black, and other patently political forms of criticism." Jan Narveson wrote that "that phrase was born to live between scare-quotes: it suggests that the operative considerations in the area so called are merely political, steamrolling the genuine reasons of principle for which we ought to be acting..."

Liberal commentators have argued that the conservatives and reactionaries who used the term did so in effort to divert political discussion away from the substantive matters of resolving societal discrimination – such as racial, social class, gender, and legal inequality – against people whom the right-wing do not consider part of the social mainstream. Commenting in 2001, one such British journalist, Polly Toynbee, said "the phrase is an empty, right-wing smear, designed only to elevate its user", and, in 2010 "...the phrase "political correctness" was born as a coded cover for all who still want to say Paki, spastic, or queer..." Another British journalist, Will Hutton, wrote in 2001:

Political correctness is one of the brilliant tools that the American Right developed in the mid–1980s, as part of its demolition of American liberalism.... What the sharpest thinkers on the American Right saw quickly was that by declaring war on the cultural manifestations of liberalism – by levelling the charge of "political correctness" against its exponents – they could discredit the whole political project.

— "Words Really are Important, Mr Blunkett"

Hong Kong

In Hong Kong, as the 1997 handover drew nearer, greater control over news coverage was exercised over the press by both owners and the state. This had a direct impact on news coverage of relatively sensitive political issues. The Chinese authorities exerted pressure on individual newspapers to make them clean up their act. Tung Chee-hwa's policy advisers and senior bureucrats increasingly linked their actions and remarks to "political correctness." Zhaojia Liu and Siu-kai Lau, writing in The first Tung Chee-hwa administration : the first five years of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, said that Hong Kong has traditionally been characterized as having freedom of speech and freedom of press, but that an unintended consequence of this shift in focus was to limit the space for such freedom of expression.

Modern usage

Media

In the US, the term has been widely discussed in the intellectual media, but in Britain, the term has been mostly used in the popular media. Many such authors and popular-media figures, particularly on the right, have used the term to critique what they see as bias in the media. William McGowan says that he feels liberalism and fear of offending minorities journalists to report things inaccurately or to ignore things he feels should be covered. Robert Novak, in his essay "Political Correctness Has No Place in the Newsroom", used the term to blame newspapers for adopting policies regarding language that he felt went overboard to avoid the appearance of bias. He argued that political correctness in language not only destroys meaning but also demeans the people who are meant to be protected. Authors David Sloan and Emily Hoff say that in the US, journalists generally reject concerns over political correctness, seeing it as another manifestation of older accusations of liberal media bias.

Education

Much of the modern debate on the term was sparked by on conservative critiques of liberalism in academia, such as Allan Bloom's The Closing of the American Mind and Dinesh D'Souza's Illiberal Education; conservatives have used it as a major line of attack since. University of Pennsylvania professor Alan Charles Kors and lawyer Harvey A. Silverglate connect political correctness to philosopher Herbert Marcuse. They claim that speech codes in US universities create a "climate of repression", arguing that they are based on "Marcusean logic". The speech codes, "mandate a redefined notion of "freedom," based on the belief that the imposition of a moral agenda on a community is justified", a view which, "requires less emphasis on individual rights and more on assuring "historically oppressed" persons the means of achieving equal rights." They claim:

Our colleges and universities do not offer the protection of fair rules, equal justice, and consistent standards to the generation that finds itself on our campuses. They encourage students to bring charges of harassment against those whose opinions or expressions "offend" them. At almost every college and university, students deemed members of "historically oppressed groups"--above all, women, blacks, gays, and Hispanics--are informed during orientation that their campuses are teeming with illegal or intolerable violations of their "right" not to be offended. Judging from these warnings, there is a racial or sexual bigot, to borrow the mocking phrase of McCarthy's critics, "under every bed."

Kors and Silverglate later established the Foundation for Individual Rights in Education (FIRE), which campaigns against infringement of rights of due process, rights of religion and speech, in particular "speech codes". Similarly, a common conservative criticism of higher education in the United States is that the political views of the faculty are much more liberal than the general population, and that this situation contributes to an atmosphere of political correctness.

Science

Groups who oppose certain generally accepted scientific views about evolution, second-hand tobacco smoke, AIDS, global warming, race, and other politically contentious scientific matters have said that PC liberal orthodoxy of academia is the reason why their perspectives of those matters have been rejected by the scientific community. For example, in Lamarck's Signature: How Retrogenes are Changing Darwin's Natural Selection Paradigm (1999), Prof. Edward J. Steele said:

We now stand on the threshold of what could be an exciting new era of genetic research.... However, the 'politically correct' thought agendas of the neo–Darwinists of the 1990s are ideologically opposed to the idea of 'Lamarckian Feedback', just as the Church was opposed to the idea of evolution based on natural selection in the 1850s!

Zoologists Robert Pitman and Susan Chivers complained about popular and media negativity towares their discovery of two different types of killer whales, a "docile" type and a "wilder" type that ravages sperm whales by hunting in packs: "The forces of political correctness and media marketing seem bent on projecting an image of a more benign form (the Free Willy or Shamu model), and some people urge exclusive use of the name 'orca' for the species, instead of what is perceived as the more sinister label of "killer whale."

Right-wing political correctness

"Political correctness" is a label normally used for left-wing terms and actions, but not for equivalent attempts to mold language and behavior on the right. However the term "right-wing political correctness" is sometimes applied by commentators drawing parallels; one author used the term "conservative correctness", arguing in 1995 (in relation to higher education) that "critics of political correctness show a curious blindness when it comes to examples of conservative correctness. Most often, the case is entirely ignored or censorship of the Left is justified as a positive virtue. ... A balanced perspective was lost, and everyone missed the fact that people on all sides were sometimes censored."

In 2003, Dixie Chicks, a U.S. country music group, criticized the then U.S. President, George W. Bush, for launching the war against Iraq. Subsequently, they were criticized and labelled "treasonous" by some US rightwing commentators (including Ann Coulter and Bill O'Reilly). The newspaper columnist Don Williams said that "The campaign against the Chicks represents political correctness run amok" continuing "the ugliest form of political correctness occurs whenever there's a war on" claiming that three years before, "a virulent strain of right wing political correctness had all but shut down debate about the war in Iraq."

Paul Krugman in 2012 wrote that “the big threat to our discourse is right-wing political correctness, which – unlike the liberal version – has lots of power and money behind it. And the goal is very much the kind of thing Orwell tried to convey with his notion of Newspeak: to make it impossible to talk, and possibly even think, about ideas that challenge the established order”.

In 2003, French fries were renamed “Freedom fries” in the U.S. Congress cafeterias in response to France's opposition to the proposed invasion of Iraq, this was described as "polluting the already confused concept of political correctness". In 2004, then Australian Labor leader Mark Latham described conservative calls for “civility” in politics as “The New Political Correctness”.

As a conspiracy theory

Some radical right-wing groups argue that "political correctness" and multiculturalism are part of a conspiracy with the ultimate goal of undermining Judeo-Christian western values. This theory, which holds that political correctness originates from the critical theory of the Frankfurt School as part of a conspiracy that its proponents call "Cultural Marxism", is generally known as the Frankfurt School conspiracy theory by academics. The theory originated with Michael Minnicino's 1992 essay "New Dark Age: Frankfurt School and 'Political Correctness'", published in a Lyndon LaRouche movement journal. It is popular with many conservative commentators; for instance, in 2001, Patrick Buchanan, in The Death of the West, wrote that "Political Correctness is Cultural Marxism, a régime to punish dissent, and to stigmatize social heresy, as the Inquisition punished religious heresy. Its trademark is intolerance."

False accusations

In the United States, left forces of "political correctness" have been blamed for actions largely carried out by right-wing groups, with Time citing campaigns against violence on network television as contributing to a "mainstream culture has become cautious, sanitized, scared of its own shadow" because of "the watchful eye of the p.c. police", even though protests and advertiser boycotts targeting TV shows are generally organized by right-wing religious groups campaigning against violence, sex, and depictions of homosexuality on television.

In the United Kingdom, some newspapers reported that a school had altered the nursery rhyme "Baa Baa Black Sheep" to read "Baa Baa Rainbow Sheep". But it was later reported that in fact the Parents and Children Together (PACT) nursery had the children "turn the song into an action rhyme.... They sing happy, sad, bouncing, hopping, pink, blue, black and white sheep etc." This nursery rhyme story was widely circulated and later extended to suggest that other language bans applied to the terms "black coffee" and "blackboard". The Private Eye magazine reported that similar stories, had been published in the British press since The Sun first ran them in 1986. See also Baa Baa White Sheep.

Satirical use

Political correctness is often satirized, for example in the Politically Correct Manifesto (1992), by Saul Jerushalmy and Rens Zbignieuw X, and Politically Correct Bedtime Stories (1994), by James Finn Garner, presenting fairy tales re-written from an exaggerated politically correct perspective. In 1994, the comedy film PCU took a look at political correctness on a college campus.

Other examples include the television program Politically Incorrect, George Carlin’s "Euphemisms" routine, and The Politically Correct Scrapbook. The popularity of the South Park cartoon program led to the creation of the term South Park Republican by Andrew Sullivan, and later the book South Park Conservatives by Brian C. Anderson.

British comedian Stewart Lee satirized the phrase "it's political correctness gone mad", in particular, criticizing Daily Mail columnist Richard Littlejohn for his overzealous use of it.

See also

• Anti-racism in mathematics teaching
• Christmas controversy
• Gutmensch (German expression for "do-gooder")
• Kotobagari (Japanese political correctness)
• Logocracy
• Newspeak
• Pensée unique
• People-first language
• Politics and the English Language (1946 essay by George Orwell)
• Red-baiting
• Reverse discrimination
• Sprachregelung
• Wedge issue
• Xenocentrism
• Trigger warnings

References

1. ^ "Project MUSE - Uncommon Differences: On Political Correctness, Core Curriculum and Democracy in Education". jhu.edu.
2. ^ Ruth Perry, (1992), "A Short History of the Term 'Politically Correct'", in Beyond PC: Toward a Politics of Understanding, by Patricia Aufderheide, 1992
3. ^ Schultz, Debra L. (1993). "To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the 'Political Correctness' Debates in Higher Education" (PDF). New York: National Council for Research on Women.
4. ^ Ellen Willis, "Toward a Feminist Revolution", in No More Nice Girls: Countercultural Essays (1992) Wesleyan University Press, ISBN 0-8195-5250-X, p. 19.
5. ^ Whitney, D. Charles and Wartella, Ellen (1992). "Media Coverage of the "Political Correctness" Debate". Journal of Communication. 42 (2). doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.1992.tb00780.x.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ^ Roberts, Peter (1997). "Paulo Freire and political correctness". Educational Philosophy and Theory: Incorporating ACCESS. 29 (2). doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.1997.tb00022.x.
7. Stark, Cannie (November 1997). "Academic freedom, "political correctness", and ethics". Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne. 38 (4). Canadian Psychological Association: 232–237. doi:10.1037/0708-5591.38.4.232.
8. Vincent, John (2000). "Political correctness". Open to All?: the Public Library and Social Exclusion: 94–105.
9. Duignan, Peter; Gann, L.H. (1995). Political correctness. Stanford, : Hoover Institution - Stanford University. ISBN 0817937439. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
10. ^ Friedman, Marilyn; Narveson, Jan (1995), "Politics, Ethics, and Political Correctness", in Friedman, Marilyn and Narveson, Jan (1995), Political correctness: for and against, Rowman & Littlefield. p47
11. ^ Hughes, Geoffrey (2011). "Origins of the Phrase". Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture. John Wiley & Sons. "1975 - Peter Fuller". ISBN 978-1-4443-6029-5. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help)
12. Nguyen, Thuy (2008). Political correctness in the English language. München: GRIN Verlag GmbH - University of Duisburg-Essen. ISBN 3640181573. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
13. ^ Bernstein, Richard (28 October 1990). "IDEAS & TRENDS; The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct". The New York Times.
14. ^ McFadden, Robert D. (5 May 1991). "Political Correctness: New Bias Test?". The New York Times.
15. ^ Berman, edited by Paul (1992). Debating P.C. : the controversy over political correctness on college campuses. p. Introduction. ISBN 0307801780. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)
16. ^ Heteren, Annette Gomis van (1997). Political correctness in context : the PC controversy in America. Almeria: Universidad de Almería, Servicio de Publicaciones. p. 148. ISBN 8482400835.
17. ^ Smith, Dorothy E. (1999). Writing the social : critique, theory, and investigations (Repr. ed.). Toronto (Ont.): University of Toronto press. p. 175. ISBN 0802081355. Retrieved 22 October 2015.
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19. ^ Bellow, Allan Bloom ; foreword by Saul (1988). The closing of the American mind (1st Touchstone ed. ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0671657151. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
20. ^ Robinson, Sally (2000). Marked men white masculinity in crisis. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 17, 55–86. ISBN 023150036X.
21. ^ Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p26
22. ^ Kimball, Roger (1990). Tenured radicals : how politics has corrupted our higher education (1st ed. ed.). New York: Harper & Row - Originally from The University of Michigan. ISBN 0060161906. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |edition= has extra text (help)
23. D'Souza, Dinesh (1992). Illiberal Education: Political Correctness and the College Experience. John m Ashbrook Center for Public. ISBN 978-1-878802-08-8.
24. ^ Messer-Davidow, Ellen (1995). "Manufacturing the Attack on Liberalized Higher Education: The Humanities and Society in the 1990s". {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
25. ^ Will Hutton, “Words really are important, Mr Blunkett” The Observer, Sunday 16 December 2001 – Accessed February 6, 2007.
26. ^ "Conservative Correctness" chapter, in Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. p. 57
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29. In the 18th century, the term "politically correct" occurs in the case of Chisholm v. Georgia, 2 U.S. (2 Dall.) 419 (1793), wherein the term meant "in line with prevailing political thought or policy". In that legal case, the term correct was applied literally, with no reference to socially offensive language; thus the comments of Associate Justice James Wilson, of the U.S. Supreme Court: "The states, rather than the People, for whose sakes the States exist, are frequently the objects which attract and arrest our principal attention... Sentiments and expressions of this inaccurate kind prevail in our common, even in our convivial, language. Is a toast asked? 'The United States', instead of the 'People of the United States', is the toast given. This is not politically correct." Chisholm v State of GA, 2 US 419 (1793) Findlaw.com – Accessed 6 February 2007.
30. Flower, Newmas (2006). The Journals of Arnold Bennett. READ BOOKS,. ISBN 978-1-4067-1047-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
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33. Schultz citing Perry (1992) p.16
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42. ^ Valdes, edited by Francisco; Culp,, Jerome McCristal; Harris, Angela P. (2002). Crossroads, directions, and a new critical race theory. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 59, 65. ISBN 1566399300. {{cite book}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
43. In The New York Times newspaper article "The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct", the reporter Richard Bernstein said that:

    The term "politically correct", with its suggestion of Stalinist orthodoxy, is spoken more with irony and disapproval than with reverence. But, across the country the term "P.C.", as it is commonly abbreviated, is being heard more and more in debates over what should be taught at the universities.

    — The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct, NYT (28 October 1990) Bernstein, Richard (28 October 1990). "IDEAS & TRENDS; The Rising Hegemony of the Politically Correct – The New York Times". Retrieved 22 May 2010.

    Bernstein also reported about a meeting of the Western Humanities Conference in Berkeley, California, on the subject of "Political Correctness" and Cultural Studies that examined "what effect the pressure to conform to currently fashionable ideas is having on scholarship". Western Humanities Conference
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45. D'Souza 1991; Berman 1992; Schultz 1993; Messer Davidow 1993, 1994; Scatamburlo 1998
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50. Stimpson, Catharine R. (29 May 1991). "New 'Politically Correct' Metaphors Insult History and Our Campuses". {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
51. James, Axtell (1998). The Pleasures of Academe: A Celebration & Defense of Higher Education. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
52. Scatamburlo, Valerie L. (1998). Soldiers of Misfortune: The New Right's Culture War and the Politics of Political Correctness. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
53. Glassner, Barry (5 January 2010). The Culture of Fear: Why Americans Are Afraid of the Wrong Things: Crime, Drugs, Minorities, Teen Moms, Killer Kids, Mutant Microbes, Plane Crashes, Road Rage, & So Much More. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
54. ^ Tomlinson, Sally (2008). Race and education : policy and politics in Britain (. ed.). Maidenhead : Open Univ. Press. p. 161. ISBN 0335223079.
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56. Polly Toynbee, "Religion Must be Removed from all Functions of State", The Guardian, Sunday 12 December 2001 – Accessed 6 February 2007.
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Further reading

• Aufderheide, Patricia. (ed.). 1992. Beyond P.C.: Toward a Politics of Understanding. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Graywolf Press.
• Berman, Paul. (ed.). 1992. Debating P.C.: The Controversy Over Political Correctness on College Campuses. New York, New York: Dell Publishing.
• David E. Bernstein, "You Can't Say That! The Growing Threat to Civil Liberties from Antidiscrimination Laws", Cato Institute 2003, 180 pages ISBN 1-930865-53-8
• William S. Lind, "The Origins of Political Correctness", Accuracy in Academia, 2000.
• Nat Hentoff, Free Speech for Me – But Not for Thee, HarperCollins, 1992, ISBN 0-06-019006-X
• Geoffrey Hughes (2009), Political Correctness: A History of Semantics and Culture, John Wiley, ISBN 978-1-4051-5279-2
• Diane Ravitch, The Language Police: How Pressure Groups Restrict What Students Learn, Knopf, 2003, hardcover, 255 page.
• Nigel Rees, The Politically Correct Phrasebook: what they say you can and cannot say in the 1990s, Bloomsbury, 1993, 192 pages, ISBN 0-7475-1426-7
• Arthur Schlesinger Jr., The Disuniting of America: Reflections on a Multicultural Society, W.W. Norton, 1998 revised edition, ISBN 0-393-31854-0
• Debra L. Schultz. 1993. To Reclaim a Legacy of Diversity: Analyzing the "Political Correctness" Debates in Higher Education. New York: National Council for Research on Women.
• Wilson, John. 1995. The Myth of Political Correctness: The Conservative Attack on High Education. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.

External links

• A list of examples of political correctness in the UK, cited by the Daily Mail
• The Truman Faux on Political Correctness

• Political correctness
• Etiquette
• Satire
• Sociolinguistics
• Pejoratives