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{{Short description|Beliefs of Proto-Germanic speakers}}
'''Proto-Germanic folklore''' is the ] of the speakers of ] and includes topics such as the ], ]ry, ]s, and ]s of ]. By way of the ], ], a variety of ], have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore (reconstructions are ]). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed ]s from the early Germanic period.
'''Proto-Germanic paganism''' was the beliefs of the speakers of ] and includes topics such as the ], ]ry, and ]s of ]. By way of the ], ], a variety of ], have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore (reconstructions are ]). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed ]s from the early Germanic period.

Linguistic reconstructions can be obtained via comparison between the various Germanic languages, comparison with related words in other ], especially ] and ], comparison with borrowings into neighbouring language families such as ], or via a combination of those methods. This allows linguists to project some terms back to the Proto-Germanic period despite their attestation in only one Germanic language; for instance, '''''*'''saidaz'' ('magic') is only attested in Old Norse ''seiðr'', but has parallels in Proto-Celtic ''*soytos'' and Lithuanian ''saitas''.


==Deities== ==Deities==
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!Etymology !Etymology
!Notes !Notes
|-
|'''? *''Agjō-þe(g)waz{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=|pp=94–95, 609}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ], <small>OHG</small> ''Eggideo{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=|pp=94–95, 609}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''Eggþér{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=|pp=94–95, 609}}''
|{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'edge-servant'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=|pp=94–95, 609}}{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p=35}}
|] and Paul B. Taylor suggest that the name may have referred to an arouser of great battles and feuds,{{Sfn|Salus|Taylor|1969|p=80}} although other scholars remain skeptical about drawing a mythological parallel between Old English and Old Norsel.{{Sfn|Orchard|1997|p=35}}{{Sfn|Lindow|2002|p=102}} See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''? Ala-fader'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=139}}
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Alfǫðr{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=139}}''
|{{center|–}}
|From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> *''Ala-faþēr.'' Identical to <small>PCelt.</small> *''Olo-(p)atīr'' (cf. Middle Irish ''Ollathair'').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of Óðinn in Old Norse. It can be compared with the Middle Irish ''Eochu Ollathair'', commonly used for the ].{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=139}}
|- |-
|'''*''Austrōn'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}} |'''*''Austrōn'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}}
|(See entry notes)
|''matronae Austriahenae''
|<small>OE</small> '']'', <small>OHG</small> *''Ôstara'', <small>OS</small> *''Āsteron'' |<small>OE</small> '']'', <small>OHG</small> *''Ôstara'', <small>OS</small> *''Āsteron{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}}{{sfn|Sermon|2008|p=338-339}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From the <small>PIE</small> root ''*h<sub>2</sub>(e)wes-'' ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity ], and further related to the <small>PIE</small> dawn-goddess *'']''.{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}} |From the <small>PIE</small> stem ''*h<sub>2</sub>(e)wes-'' ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity ], and further related to the <small>PIE</small> dawn-goddess *'']''.{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}}
|A West Germanic goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *''Austro-mēnōþ'', equivalent to modern 'April' (cf. <small>OE</small> ], <small>ODu.</small> ''Ōstermānōth'', <small>OHG</small> ''Ōstarmānōd'').{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}} The origin of the modern English holiday name '']''. See ] for further discussion. |A West Germanic spring goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *''Austro-mēnōþ'', equivalent to modern 'April'.{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}} The ], if Germanic, derive from the same stem.{{sfn|Sermon|2008|p=338-339}} The Old English and Old High German forms are the origin of the modern holiday names '']'' and ''Ostern'', respectively.{{Sfn|West|2007|pp=217–218}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Auza-wanđilaz'''''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=20}} |'''*''Auza-wanđilaz'''''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=20}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Ēarendel'', <small>OHG</small> ''Aurendil'', <small>Lomb.</small> ''Auriwandalo''{{Sfn|Falluomini|2017}} |<small>OE</small> ''Ēarendel'', <small>OHG</small> ''Aurendil'', <small>Lomb.</small> ''Auriwandalo''{{Sfn|Falluomini|2017}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|Falluomini|2017}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|Falluomini|2017}}
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|- |-
|'''*''Balđraz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}} |'''*''Balđraz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Bældæg'', <small>OHG</small> ''Balder{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''Bældæg'', <small>OHG</small> ''Balder{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}}''
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=33}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> ''*balþaz'' ('brave'), which is identical to <small>Lith.</small> ''báltas'' ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=24}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=|pp=33–34}} |From <small>PGmc</small> ''*balþaz'' ('brave'), which is identical to <small>Lith.</small> ''báltas'' ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=24}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=|pp=33–34}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Baldr'' ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') and <small>OHG</small> ''Balder'' are close to <small>OE</small> ''bealdor'' ('prince, hero').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=24}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=|pp=33–34}} The <small>OE</small> theonym ''Bældæg'' likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of the <small>Lith.</small> light-god ''Báltas''.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p=26}} See ] for further discussion. |<small>ON</small> ''Baldr'' ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') and <small>OHG</small> ''Balder'' are close to <small>OE</small> ''bealdor'' ('prince, hero').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=24}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=|pp=33–34}} The <small>OE</small> theonym ''Bældæg'' likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of the <small>Lith.</small> light-god ''Báltas''.{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p=26}} See ] for further discussion.
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|''Alcis''{{sfn|Simek|1993|p=7}} |''Alcis''{{sfn|Simek|1993|p=7}}
|<small>OE</small> ], <small>Low German</small> ''Hengist'' and ''Hors'' (Holstein, 1875){{sfn|Simek|1993|p=139}} |<small>OE</small> ], <small>Low German</small> ''Hengist'' and ''Hors'' (Holstein, 1875){{sfn|Simek|1993|p=139}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (''Germania''), mentions twin deities, the ] (<small>PGmc</small> *''alhiz'' ~ *''algiz''), who he compares to the Greek ]. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European ]. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=11}}{{Sfn|Rosenfeld|Hauck|1984}} Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to the ] ᛉ (''algiz''), although evidence is lacking.{{Sfn|Rosenfeld|Hauck|1984}} |Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (''Germania''), mentions twin deities, the ] (<small>PGmc</small> *''alhiz'' ~ *''algiz''), who he compares to the Greek ]. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European ]. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=11}}{{Sfn|Rosenfeld|Hauck|1984}} Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to the ] ᛉ (''algiz''), although evidence is scarse.{{Sfn|Rosenfeld|Hauck|1984}}
|- |-
|'''*''Frawja-''''' ~ '''*''Fraw(j)ōn{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=142}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}} |'''*''Frawja-''''' ~ '''*''Fraw(j)ōn{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=142}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''frēa''; <small>OFris.</small> ''frā''; <small>OS</small> ''frōho'', ''frāho''; <small>MDu.</small> ''vroon''; <small>OHG</small> ''frō''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |<small>OE</small> ''frēa''; <small>OFris.</small> ''frā''; <small>OS</small> ''frōho'', ''frāho''; <small>MDu.</small> ''vroon''; <small>OHG</small> ''frō''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|<small>ON</small> '']'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |<small>ON</small> '']'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''frauja''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''frauja''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
| rowspan="2" |Unclear etymology.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}} | rowspan="2" |Unclear etymology.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}}
| rowspan="2" |An epithet meaning 'Lord'{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}} Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning, ''fraiwa''- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *''frauja''-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *''fraiwa''- was metathesized from *''frawja''-, a collective of some kind."{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=152–153}} See *] for further discussion. | rowspan="2" |An epithet meaning 'Lord'/'Lady'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=153}} Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning, ''fraiwa''- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *''frauja''-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *''fraiwa''- was metathesized from *''frawja''-, a collective of some kind."{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=152–153}} See *] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Frawjōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |'''*''Frawjōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OS</small> ''frūa'', <small>OHG</small> ''frouwa''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |<small>OS</small> ''frūa'', <small>OHG</small> ''frouwa''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|<small>ON</small> '']'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}} |<small>ON</small> '']'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|{{center|–}}
||An epithet meaning 'Lady'{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=112}}
|- |-
|'''*''Frijjō'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}} |'''*''Frijjō'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Frīg'', <small>OFris</small> ''Frīa'', <small>OS</small> ''Frī'', <small>OHG</small> ''Frīja''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}} |<small>OE</small> ''Frīg'', <small>OFris</small> ''Frīa'', <small>OS</small> ''Frī'', <small>OHG</small> ''Frīja''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> ]''frijaz'' ('free'), itself from <small>PIE</small> *''priH-o-'' ('one's own, beloved').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=155}} In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. <small>PGmc</small> ''*frijōnan'' 'to love', *''friþuz'' 'friendship, peace').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=155}} |From <small>PGmc</small> ]''frijaz'' ('free'), itself from <small>PIE</small> *''priH-o-'' ('one's own, beloved').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=114}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=155}} In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. <small>PGmc</small> ''*frijōnan'' 'to love', *''friþuz'' 'friendship, peace').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=155}}
|Goddess, in most sources partner of *''Wōđanaz''. Cf. <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Frijjadag'' ('Frijjō-day; Friday'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Veneris''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Friday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion. |Goddess, in most sources partner of *''Wōđanaz''. Source of *''Frijjadag'' ('Frijjō-day; Friday').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Friday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''*''Gautaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=129}}
|<center>-</center>
|<small>OE</small> ''Gēat''{{sfn|de Vries|2000|p=159}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Gautr, Gauti''{{sfn|de Vries|2000|p=159}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''Gaut'' (''Gapt''), <small>Lang.</small>
''Gausus''{{sfn|de Vries|2000|p=159}}
|Derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''geutanan'' ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *''gutaz'' ~ *''gutōn'' ('], ]'){{sfn|Orel|2003|pp=129, 147}}
|A name for Odin.{{sfn|de Vries|2000|p=159}} The early Germanic form may mean ']', i.e. 'man'.{{sfn|Rübekeil|2002|p=603}} ] writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic tribes' common homeland in Scandinavia.{{sfn|Simek|1993|pp=100-101}} Also the name of the '']''.{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=129}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Fullōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}} |'''*''Fullōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OHG</small> ''Volla''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}} |<small>OHG</small> ''Volla''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''fullaz'' ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plentitude'{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''fullaz'' ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plenitude'{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=118}}
|A goddess associated with *''Frijjō''. See ] for further discussion. |A goddess associated with *''Frijjō''. See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''*''Gautaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=129}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Gēat'', <small>Lang.</small>
''Gausus''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=159}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Gautr, Gauti''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=159}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''Gaut'' (''Gapt''){{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=159}}
|Derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''geutanan'' ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *''gutaz'' ~ *''gutōn'' ('], ]'){{sfn|Orel|2003|pp=129, 147}}
|A name for Odin.{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=159}} The early Germanic form may mean ']', i.e. 'man'.{{sfn|Rübekeil|2002|p=603}} ] writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic peoples' common homeland in Scandinavia.{{sfn|Simek|1993|pp=100-101}} Also the name of the '']''.{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=129}} See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''? *Haihaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Hárr{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''haihs{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}''
|Cognate with <small>PCelt.</small> *''kaiko''- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, with <small>PIt.</small> *''kaikos'' ('blind').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|Perhaps an epithet meaning 'One-Eyed', attested as a common noun in Gothic. <small>ON</small> ''Hárr'', a byname of Óðinn, has been derived from an earlier Proto-Norse ''*Haiha-hariz/ʀ'' ('the One-eyed Hero').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}} According to scholar Adam Hyllested, "the Celtic god Lug closes one eye in his magic ritual, while in Germanic mythology being one-eyed is a key attribute of Óðinn".{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}} See ] for further information.
|- |-
|'''''*Hludanaz''''' |'''''*Hludanaz'''''
|''Hludana''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}} |''Hludana''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|''Uncertain etymology''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}} |''Uncertain etymology''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=239}}
|According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=321–322}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}} The <small>ON</small> ''Hlóðyn'' was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonym ''Hludana'' around the 8th c. AD.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=321–322}} See ] for further discussion. |According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=321–322}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=185}} The <small>ON</small> ''Hlóðyn'' was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonym ''Hludana'' around the 8th c. AD.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=321–322}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''? *Huldō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=191}} |'''''? *Huldō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=191}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>Ger.</small> ]{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}} |<small>Ger.</small> ]{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}}
|<small>ON</small> '']'', '']''{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}} |<small>ON</small> '']'', '']''{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'the Hidden One'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}} |Meaning 'the Hidden One'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}}
|Although the relationship between the names is uncertain, all forms point to a common meaning of 'the hidden one'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}} |Although the relationship between the names is uncertain, all forms point to a common meaning of 'the hidden one'.{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=185, 198}}
|- |-
|'''''*Ingwaz'''''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}} |'''''*Ingwaz'''''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Ing'', <small>OS</small> ''Ing''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}} |<small>OE</small> ''Ing'', <small>OS</small> ''Ing''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}}
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|- |-
|'''? ''*Ingwina-frawjaz'''''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} |'''? ''*Ingwina-frawjaz'''''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''frēa Ingwina''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} |<small>OE</small> ''frēa Ingwina''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}}
|<small>ON</small> ''lngunarfreyr''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} |<small>ON</small> ''lngunarfreyr''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Possibly a compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''Ingwina-'' (Ing-friends') and *''frawja-'' ('Lord'). *''Ingwina-'' is derived from the name ''Ing''- (see *''Ingwaz'') attached to <small>PGmc</small> *''winiz'' ('friend').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} (See ]) |Possibly a compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''Ingwina-'' (Ing-friends') and *''frawja-'' ('Lord'). *''Ingwina-'' is derived from the name ''Ing''- (see *''Ingwaz'') attached to <small>PGmc</small> *''winiz'' ('friend').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} (See ])
|See also <small>ON</small> ''Ygvifreyr'' (< *''Ingwia-frawjaz'').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}} |See also <small>ON</small> ''Ygvifreyr'' (< *''Ingwia-frawjaz'').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=286, 679}}
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|- |-
|'''''*Mēnōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}} |'''''*Mēnōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''móna'', <small>OFris</small> ''mōna'', <small>OS</small> ''māno'', <small>ODu.</small> ''māne'', <small>OHG</small> ''māno{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}''<ref name=":3">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. moon, n.1</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''móna'', <small>OFris</small> ''mōna'', <small>OS</small> ''māno'', <small>ODu.</small> ''māne'', <small>OHG</small> ''māno{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}''<ref name="OED-moon">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. moon, n.1</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''máni{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}<ref name=":3" />'' |<small>ON</small> ''Máni{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}<ref name="OED-moon" />''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''mēna'', <small>Crim. Goth.</small> ''mine{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}<ref name=":3" />'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''mēna'', <small>Crim. Goth.</small> ''mine{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}<ref name="OED-moon" />''
|Meaning 'Moon'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=365}}. From <small>PIE</small> *''meh₁n-ōs'' ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the <small>nom.</small> *''mēnō'', which may regularly continue *''meh₁n-ōt'' (cf. <small>PGmc</small> *''mēnōþ-z'' 'month').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=365}} |Meaning 'Moon'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=365}} From <small>PIE</small> *''meh₁n-ōs'' ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the <small>nom.</small> *''mēnō'', which may regularly continue *''meh₁n-ōt'' (cf. <small>PGmc</small> *''mēnōþ-z'' 'month').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=270}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=365}}
|Cf. <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Mēnandag'' ('Moon-day; Monday'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Lunae''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Monday, n. and adv.</ref> Personfied as a deity, ] ('Moon'), in Old Norse. |Source of <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Mēnandag'' ('Moon-day; Monday').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Monday, n. and adv.</ref> Personified as a deity, ] ('Moon'), in Old Norse.
|- |-
|'''''*Nerþuz'''''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|2007 |p=230}} |'''''*Nerþuz'''''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|1993|p=230}}
|''Nerthus''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|2007 |p=230}} |''Nerthus''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|2007 |p=230}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Njǫrðr''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|2007 |p=230}} |<small>ON</small> ''Njǫrðr''{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=205}}{{Sfn|Simek|2007 |p=230}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word ''nert'', meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name ''Njǫrðr'' may be related to '']'', an Old Norse goddess name.{{Sfn|Magnússon|198|p=671)}}{{Sfn|Hopkins|2012|p=39}} |The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word ''nert'', meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name ''Njǫrðr'' may be related to '']'', an Old Norse goddess name.{{Sfn|Magnússon|1989|p=671}}{{Sfn|Hopkins|2012|p=39}}
|See ], ], and ] for further discussion. |See ], ], and ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Sowelō''''' ~ '''''*Sōel'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=385}}{{Sfn|Magnusson|1989|pp=463–464}} |'''*''Sowelō''''' ~ '''''*Sōel'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=385}}{{Sfn|Magnússon|1989|pp=463–464}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OHG</small> ''Sunne'' <small>(theonym)</small>, <small>OE</small> ''sigel''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}} |<small>OHG</small> ''Sunne'' <small>(theonym)</small>, <small>OE</small> ''sigel''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Sól'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}} |<small>ON</small> ''Sól'' <small>(theonym)</small>{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''sugil{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}}'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''sugil{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=361, 385, 387}}''
|<small>PGmc</small> *''Sowel-'' > *''Sōel-'' (<small>gen.</small> ''*Sunnōn'') derives from the <small>PIE</small> word for 'sun', *''séh₂uel'', whose ] form is *''sh₂éns, sh₂unós''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=463–464}} *''Sugelan'' is a variant of ''Sowelō'' that can be morphologically compared to <small>PGmc</small> *''sweglaz'' ('sunlight').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=385}} |<small>PGmc</small> *''Sowel-'' > *''Sōel-'' (<small>gen.</small> ''*Sunnōn'') derives from the <small>PIE</small> word for 'sun', *''séh₂uel'', whose ] form is *''sh₂éns, sh₂unós''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=463–464}} *''Sugelan'' is a variant of ''Sowelō'' that can be morphologically compared to <small>PGmc</small> *''sweglaz'' ('sunlight').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=385}}
|Meaning 'Sun'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=463–464}} A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *'''''Sugelan''''' may have been the original name of the ] '''ᛊ''' (cf. ''sigel'', ''sugil''), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *'''''Sunnōn''''' is at the origin of <small>OHG</small> ''Sunne'' and <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Sunnandag'' ('Sun-day'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Solis''; it is also the predecessor to modern English ''Sun''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Sunday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion. |Meaning 'Sun'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=463–464}} A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *'''''Sugelan''''' may have been the original name of the ] '''ᛊ''' (cf. ''sigel'', ''sugil''), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *'''''Sunnōn''''' is at the origin of <small>OHG</small> ''Sunne'' and <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Sunnandag'' ('Sun-day'); it is also the predecessor to modern English ''Sun''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Sunday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Tīwaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} |'''*''Tīwaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Tīw'', <small>OHG</small> *''Ziu{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''Tīw'', <small>OHG</small> *''Ziu{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''Týr{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}'' |<small>ON</small> ''Týr{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}''
|<small>Goth.</small> *''Teiws''{{sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=352}} |<small>Goth.</small> *''Teiws''{{sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=352}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''deywós'' ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *] ('daylight sky god').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=519}} |From <small>PIE</small> *''deywós'' ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *'']'' ('daylight sky god').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=519}}
|A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *''Tīwaz'' was associated with the ] and equated with the Roman god of war ] through '']''. Name of the ] (ᛏ).{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=413, 420}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=519}}<ref>{{harvnb|West|2007|p=167 n. 8}}.</ref> Cf. <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Tīwasdag'' ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Martis''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Tuesday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion |A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *''Tīwaz'' was associated with the ] and equated with the Roman war god ] through '']''. Name of the ] (ᛏ).{{Sfn|Simek|1984|pp=413, 420}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=519}}<ref>{{harvnb|West|2007|p=167 n. 8}}.</ref> Source of <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Tīwasdag'' ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Tuesday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion
|- |-
|'''''*Twistō''''' |'''''*Twistō'''''
|'']'' |'']''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite'){{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=363–364}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=418}}{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=129}}. Related to <small>PGmc</small> *''twistaz'', which is structurally close to Sanskrit ''dviṣṭa''- ('staying in two places, ambiguous').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=602}} |Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite').{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=363–364}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=418}}{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|p=129}} Related to <small>PGmc</small> *''twistaz'', which is structurally close to Sanskrit ''dviṣṭa''- ('staying in two places, ambiguous').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=602}}
|Legendary divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples according to ]. See ] and ] for further discussion. |Legendary divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples according to ]. See ] and ] for further discussion.
|- |-
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|''Thingsus'' |''Thingsus''
|<small>MDu</small>. ''Dings*'', <small>MLG</small> ''Dinges*'', <small>OHG</small> ''Dinges*'' |<small>MDu</small>. ''Dings*'', <small>MLG</small> ''Dinges*'', <small>OHG</small> ''Dinges*''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''þingaz'' ('thing, assembly'). |From <small>PGmc</small> *''þingaz'' ('thing, assembly').
|An epithet meaning 'of the ]'{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=251}} Attached to Mars (*''Tīwaz'') in early West Germanic cultures (see '']'' and '']''); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested in <small>Latin</small> as ''Thingsus'', and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=11–14}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=251}} |An epithet meaning 'of the ]'{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=251}} Attached to Mars (*''Tīwaz'') in early West Germanic cultures (see '']'' and '']''); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested in <small>Latin</small> as ''Thingsus'', and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.{{sfn|de Vries|1957|pp=11–14}}{{Sfn|Simek|1984|p=251}}
|- |-
|'''*''Þunraz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} |'''*''Þun(a)raz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Þunor'', <small>OS</small> ''Thunar'', <small>OFris</small> ''Thuner'', <small>OHG</small> ''Donar''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} |<small>OE</small> ''Þunor'', <small>OS</small> ''Thunar'', <small>OFris</small> ''Thuner'', <small>OHG</small> ''Donar''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Þórr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} |<small>ON</small> ''Þórr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From the <small>PIE</small> root *''(s)tenh₂-'' ('thunder'). Cognate with the <small>Celt.</small> thunder-god '']'' (< *''Tonaros''), and further related to the <small>Latin</small> epithet ].<ref>], p. 290; ], p. 384.</ref> |From the <small>PIE</small> root *''(s)tenh₂-'' ('thunder'). Cognate with the <small>Celt.</small> thunder-god '']'' (< *''Tonaros''), and further related to the <small>Latin</small> epithet ].{{sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=290}}{{Sfn|Matasović|2009|p=384}}
|Meaning 'Thunder'{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *''Þun(a)raz'' ''~ *Tonaros'' may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet or ] of the <small>PIE</small> thunder-god *'']''.{{sfn|Jackson|2002|p=61-102}} Cf. also <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Þonaresdag'' ('Þunraz-day; Thursday'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Iovis''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Thursday, n. and adv.</ref> See also below *''melđunjaz'', the name of *Þunraz's weapon. See ] for further discussion. |Meaning 'Thunder'{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=408}} According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *''Þun(a)raz'' ''~ *Tonaros'' may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet or ] of the <small>PIE</small> thunder-god *'']''.{{sfn|Jackson|2002|p=61-102}} Source of <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Þonaresdag'' ('Þunraz-day; Thursday').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Thursday, n. and adv.</ref> See also below *''melđunjaz'', the name of *Þunraz's weapon. See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*Yum(i)yaz'''''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}} |'''''*Yum(i)yaz'''''{{sfn|de Vries|1962|p=678}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'Twin'{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}}. Cognate with <small>Skt</small> '']'', <small>Av.</small> ], and probably with <small>Lat.</small> ] (< *''Yemos'').{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=63}}{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=129–130}} |Meaning 'Twin'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=274}} Cognate with <small>Skt</small> '']'', <small>Av.</small> ], and probably with <small>Lat.</small> ] (< *''Yemos'').{{Sfn|Puhvel|1987|p=63}}{{Sfn|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=129–130}}
|Cosmogonical figure, mythical primeval ancestor. See ] and ] for further discussion. |Cosmogonical figure, mythical primeval ancestor. See ] and ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Wōđanaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}} |'''*''Wōđanaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''Wōden'', <small>OS</small> ''Woden'', <small>OD</small> ''Wuodan'', <small>OHG</small> ''Wuotan'', <small>Lomb.</small> ''Godan{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''Wōden'', <small>OS</small> ''Woden'', <small>OD</small> ''Wuodan'', <small>OHG</small> ''Wuotan'', <small>Lomb.</small> ''Godan{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}}''
|<small>ON</small> '']{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}}'' |<small>ON</small> '']{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=469}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy',{{sfn|West|2007|p=137}}. From <small>PGmc</small> ''*wōđaz'' ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -''naz'' ('master of'). The former is identical to <small>PCelt.</small> *'']'' ('seer, south-sayer') and <small>Lat.</small> ''vātēs'' ('prophet, seer').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}} |Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'.{{sfn|West|2007|p=137}} From <small>PGmc</small> ''*wōđaz'' ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -''naz'' ('master of'). The former is identical to <small>PCelt.</small> *'']'' ('seer, sooth-sayer') and <small>Lat.</small> ''vātēs'' ('prophet, seer').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}} {{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|Evidence points to a god of ecstatic divination and wisdom. See <small>ON</small> '']'' 'wit, sense, song, poetry’ and <small>OE</small> ''wōð'' ‘sound, voice, song’. Cf. also <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Wōdanesdag'' ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday'), a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''dies Mercurii''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Wednesday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion. |Evidence points to a god strongly associated with ecstatic divination and wisdom. Compare the numerous Germanic cognates connoting 'violent agitation, mad rage, possession' with <small>ON</small> '']'' ('wit, sense, song, poetry'), <small>OE</small> ''wōð'' ('sound, voice, song'), and the other Indo-European cognates meaning 'seer, prophet'. Source of <small>Late PGmc</small> *''Wōdanesdag'' ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. Wednesday, n. and adv.</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''? *Wōđaz'''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}''{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''wōð,'' <small>OHG</small> ''wuot,'' <small>MD</small> ''woet{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''Óðr'''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From Pre-Germanic ''*uoh₂-tós''. Related to PCelt {{lang|mis|*]}} ('seer, sooth-sayer') and ''*wātus'' ('prophesy, poetic inspiration')''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}''{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|Meaning 'possessed, inspired, delirious, raging'. The source of the Old Norse theonym *''wōđa-naz''.''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}'' The related Celtic stem *''wātu''- is also attested in the Belgic god ''Vatumar''.<ref>Koch, John. "Altgermanische und altkeltische Theonyme: Die epigraphische Evidenz aus der Kontaktzone. Ein Handbuch zu ihrer Etymologie ". In: ''Journal of Indo-European Studies''; Washington Vol. 50, Ed. 1/2, (Spring/Summer 2022): 291-296 .</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*Wulþuz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=474}} |'''''*Wulþuz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=474}}
|''(o)wlþu-''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}} |''(o)wlþu-''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Ullr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}}'' |<small>ON</small> ''Ullr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''ul-tu-'' < *''uel''- ('to see'). Identical to <small>Lat.</small> ''vultus'' ('facial expression, appearance').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=474}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}} |From <small>PIE</small> *''ul-tu-'' < *''uel''- ('to see'). Identical to <small>Lat.</small> ''vultus'' ('facial expression, appearance').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=474}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}}
|Meaning 'Glory'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}} Attested as ''owlþuþewaz'' ('servant of ''owlþuz''<nowiki/>') on the ] (3rd c. AD).''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}}'' Cf. also <small>Goth.</small> ''wulþus'' ('glory'). <small>OE</small> ''wuldor'' ('glory') stems from <small>PGmc</small> *''wuldraz.''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}} See ] for further discussion. |Meaning 'Glory'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}} Attested as ''owlþuþewaz'' ('servant of ''owlþuz''<nowiki/>') on the ] (3rd c. AD).''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=633}}'' Cf. also <small>Goth.</small> ''wulþus'' ('glory'). <small>OE</small> ''wuldor'' ('glory') stems from <small>PGmc</small> *''wuldraz.''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=599}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Wurđiz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}} |'''*''Wurđiz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>OE</small> ''wyrd'', <small>OS</small> ''wurd'', <small>OHG</small> ''wurt''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}} |<small>OE</small> ''wyrd'', <small>OS</small> ''wurd'', <small>OHG</small> ''wurt''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}}
|<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}} |<small>ON</small> '']''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'Fate'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=600}} From <small>PGmc</small> *''werþanan'' ('to come about, happen, become').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=600}} |Meaning 'Fate'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=600}} From <small>PGmc</small> *''werþanan'' ('to come about, happen, become').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=475}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=600}}
|A concept comparable to ] personified as a female entity in Old Norse (a ], a goddess-like being) and in ]. See ] for further discussion. |A concept comparable to ] personified as a female entity in Old Norse (a ], a goddess-like being) and in ]. See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
| colspan="8" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small> | colspan="8" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; Pre-Ger. = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small>
|} |}


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{| class="wikitable sortable" {| class="wikitable sortable"
!Proto-Germanic reconstruction !Proto-Germanic reconstruction
!Translation
!West Germanic !West Germanic
!North Germanic !North Germanic
Line 224: Line 258:
|- |-
|'''*''alƀaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}} |'''*''alƀaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}
|<small>OE</small> ''ælf'', <small>MLG</small> ''alf'', <small>OHG</small> ''alb''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}} |<small>OE</small> ''ælf'', <small>MD</small> ''alf'', <small>MLG</small> ''alf'', <small>OHG</small> ''alb''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}
|<small>ON</small> ''álfr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}} |<small>ON</small> ''álfr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}
|<small>Burg.</small> *''alfs''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}<ref>Burgundian's status as an East Germanic language remains unclear.</ref> |<small>Burg.</small> *''alfs''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}<ref>Burgundian's status as an East Germanic language remains unclear.</ref>
|From the <small>PIE</small> root for '(matt) white', ''*h₂elbʰ-''. Structurally close to <small>Lat.</small> ''albus'' ('(matt) white') and <small>Grk</small> ''alphoús'' ('white').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}} |From the <small>PIE</small> root for '(matt) white', ''*h₂elbʰ-''. Structurally close to <small>Lat.</small> ''albus'' ('(matt) white') and <small>Grk</small> ''alphoús'' ('white').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=13}}
|Evidence from the early Germanic languages, as well as occasional contemporary evidence of a Latin borrowing ''aelfae'' (referring to a diabolic being), point to a shared inherited belief in supernatural beings, though the precise details of this belief are hard to trace because of the limitation of sources.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2024}}, s.v. elf (''n.1'' & ''adj.'')</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*al(j)a-wihtiz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}} |'''''*al(j)a-wihtiz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}}
|<small>OE</small> ''æl-wiht{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''æl-wiht{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''al-vitr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}} |<small>ON</small> ''al-vitr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of *''aljaz'' ('other') and *''wihtiz'' ('thing, creature').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}} |Compound of *''aljaz'' ('other') and *''wihtiz'' ('thing, creature').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=15}}
|See ''*wehtiz'' ~ ''*wihtiz'' below. |See ''*wehtiz'' ~ ''*wihtiz'' below.
|- |-
|'''''*ansuz''' ~'' '''''*ansiz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=21}} |'''''*ansuz''' ~'' '''''*ansiz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=21}}
|<small>OE</small> ''ōs'', <small>OS</small> ''ās'', <small>OHG</small> ''ansi''-<ref>{{harvnb|de Vries|1962|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Simek|1984|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Orel|2003|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=30}}</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''ōs'', <small>OS</small> ''ās'', <small>OHG</small> ''ansi''-<ref name="de Vries 1962 16">{{harvnb|de Vries|1962|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Simek|1984|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Orel|2003|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=30}}</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''áss<ref>{{harvnb|de Vries|1962|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Simek|1984|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Orel|2003|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=30}}</ref>'' |<small>ON</small> ''áss<ref name="de Vries 1962 16"/>''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''anses<ref>{{harvnb|de Vries|1962|p=16}}; {{harvnb|Simek|1984|p=25}}; {{harvnb|Orel|2003|p=21}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=30}}</ref>'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''anses<ref name="de Vries 1962 16"/>''
|Meaning '(a) deity'. From <small>PIE</small> *''h₂ems-u-'' < *''h₂ems-'' ('to give birth'). Identical to <small>Hitt.</small> ''ḫassu''- ('king'), <small>Skt.</small> ''ásu-'' ('life, vital strenght'), <small>Av.</small> ''ahu''- ('lord'), or <small>Venet.</small> ''ahsu-'' ('cult image'). Further related to <small>Skt</small> ''ásura''- and <small>Av.</small> ''ahura''- ('god, lord').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=20–21}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=30}} Potentially connected to <small>PGmc</small> *''ansaz'' 'beam' (see also ]).{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=20–21}} |Meaning '(a) deity'. From <small>PIE</small> *''h₂ems-u-'' < *''h₂ems-'' ('to give birth'). Identical to <small>Hitt.</small> ''ḫassu''- ('king'), <small>Skt.</small> ''ásu-'' ('life, vital strength'), <small>Av.</small> ''ahu''- ('lord'), or <small>Venet.</small> ''ahsu-'' ('cult image'). Further related to <small>Skt</small> ''ásura''- and <small>Av.</small> ''ahura''- ('god, lord').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=20–21}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=30}} Potentially connected to <small>PGmc</small> *''ansaz'' 'beam' (see also ]).{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=20–21}}
|Name of the ] ᚨ. See ] for further discussion. |Also attested in early Scandinavian runic ''asu-'' (probably for ''*ansu-'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2024}}, s.v. Aesir (''n.'')</ref> Name of the ] ᚨ. See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''đīsō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}} |'''*''đīsō ~ dīsi-'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=96}}
|<small>OE</small> ''ides'', <small>OS</small> ''idis'', <small>OHG</small> ''itis''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}} |<small>OE</small> ''ides'', <small>OS</small> ''idis'', <small>OHG</small> ''itis''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}}
|<small>ON</small> ''dís''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}} |<small>ON</small> ''dís''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=72}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Uncertain etymology.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=96}} The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. <small>OE</small> ''ides Scildinga'' and <small>ON</small> ''dís Skjǫldunga'').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=114–115}} |Uncertain etymology.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=96}} The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. <small>OE</small> ''ides Scildinga'' and <small>ON</small> ''dís Skjǫldunga'').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=114–115}}
|A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or ']'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=96, 114}} See ] and ] and compare *''wala-kuzjōn'' below. The <small>PGmc</small> form may occur in the place name ] (perhaps <small>Gmc</small> *''Idisiaviso'' 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected in <small>ON</small> ] if the location name is amended to *''Iðavöllr''.{{Sfn|Simek|1993|p=171}} |A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or ']'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=96, 114}} The <small>PGmc</small> form may occur in the place name '']'' (perhaps <small>PGmc</small> *''Idisiaviso'' 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected in <small>ON</small> ] if the location name is amended to *''Iðavöllr''.{{Sfn|Simek|1993|p=171}} According to ], although the connection between the West Germanic and Old Norse forms remains controversial, the fact that <small>ON</small> ''dís'' goes back to Proto-Germanic is proved by the personal names <small>Frank.</small> ''Agedisus'', ''Disibod'', <small>Aleman.</small> ''Disi'', <small>Lomb.</small> ''Tiso''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=77}} See ] and ] and compare *''wala-kuzjōn'' below.
|-
|'''''*draugaz'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''draugr''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|{{center|–}}
|Identical to <small>PCelt.</small> *''drougos'' (cf. <small>OIr.</small> ''airdrech'' 'sprite, phantom' < ''*(p)ari-drougo''-).{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}} See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*dwas-'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|<small>OE</small> ''dwœs,'' <small>MHG</small> ''ge-twās''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> *''dhwos''-. Related to <small>PCelt.</small> *''dwosyos'' (cf. <small>Gaul.</small> ''dusios'' '], daemon') and <small>Lith.</small> ''dvasià'' ('breath, spirit, soul').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|- |-
|'''*''đwergaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}} |'''*''đwergaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}}
|<small>OE</small> ''dweorg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''dwirg'', <small>OS</small> *''dwerg'', <small>MDu.</small> ''dwerch'', <small>OHG</small> ''twerg''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. dwarf, n. and adj.</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''dweorg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''dwirg'', <small>OS</small> *''dwerg'', <small>MDu.</small> ''dwerch'', <small>OHG</small> ''twerg''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. dwarf, n. and adj.</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''dvergr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}} |<small>ON</small> ''dvergr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=81}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Unclear etymology. Perhaps from a <small>PGmc</small> verb *''dwerganan'' ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested in <small>MHG</small> ''zwergen''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=112}} |Unclear etymology. Perhaps from a <small>PGmc</small> verb *''dwerganan'' ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested in <small>MHG</small> ''zwergen''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=112}}
|References to dwarfs as supernatural beings occur in Old Norse, Middle High German, and Middle Dutch. While Old English texts do not clearly show the mythological sense, it is suggested by the use of the word to label an unknown illness (likely blamed on a supernatural being), which may be compared with the early Scandinavian (runic) term ''tuirk'', an ailment apparently marked by headaches. Additionally, early place names such as ''Dueridene'', ''Dwerihouse'' and ''Dwerffehole'' hint at a supernatural concept of dwarfs, often associated with subterranean spaces.<ref name="OED-ghost2">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2024}}, s.v. dwarf (''n.'' & ''adj.'')</ref> For further discussion, see ].
|For further discussion, see ].
|- |-
|'''''*etunaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}} |'''''*etunaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}}
|<small>OE</small> ''eōten''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}} |<small>OE</small> ''eōten''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}}
|<small>ON</small> ''jǫtunn{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}}'' |<small>ON</small> ''jǫtunn{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|According to Orel, from <small>PGmc</small> *''etanan'' ('to eat').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}} |Probably from <small>PGmc</small> *''etanan'' ('to eat').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=86}}
|One of the Proto-Germanic terms for 'giant'. See ] for further discussion. |One of several terms connected to a class of entity. See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''gaistaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}} |'''*''gaistaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}
|<small>OE</small> ''gǽst'', <small>OFris</small> ''gāst'', <small>OS</small> ''gēst'', <small>Du.</small> ''geest'', <small>OHG</small> ''geist{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=163}} |<small>OE</small> ''gǽst'', <small>OFris</small> ''gāst'', <small>OS</small> ''gēst'', <small>ODu.</small> ''gēst'', <small>OHG</small> ''geist{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=163}}<ref name="OED-ghost"/>
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From <small>Pre-Ger.</small>''*ghoisdoz'' ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to <small>Sanskrit</small> ''héḍas'' ('anger') and <small>Avestan</small> ''zōižda''- ('terrible, ugly').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=163}}<ref name=":1">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. ghost, n.</ref> |Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> ''*ghois-t-oz'' ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to <small>Sanskrit</small> ''héḍas'' ('anger') and <small>Avestan</small> ''zōižda''- ('terrible, ugly').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=163}}<ref name="OED-ghost">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. ghost, n.</ref>
|Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation.<ref name=":1" /> See ] for further discussion. |Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation.<ref name="OED-ghost" /> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*guđ(a)z{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}''''' |'''''*guđ(a)z{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}'''''
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|The source of <small>PGmc</small> *''guđ(a)-fuhtaz'' ('god-fearing'), *''guđ(a)-lausaz'' ('god-less'), ''aƀa-guđaz'' ('godless, <small>lit.</small> off-god'), *''guđ(a)-waƀjaz'' ('precious fabric, silk'), or *''guđ(a)-hūsan'' (temple; if not a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''domus Dei'').'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|pp=144–145}}''''' |The source of <small>PGmc</small> *''guđ(a)-fuhtaz'' ('god-fearing'), *''guđ(a)-lausaz'' ('god-less'), ''aƀa-guđaz'' ('godless, <small>lit.</small> off-god'), *''guđ(a)-waƀjaz'' ('precious fabric, silk'), or *''guđ(a)-hūsan'' (temple; if not a calque of <small>Lat.</small> ''domus Dei'').'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|pp=144–145}}'''''
|- |-
|'''*''lenþa-wurmaz'''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}} |'''*''lenþa-wurmaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}}
|<small>MLG</small> ''linde-worm'', <small>OHG</small> ''lind-wurm''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}} |<small>MLG</small> ''linde-worm'', <small>OHG</small> ''lind-wurm''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}}
|<small>ON</small> ''linn-ormr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}} |<small>ON</small> ''linn-ormr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of *''lenþaz'' ('snake') and *''wurmaz'' ('worm').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}} |Compound of *''lenþaz'' ('snake') and *''wurmaz'' ('worm').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=241}}
|A dragon or serpent-like entity. See ] for further discussion. |A dragon or serpent-like entity. See ] and ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''marōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}} |'''*''marōn'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}
|<small>OE</small> ''mære'', <small>MD</small> ''māre,'' <small>OS</small> ''māra'', <small>OHG</small> ''mara''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}<ref name=":2">{{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}} s.v. mare, n.2.</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''mære'', <small>MD</small> ''māre,'' <small>OS</small> ''māra'', <small>OHG</small> ''mara''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}<ref name=":2">{{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}} s.v. mare, n.2.</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''mara''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}} |<small>ON</small> ''mara''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=262}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PIE</small> ''*mor-eh₂'', of unclear origin. Cognate with <small>Slav.</small> *''morà'' ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and <small>OIr.</small> '']'' ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female demon). See also the Russian '']'', a female house-spirit that spins at night.{{sfn|Derksen|2007|p=324}}<ref name=":2" /> |From <small>PIE</small> ''*mor-eh₂'', of unclear origin. Cognate with <small>Slav.</small> *''morà'' ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and <small>OIr.</small> '']'' ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russian '']'', a female house-spirit that spins at night.{{sfn|Derksen|2007|p=324}}<ref name=":2" />
|An entity associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern English ]). The image of a female ghost or demon who tortures people with nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic.{{sfn|Derksen|2007|pp=302, 324}} Borrowed from Middle Dutch into ] as ''mare'' > ''cauque-mare'' (attached to ''cauquier'' 'to press'; <small>mod. Fr.</small> ''cauchemar''), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams.<ref>], s.v. ''cauchemar''.</ref> See ] for further discussion. |A malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern English ]). The image of a female ghost or malicious entity who tortures people by way of nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic.{{sfn|Derksen|2007|pp=302, 324}} Borrowed from Middle Dutch into ] as ''mare'' > ''cauque-mare'' (attached to ''cauquier'' 'to press'; <small>mod. Fr.</small> ''cauchemar''), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams.<ref>], s.v. ''cauchemar''.</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''nikwiz''''' ~ '''*''nikwuz''''' ~ '''''*nikwaza-'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}} |'''*''nikwiz''''' ~ '''*''nikwuz''''' ~ '''''*nikwaza-'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}}
|<small>OE</small> ''nicor'', <small>MDu.</small> ''nicker'', <small>MLG</small> ''necker'', <small>OHG</small> ''nichus, nihhus''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}} |<small>OE</small> ''nicor'', <small>MDu.</small> ''nicker'', <small>MLG</small> ''necker'', <small>OHG</small> ''nichus, nihhus''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}}
|<small>ON</small> ''nykr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}} |<small>ON</small> ''nykr''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''nígʷ-ōs'' < *''neigʷ''- ('to wash').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}} |From <small>PIE</small> *''nígʷ-ōs'' < *''neigʷ''- ('to wash').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=287}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}}
|An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *''nikwazjōn'' (cf. <small>OHG</small> ''nickessa'').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}} See ] for further discussion. |An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *''nikwazjōn'' (cf. <small>OHG</small> ''nickessa'').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=390}} See ] for further discussion.
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|<small>OE</small> ''scrætte'', <small>OHG</small> ''scratto{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''scrætte'', <small>OHG</small> ''scratto{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''skratti{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}''{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}} |<small>ON</small> ''skratti{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}''{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|An n-stem originally inflected as *''skradō'', <small>gen.</small> *''skrattaz'' < *''skrodʰōn'', *''skrodʰnós''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}} |An n-stem originally inflected as *''skradō'', <small>gen.</small> *''skrattaz'' < *''skrodʰōn'', *''skrodʰnós''.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}}
|A sort of demon, ] or ].{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}} |A variety of malicious entity.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=343}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=447}}
|-
|'''''*skōhsla-'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''skōhsl{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|Identical to <small>PCelt.</small> ''*skāhslo-'' (cf. Old Irish ''scál'' ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god ]’, Middle Welsh ''yscaul'' ‘hero, champion, warrior').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|A name for an evil spirit or a demon.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|- |-
| '''*''þurisaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}} | '''*''þurisaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}}
|<small>OE</small> ''ðyrs'', <small>OHG</small> ''duris''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}} |<small>OE</small> ''ðyrs'', <small>OHG</small> ''duris''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}
|<small>ON</small> ''þurs''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}} |<small>ON</small> ''þurs''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|No clear etymology. Perhaps related to <small>ON</small> ''þyrja'' ('to rush'), <small>ON</small> ''þora'' ('to dare'), or <small>Icel.</small> ''þursi'' ('quarrel, anger, rage').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}} |No clear etymology. Perhaps related to <small>ON</small> ''þyrja'' ('to rush'), <small>ON</small> ''þora'' ('to dare'), or <small>Icel.</small> ''þursi'' ('quarrel, anger, rage').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=429}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}}
|One of the Proto-Germanic terms for 'giant'. Borrowed into early Finnish as '']'', a god of war and a sea monster.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}} See ] for further discussion. |One of a series of semantically related Proto-Germanic terms for a type of entity. Borrowed into early Finnish as '']'', a war god and a sea monster.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=552}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''wrisjōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} |'''*''wrisjōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}}
|<small>OS</small> ''wrisi-'', <small>OHG</small> ''riso''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} |<small>OS</small> ''wrisi-'', <small>OHG</small> ''riso''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}}
|<small>ON</small> ''risi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} |<small>ON</small> ''risi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Probably related to <small>Greek</small> ῥίον ('peak, headland').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} |Probably related to <small>Greek</small> ῥίον ('peak, headland').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}}
|One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related to ]. Occurs also in <small>OS</small> ''wrisi-līk'' ('enormous, wrisi-like').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} For further discussion, see ]. |One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related to ]. Occurs also in <small>OS</small> ''wrisi-līk'' ('enormous, wrisi-like').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=472}} For further discussion, see ].
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|<small>OE</small> ''wælcyrge''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}} |<small>OE</small> ''wælcyrge''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}}
|<small>ON</small> ''valkyrja''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}} |<small>ON</small> ''valkyrja''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *''walaz'' ('the slain') and *''kuzjōn'' ('chooser' < <small>PGmc</small> *''keusanan'' 'to trial, select').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=569}} See also <small>OE</small> ''wæl-cēasega'', a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. † walkyrie, n.</ref> |Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *''walaz'' ('the slain') and *''kuzjōn'' ('chooser' < <small>PGmc</small> *''keusanan'' 'to trial, select').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=569}} See also <small>OE</small> ''wæl-cēasega'', a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'.<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. † walkyrie, n.</ref>
|A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *''đīsō'' above.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}} See ] for further discussion. |A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *''đīsō'' above.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=442}} See ] for further discussion.
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|<small>OE</small> ''were-wulf'', <small>OFrank.</small> ''*wer-wolf'', <small>MDu.</small> ''weer-wolf'', <small>MLG</small> ''wer-wulf'', <small>WFris.</small> ''waer-ûl(e)'', <small>MHG</small> ''wer-wolf''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463}}<ref name=":5" /> |<small>OE</small> ''were-wulf'', <small>OFrank.</small> ''*wer-wolf'', <small>MDu.</small> ''weer-wolf'', <small>MLG</small> ''wer-wulf'', <small>WFris.</small> ''waer-ûl(e)'', <small>MHG</small> ''wer-wolf''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463}}<ref name=":5" />
|<small>ON</small> ''varg-úlfr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463}} |<small>ON</small> ''varg-úlfr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463}}
|<center>—</center> |{{center|–}}
|Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English '']''. Probably a compound of *''wiraz'' ('man') and *''wulfaz'' ('wolf').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=646}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}} Alternately derived from *''wazi-wulfaz'' ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *''vьlko-dlakь'', literally 'wolf-haired'.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}} |Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English '']''. Probably a compound of *''wiraz'' ('man') and *''wulfaz'' ('wolf').{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=646}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}} Alternately derived from *''wazi-wulfaz'' ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *''vьlko-dlakь'', literally 'wolf-haired'.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}}
|The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, with <small>ON</small> ''vargúlfr'' replacing *''wiraz'' ('man') with ''vargr'' ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old French ''leu waroul'', which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=646}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}}<ref name=":02">DEAF G:334–338.</ref> ] ''*werwolf'' is inferred from <small>OFr.</small> ''waroul ~ garoul'' ~ ] ''garuf''.<ref>] 17:569.</ref><ref name=":02" /> The modern Norse forms ''varulv'' (Danish, Norwegian) and ''varulf'' (Swedish) were probably borrowed from <small>MLG</small> ''werwulf'',<ref name=":03">] G:334–338.</ref> or else be derived from an unattested <small>ON</small> ''*varulfr'', posited as the regular descendant form of <small>PGmc</small> *''wira-wulfaz''.<ref name=":5">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. ''werewolf, n.''</ref> See ] for further discussion. |The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, with <small>ON</small> ''vargúlfr'' replacing *''wiraz'' ('man') with ''vargr'' ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old French ''leus warous'', which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=646}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=463, 450}}<ref name="DEAF">] G:334–338.</ref> ] ''*werwolf'' is inferred from ] ''garwa(l)f'' ~ ''garo(u)l''.<ref>] 17:569.</ref><ref name="DEAF" /> The modern Norse forms ''varulv'' (Danish, Norwegian) and ''varulf'' (Swedish) were probably borrowed from <small>MLG</small> ''werwulf'',<ref name="DEAF"/> or else be derived from an unattested <small>ON</small> ''*varulfr'', posited as the regular descendant form of <small>PGmc</small> *''wira-wulfaz''.<ref name=":5">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. ''werewolf, n.''</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*wehtiz''''' ~ '''''*wihtiz'''''<ref name=":0">{{harvnb|Orel|2003|pp=15, 452}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=578}}</ref> |'''''*wehtiz''''' ~ '''''*wihtiz'''''<ref name="orel-kroonen">{{harvnb|Orel|2003|pp=15, 452}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=578}}</ref>
|<small>OE</small> ], <small>OS</small> ''wiht'', <small>Du.</small> ''wicht'', <small>OHG</small> ''wiht<ref name=":0" />'' |<small>OE</small> ''wiht'', <small>OS</small> ''wiht'', <small>Du.</small> ''wicht'', <small>OHG</small> ''wiht<ref name="orel-kroonen" />''
|<small>ON</small> ]''<ref name=":0" />'' |<small>ON</small> ]''<ref name="orel-kroonen" />''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''waihts<ref name=":0" />'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''waihts<ref name="orel-kroonen" />''
|A 'creature'. Related to <small>Slav.</small> ''*vektь'' ('thing').<ref name=":0" /> Possibly from <small>PIE</small> *''weḱti''- ~ *''weǵʰ-ti''-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=578}} |A 'creature'. Related to <small>Slav.</small> ''*vektь'' ('thing').<ref name="orel-kroonen" /> Possibly from <small>PIE</small> *''weḱti''- ~ *''weǵʰ-ti''-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=578}}
|Cf. also <small>Far.</small> -''vætti'' ('miserable creature') < *''wehtja''-.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=578}} |Cf. also <small>Far.</small> -''vætti'' ('miserable creature') < *''wehtja''-.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=578}} Referring to a 'creature, being, thing' in Germanic languages. See ] for further discussion
|- |-
| colspan="7" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small> | colspan="8" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; Pre-Ger. = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small>
|} |}


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|<small>OHG</small> ''Firgunnea{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}'' |<small>OHG</small> ''Firgunnea{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''
|<small>ON</small> '']{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}'' |<small>ON</small> '']{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Probably from <small>PIE</small> ''*per-k<sup>w</sup>un-ih₂'' ('wooden mountains', i.e. the realm of *]). Cognate with <small>PCelt.</small> *''ferkunyo'' > ].''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''{{Sfn|West|2007|p=241}} |Probably from <small>PIE</small> ''*per-k<sup>w</sup>un-ih₂'' ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *]). Cognate with <small>PCelt.</small> *''ferkunyo'' > ].''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''{{Sfn|West|2007|p=241}}
|Cognate with or borrowed into <small>Slav.</small> as ''*per(g)ynja'' ('wooded hills').''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''{{Sfn|West|2007|p=241}} Cf. also <small>Goth.</small> ''fairguni'' and <small>OE</small> ''firgen'' ('mountain').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}'' See ] for further discussion. |Cognate with or borrowed into <small>Slav.</small> as ''*per(g)ynja'' ('wooded hills').''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''{{Sfn|West|2007|p=241}} Cf. also <small>Goth.</small> ''fairguni'' and <small>OE</small> ''firgen'' ('mountain').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=99}}''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}'' See ] for further discussion.
|
|- |-
|'''*''Haljō'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}} |'''*''Haljō'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}
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|From <small>PGmc</small> *''helanan'' ('to conceal, hide').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=204}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''helanan'' ('to conceal, hide').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=204}}
|Precursor to modern English '']'', attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. See ] and ]. |Precursor to modern English '']'', attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. See ] and ].
|
|- |-
|'''''*Halja-wītjan{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}''''' |'''''*Halja-wītjan{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}'''''
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|<small>OE</small> ''helle-wīte'', <small>OS</small> ''helli-wīti'', <small>MHG</small> ''helle-wītze''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}} |<small>OE</small> ''helle-wīte'', <small>OS</small> ''helli-wīti'', <small>MHG</small> ''helle-wītze''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}
|<small>ON</small> ''hel-víti''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}} |<small>ON</small> ''hel-víti''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''Haljō'' ('Hell') and *''wītjan'' ('knowledge, reason').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}} |Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''Haljō'' ('Hell') and *''wītjan'' ('knowledge, reason').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=156}}
|A poetic name for an underworld location. See *''Haljō'' above. |A poetic name for an underworld location. See *''Haljō'' above.
|
|- |-
|'''''*hemenaz''''' ~ '''''*heminaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}} |'''''*hem(e)naz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}}
|'heaven' |'heaven'
|<small>OE</small> ''heofon'', <small>OFris.</small> ''himel'', <small>OS</small> ''heƀan'', <small>ODu.</small> ''himil'', <small>MLG</small> ''hēven'', <small>OHG</small> ''himil''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. heaven, n.</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''heofon'', <small>OFris.</small> ''himel'', <small>OS</small> ''heƀan'', <small>ODu.</small> ''himil'', <small>MLG</small> ''hēven'', <small>OHG</small> ''himil''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. heaven, n.</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''himinn''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}} |<small>ON</small> ''himinn''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''himins''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''himins''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=220}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''h₂eḱmon'' ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with <small>PGmc</small> *''hamaraz'' ('hammer').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=206, 220}} |From the ] *''h₂ḱmnós'' of <small>PIE</small> *''h₂eḱmon'' ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with <small>PGmc</small> *''hamaraz'' ('hammer') via a ] stem *''ḱ(e)h₂-m-r-'' (cf. <small>Grk</small> ''kamára'' 'vault').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|pp=206, 220}}
|See ] for further discussion. |See ] for further discussion.
|
|- |-
|'''*(''hemena-)wangaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{sfn|Hopkins & Haukur|2011|p=14-17}} |'''*(''hemena-)wangaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}{{sfn|Hopkins & Haukur|2011|p=14-17}}
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|Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''hemenaz'' ('heaven') and *''wangaz'' ('meadow').''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}'' The noun *''wangaz'' stems from the <small>PIE</small> root *''uongʰ-'', denoting a 'field'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=573}} |Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''hemenaz'' ('heaven') and *''wangaz'' ('meadow').''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=169}}'' The noun *''wangaz'' stems from the <small>PIE</small> root *''uongʰ-'', denoting a 'field'.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=573}}
|A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow. <small>PGmc</small> *''wangaz'' occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven.{{sfn|Hopkins & Haukur|2011|p=14-17}} ''Fólkvangr'' is an afterlife location associated with the goddess ] in Old Norse texts. See ] and ]. |A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow. <small>PGmc</small> *''wangaz'' occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven.{{sfn|Hopkins & Haukur|2011|p=14-17}} ''Fólkvangr'' is an afterlife location associated with the goddess ] in Old Norse texts. See ] and ].
|
|- |-
|'''*''Meðjana-garðaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=264}} |'''*''Meðjana-garðaz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=264}}
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|Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''meðjanaz'' ('middle') and *''garðaz'' ('enclosure, courtyard').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=264}} |Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''meðjanaz'' ('middle') and *''garðaz'' ('enclosure, courtyard').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=264}}
|See ] for further discussion. |See ] for further discussion.
|
|- |-
|'''''*wira-alđiz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}} |'''''*wira-alđiz'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}}
|'man-age' |'man-age'
|<small>OE</small> ''weorold'', <small>OFris.</small> ''wrald'', <small>OS</small> ''werold'', <small>MDu.</small> ''werelt'', <small>OHG</small> ''weralt''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}}<ref name=":4">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. world, n.</ref> |<small>OE</small> ''weorold'', <small>OFris.</small> ''wrald'', <small>OS</small> ''werold'', <small>MDu.</small> ''werelt'', <small>OHG</small> ''weralt''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}}<ref name="OED-world">{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. world, n.</ref>
|<small>ON</small> ''verǫld''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}} |<small>ON</small> ''verǫld''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''wiraz'' ('man') and ''*alđiz'' ('age').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}} |Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''wiraz'' ('man') and ''*alđiz'' ('age').{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=462}}
|The inhabited world, the realm of humankind. Source of modern english ''world''.<ref name=":4" /> |The inhabited world, the realm of humankind. Source of modern English ''world''.<ref name="OED-world" />
|
|- |-
| colspan="7" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small> | colspan="8" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; Pre-Ger. = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small>
|} |}


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|<small>Goth.</small> ''alhs''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=14}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''alhs''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=14}}
|Identical to <small>Lith.</small> '']'' ('holy grove').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=14}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=22}} |Identical to <small>Lith.</small> '']'' ('holy grove').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=14}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=22}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|-
|'''''*austro-mēnōþ'''''
|'Austrōn-month'
|<small>OE</small> ''ēosturmōnaþ'', <small>ODu.</small> ''ostermanoth'', <small>OHG</small> ''ōstarmānōd''{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p=255}}{{Sfn|West|2007|pp=217–218}}
|{{center|–}}
|{{center|–}}
|A compound of <small>WGmc</small> ''*Austrōn'' (a female deity) and *''mēnōþ'' ('month').
|A West Germanic name for the 'month of *Austrōn', associated with a festival held around April and eventually displaced by the Christian ].{{Sfn|Simek|1996|p=255}} See ] and ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*ƀlōtanan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}} |'''''*ƀlōtanan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}}
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|<small>ON</small> ''blóta''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}} |<small>ON</small> ''blóta''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''blotan''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''blotan''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}}
|Traditionally compared to <small>Lat.</small> '']'' ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *''flādsmen'' < *''bʰleh₂dmen-''.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}}{{Sfn|de Vries|2000|p=45}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=70}} |Traditionally compared to <small>Lat.</small> '']'' ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *''flādsmen'' < *''bʰleh₂dmen-''.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=51}}{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=45}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=70}}
|Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''ƀlostran'' ('sacrifice') and *''ƀlotan'' ('sacrifice, worship').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}} |Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''ƀlostran'' ('sacrifice') and *''ƀlotan'' ('sacrifice, worship').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}
|- |-
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|<small>OHG</small> ''bluoz-hūz'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}''''' |<small>OHG</small> ''bluoz-hūz'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}'''''
|<small>ON</small> ''blót-hús'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}''''' |<small>ON</small> ''blót-hús'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}'''''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''ƀlotan'' ('sacrifice, worship') and *''hūsan'' ('house').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}''''' |Compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''ƀlotan'' ('sacrifice, worship') and *''hūsan'' ('house').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}'''''
|Place of worship, temple.'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}''''' |Place of worship, temple.'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=50}}'''''
|-
|'''''*elhja-'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|'evil'
|{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''illr'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> *''elkyo''-, attested in the Finnish loanwords ''elkiä'' ('mean, malicious') and ''ilkeä'' ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irish ''ol(c)c'' ('bad, evil').'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}'''''
|{{center|–}}
|-
|'''''*frijjadag'''''
|'Friday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Frīgedæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Frīadei'', <small>MDu.</small> ''Vriendach'', <small>MLG</small> ''Vrīdach'', <small>OHG</small> ''Frīatag''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=143}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Frjádagr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=143}}''
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of ''*Frijjō'' (']') and ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Veneris dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=143}}''
|See *Frijjō above. <small>ON</small> ''Frjádagr'' was borrowed from <small>OHG</small> ''Frīatag.''{{Sfn|Simek|2007|pp=93–94}} Source of Modern English ''Friday''.
|- |-
|'''*''galđran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}} |'''*''galđran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}}
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|<small>OE</small> ''gealdor'', <small>OHG</small> ''galtar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}} |<small>OE</small> ''gealdor'', <small>OHG</small> ''galtar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}}
|<small>ON</small> ''galdr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}} |<small>ON</small> ''galdr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''galanan'' ('to shout, sing, chant').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=164}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''galanan'' ('to shout, sing, chant').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=124}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=164}}
|See ] for further discussion. |See ] for further discussion.
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|'''''*guđ(j)ōn{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}''''' |'''''*guđ(j)ōn{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}'''''
|'priest' |'priest'
|OE ''*gydda''
|<center>–</center>
|<small>ON</small> ''goði'', ''gyðja'''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=194}} |<small>ON</small> ''goði'', ''gyðja'''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=194}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''gudja'''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=194}}''''' |<small>Goth.</small> ''gudja'''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=194}}'''''
|From <small>PGmc</small> ''*guđaz'' ('god').'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}''''' |From <small>PGmc</small> ''*guđaz'' ('god').'''''{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=145}}'''''
|The Old English form appears as an apparent historical element of Modern English place names such as ''Gedding'' and ''Gidleigh''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mills |first=A. D. |title=A Dictionary of English Place Names |publisher=Oxford |year=1992 |isbn=0-19-869156-4 |edition=2nd |pages=142 |language=en}}</ref>
|<center>–</center>
|-
|'''''*hailagaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|'holy'
|<small>OE</small> ''hālig'', <small>OFris.</small> ''hēlich'', <small>OS</small> ''hēlag'', <small>OHG</small> ''heilag''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|<small>ON</small> ''heilagr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''hailags''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> ''*hailaz'' ('hale, whole, sound').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''hailagōjanan'' ('to make holy, consecrate').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=151}}
|- |-
|'''''*hailaga-mēnōþ''''' |'''''*hailaga-mēnōþ'''''
|'holy-month' |'holy-month'
|<small>OE</small> ''hāliġ-mōnaþ'', <small>ODu.</small> ''heil-mānōth'', <small>OHG</small> ''heilag-mānōth''{{sfn|Poirier|2007|p=299-207}} |<small>OE</small> ''hāliġ-mōnaþ'', <small>ODu.</small> ''heil-mānōth'', <small>OHG</small> ''heilag-mānōth''{{sfn|Poirier|2007|p=299-207}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|A compound of <small>WGmc</small> ''*hailaga'' ('holy') and ''mēnōþ'' ('month'). |A compound of <small>PGmc</small> ''*hailagaz'' ('holy') and *''mēnōþ'' ('month').
|A West Germanic name for the 'holy month', equivalent to modern 'September' or 'December'. See ] for further discussion. |A West Germanic name for the 'holy month', equivalent to modern 'September' or 'December'.{{sfn|Poirier|2007|p=299-207}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*harƀistu-mēnōþz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}} |'''''*harƀistu-mēnōþz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}}
Line 476: Line 570:
|<small>OE</small> ''hærfest-mōnaþ'', <small>ODu.</small> ''hervist-mānōth'', <small>OHG</small> ''herbist-mānōth''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}} |<small>OE</small> ''hærfest-mōnaþ'', <small>ODu.</small> ''hervist-mānōth'', <small>OHG</small> ''herbist-mānōth''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}}
|<small>ON</small> ''haust-mánuðr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}} |<small>ON</small> ''haust-mánuðr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|A compound of <small>PGmc</small> ''*harƀistaz'' ('autumn, harvest') and ''mēnōþz'' ('month').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}}''''' |A compound of <small>PGmc</small> ''*harƀistaz'' ('autumn, harvest') and *''mēnōþz'' ('month').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}}'''''
|Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}} Cf. also <small>ODu.</small> ''Aranmānōth'' ~ <small>OHG</small> ''Aranmānōd'' ('harvest month, August'), from another root *''azani''- ('harvest'). |Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=161}} Cf. also <small>ODu.</small> ''Aranmānōth'' ~ <small>OHG</small> ''Aranmānōd'' ('harvest month, August'), from another <small>PGmc</small> stem *''azani''- ('harvest').
|- |-
|'''''*har(u)gaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=211}} |'''''*har(u)gaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=211}}
Line 484: Line 578:
|<small>OE</small> ''hearg'', <small>OHG</small> ''harug''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}} |<small>OE</small> ''hearg'', <small>OHG</small> ''harug''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}
|<small>ON</small> ''hǫrgr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}} |<small>ON</small> ''hǫrgr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as <small>PCelt.</small> *''karrikā'' ('stone').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=211}} |From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> *''karkú''-. Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as <small>PCelt.</small> *''karrikā'' ('stone').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=164}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=211}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|See ] for further information
|<center>–</center>
|- |-
|'''*''halja-rūnō(n)'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}} |'''*''halja-rūnō(n)'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}}
|'witch, sorceress' |'witch, sorceress'
|<small>OE</small> ''helle-rūne'', <small>OHG</small> ''helli-rūna''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}} |<small>OE</small> ''helle-rūne'', <small>OHG</small> ''helli-rūna''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes)</small> ''haliurunae''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}} |<small>Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes)</small> '']''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}}
|Compound of *''haljō'' ('Hel') and *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, rune').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}} |Compound of *''haljō'' ('Hel') and *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, rune').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=155}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*hunslan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}} |'''''*hunslan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}
Line 501: Line 595:
|<small>ON</small> ''húsl{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}'' |<small>ON</small> ''húsl{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''hunsl{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''hunsl{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}''
|A ''sla''-suffix added to the <small>PIE</small> root *''ḱuent''- ('holy, sacred').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=256}} |A ''sla''-suffix added to the <small>PIE</small> stem *''ḱuent''- ('holy, sacred').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=194}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=256}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*hugi-rūnō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}} |'''''*hugi-rūnō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}}
Line 508: Line 602:
|<small>OE</small> ''hyge-rūn{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''hyge-rūn{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''hug-rúnar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}} |<small>ON</small> ''hug-rúnar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Compound of *''hugiz'' ('understanding, mind') and *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, rune').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}} |Compound of *''hugiz'' ('understanding, mind') and *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, rune').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=190}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*Jehwlan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}} |'''''*jehwlan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}
|'Yule' |'Yule'
|<small>OE</small> ''geō(hho)l''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}} |<small>OE</small> ''geō(hho)l''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}
Line 520: Line 614:
| rowspan="2" |Name of a Germanic festival organized at the end of each year. Cf. also *''Jehwla-đagaz'' ('Yule-day').{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=211}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}} See ] for further discussion. | rowspan="2" |Name of a Germanic festival organized at the end of each year. Cf. also *''Jehwla-đagaz'' ('Yule-day').{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=211}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}} See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''*''Jehwla-mēnōþz''''' ~ '''*''Jehwlaz'''''<nowiki/>''{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=211}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}'' |'''*''jehwla-mēnōþz''''' ~ '''*''jehwlaz'''''<nowiki/>''{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=211}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}''
|'Yule-month' |'Yule-month'
|<small>OE</small> ''gēol-mōnaþ'', ''gīuli{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}'' |<small>OE</small> ''gēol-mōnaþ'', ''gīuli{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=205}}''
Line 530: Line 624:
|<small>OHG</small> ''jār-mānōd{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}}'' |<small>OHG</small> ''jār-mānōd{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''ár-mánaðr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}} |<small>ON</small> ''ár-mánaðr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|A compound of <small>PGmc</small> ''*jēran'' ('year') and ''mēnōþz'' ('month').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}} |A compound of <small>PGmc</small> ''*jēran'' ('year') and ''mēnōþz'' ('month').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=205–206}}
|Early Germanic name of the 'year-month'; equivalent to modern 'January'. |Early Germanic name of the 'year-month'; equivalent to modern 'January'.
|- |-
|'''''*kunja-'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}} |'''''*kunjaz'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}}
|'omen' |'omen'
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''kyn''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}} |<small>ON</small> ''kyn''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Closely related to <small>Lith.</small> ''žinià'' ('knowledge, magic').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}} |Closely related to <small>Lith.</small> ''žinià'' ('knowledge, magic').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|-
|'''''*lēk(i)jaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|'healer, physician'
|<small>OE</small> ''lǣce'', <small>OS</small> lāki, <small>OFris.</small> ''letza'', <small>OHG</small> ''lāhhi{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''lækir{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}''
|<small>Goth.</small> ''lekeis{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}''
|From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> *''lēgyos''. Borrowed from <small>PCelt.</small> ''lēagis'' (cf. <small>OIr.</small> ''lieig'' 'physician, healer, leech').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''lēkinan'' ('cure, remedy') and *''lēkinōjanan'' ('to heal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}
|- |-
|'''''*lubjan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}} |'''''*lubjan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}
|'(magical) herb, potion' |'herbal medicine, magic potion'
|<small>OE</small> ''lybb'', <small>OS</small> ''lubbi'', <small>MDu.</small> ''lubbe'', <small>OHG</small> ''lubbi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}} |<small>OE</small> ''lybb'', <small>OS</small> ''lubbi'', <small>MDu.</small> ''lubbe'', <small>OHG</small> ''lubbi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}}
|<small>ON</small> ''lyf''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}} |<small>ON</small> ''lýf''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''lubja-{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}'' |<small>Goth.</small> ''lubja-{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}''
|Related to <small>PGmc</small> *''lauban'' ('foliage').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}} |Related to <small>PGmc</small> *''lauban'' ('foliage'; cf. <small>PCelt.</small> *''lubi''- 'herb').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|Medicinal herb associated with magic (cf. <small>Goth.</small> ''lubja-leisei'' 'witchcraft, alchemist', <small>OHG</small> ''lubbari'' 'magician').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}} |Medicinal herb associated with magic (cf. <small>Goth.</small> ''lubja-leisei'' 'witchcraft, alchemist', <small>OHG</small> ''lubbari'' 'magician').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=249}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}}
|- |-
|'''*''melđunjaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=266}} |'''*''melđunjaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=266}}
|'lightning', 'hammer' |'lightning', 'hammer'
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Mjǫllnir''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=266}} |<small>ON</small> ''Mjǫllnir''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=266}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From a <small>PIE</small> root ''meld-n-,'' which may have originally designated ]' weapon. Cognate with <small>Latv.</small> ''milna'' (]' hammer), <small>OPrus.</small> ''mealde'' ('lightning'), <small>OCS</small> ''mъldni'' ('lightning'), <small>Welsh</small> ''mellten'' ('bolt of lightning').{{Sfn|Watkins|1995|p=429}} |From a <small>PIE</small> stem ''meld-n-,'' which may have originally designated ]' weapon. Cognate with <small>Latv.</small> ''milna'' (]' hammer), <small>OPrus.</small> ''mealde'' ('lightning'), <small>OCS</small> ''mъldni'' ('lightning'), <small>Welsh</small> ''mellten'' ('bolt of lightning').{{Sfn|Watkins|1995|p=429}}
|Thor's hammer. See ] for further discussion. |Thor's hammer. See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*mēnandag'''''
|'Monday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Mōnandæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Mōnandei'', <small>MDu.</small> <small>MLG</small> ''Mānendach'', <small>OHG</small> ''Mānetag''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=379}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Mánadagr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=379}}''
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of ''*Menōn'' ('Moon') and ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Lunae dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=379}}''
|See *Mēnōn above. Source of Modern English ''Monday''.
|-
|'''''*nemeđaz'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=283}}
|'sacred grove'
|<small>OFrank.</small> ''nimid'', <small>OS</small> ''nimidas{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=283}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}''
|<small>Swed.</small> ''Nymden{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}''
|{{center|–}}
|Related to or borrowed PCelt. *''nemetom'' ('sacred grove, sanctuary').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=283}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}
|See ]
|- |-
|'''''*rūnō'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}'' |'''''*rūnō'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}''
Line 570: Line 688:
|<small>OE</small> ''rūn-stæf'', <small>OHG</small> ''rūn-stab''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}} |<small>OE</small> ''rūn-stæf'', <small>OHG</small> ''rūn-stab''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}
|<small>ON</small> ''rúna-stafr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}} |<small>ON</small> ''rúna-stafr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|A compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *''stabaz'' ('staff; letter').''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}'' |A compound of <small>PGmc</small> *''rūnō'' ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *''stabaz'' ('staff; letter').''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=310}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*saidaz''''' ~ '''''*saiþaz{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}''''' |'''''*saidaz{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}'''''
|'spell, charm, magic' |'spell, charm, magic'
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''seiðr'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}''''' |<small>ON</small> ''seiðr'''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}'''''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From a <small>PGmc</small> verb *''sīdanan'' ~ *''sīþanan'' ('to work charms'; cf. <small>ON</small> ''síða''); see also <small>OE</small> -''siden'' 'magic' (<*''sidnō''-). Identical to <small>Lith.</small> ''saitas'' ('magic, talisman').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}''''' |From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> ''*saiþa-'', which is cognate with <small>Lith.</small> ''saitas'' ('soothsaying, talisman') and <small>PCelt.</small> *''soyto''- ('magic').'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}} Probably originally identical to <small>PIE</small> *''soito''- ('string, rope'), from ''*seh<sub>2</sub>i-'' ('to bind').'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}'''''
|See also the <small>PGmc</small> verb *''sīdanan'' ('to work charms'; cf. <small>ON</small> ''síða'') and <small>OE</small> -''siden'' 'magic' (< *''sidnō''-).'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=313}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=421}}'''''
|<center>–</center>
|- |-
|'''*''saiwalō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}} |'''*''saiwalō'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}}
|'soul' |'soul'
|<small>OE</small> ''sāwel''; <small>OFris</small> ''sēle''; <small>OS</small> ''sēola'', ''sēla''; <small>OHG</small> ''sēola'', ''sēla''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}} |<small>OE</small> ''sāwel''; <small>OFris</small> ''sēle''; <small>OS</small> ''sēola'', ''sēla''; <small>OHG</small> ''sēola'', ''sēla''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''saiwala''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''saiwala''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}}
|According to ], derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''saiwiz'' ~ *''saiwaz'' ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes".{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}} |According to ], derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''saiwiz'' ~ *''saiwaz'' ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes".{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=314}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*skalda-'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}} |'''''*skaldaz'''''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}}
|'(satirical) poet' |'poet'
|<small>OHG</small> ''skelto{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}}'' |<small>OHG</small> ''skelto{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''skáld''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}} |<small>ON</small> ''skáld''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Probably from a <small>PGmc</small> verb *''skeldanan'' ~ *''skadjanan'' ('to mock, satirize').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}} |Probably from a <small>PGmc</small> verb *''skeldanan'' ~ *''skadjanan'' ('to announce, reproach'; cf. <small>ME</small> ''scolden'', <small>OFri</small>. ''skelda'', <small>ODu</small>. ''sceldan'', <small>OHG</small> ''sceltan'').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}} Perhaps related to <small>PCelt</small>. *''sketlo''- ('story, tidings'; cf. <small>OIr</small>. ''scél'' 'saga, narrative', <small>MWelsh</small> ''chwedl'' 'traditional narrative, tidings').{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=137}}
|] ''scāld'' was borrowed from <small>ON</small> ''skáld''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=481}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. scold, n.</ref> See ] for further discussion. |<small>OHG</small> ''skelto'', <small>MHG</small> ''schelte'' mean 'blamer, criticizer, satirist'.''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=439}}'' ] ''scāld'' was borrowed from <small>ON</small> ''skáld''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=481}}<ref>{{Harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}}, s.v. scold, n.</ref> See ] for further discussion.
|- |-
|'''''*sumlan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}} |'''''*sumlan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}}
Line 602: Line 720:
|<small>OE</small> ''symbel'', <small>OS</small> ''sumbal''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}} |<small>OE</small> ''symbel'', <small>OS</small> ''sumbal''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}}
|<small>ON</small> ''sum(b)l''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}} |<small>ON</small> ''sum(b)l''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''sṃ-lo-'' ('joint meal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}} |From <small>PIE</small> *''sṃ-lo-'' ('joint meal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=386}}
|See ] for further discussion. |See ] for further discussion.
|-
|'''''*sunnandag'''''
|'Sunday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Sunnandæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Sunnandei'', <small>MDu.</small> ''Sonnendach'', <small>MLG</small> ''Sunnendach'', <small>OHG</small> ''Sunnūntag''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=562}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Sunnudagr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=562}}''
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of *''sunnōn'' (genitive of ''*Sowēlo'' 'Sun') attached to ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Solis dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=562}}''
|See ''Sowēlo ~ Sōel'' above. Source of Modern English ''Sunday''.
|- |-
|'''''*tafnan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}} |'''''*tafnan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}}
|'sacrificial meat' |'sacrificial meat'
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''tafn''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=504}} |<small>ON</small> ''tafn''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=504}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Identical to <small>Lat.</small> ''damnum'' ('harm, damage, loss') and <small>Arm.</small> ''tawn'' ('feast') < <small>PIE</small> *''dh₂p-no-'' ('sacrificial meal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=504}} |From <small>Pre-Ger.</small> ''dapno-'' < <small>PIE</small> *''dh₂p-no-'' ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate with <small>Lat.</small> ''damnum'' ('harm, damage, loss'), <small>MIr.</small> ''dúan'' ('poem, song') and <small>Arm.</small> ''tawn'' ('feast').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=398}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=504}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=119}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*taufran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}} |'''''*taufran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}
Line 618: Line 744:
|<small>OE</small> ''tēafor'', <small>OFris.</small> ''tāver'', <small>MLG</small> ''tover'', <small>OHG</small> ''zoubar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}} |<small>OE</small> ''tēafor'', <small>OFris.</small> ''tāver'', <small>MLG</small> ''tover'', <small>OHG</small> ''zoubar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}
|<small>ON</small> ''taufr{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}'' |<small>ON</small> ''taufr{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|Possibly derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''tawjanan'' ('to do, make').''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}'' |Possibly derived from <small>PGmc</small> *''tawjanan'' ('to do, make').''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=402}}''
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|- |-
|'''''*tiƀran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}} |'''''*tiƀran'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}}
|'sacrifice, animal offering' |'sacrifice, animal offering'
|<small>OE</small> ''tiber'', ''tifer,'' <small>OHG</small> ''zebar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}} |<small>OE</small> ''tiber'', ''tifer,'' <small>OHG</small> ''zebar''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''aibr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''aibr''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}}
|Cognate with <small>Greek</small> ''δεῖπνον'' ('meal') and <small>Arm.</small> ''tvar'' ('male sheep') < <small>PIE</small> *''déip-r'', <small>gen.</small> ''dip-n-ós''.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=516}} According to some scholars, <small>Goth.</small> ''aibr'' should be emended to *''tibr''.{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=13}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=516}} |Cognate with <small>Greek</small> ''δεῖπνον'' ('meal') and <small>Arm.</small> ''tvar'' ('male sheep') < <small>PIE</small> *''déip-r'', <small>gen.</small> ''dip-n-ós''.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=406}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=516}} According to some scholars, <small>Goth.</small> ''aibr'' should be emended to *''tibr''.{{Sfn|Lehmann|1986|p=13}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=516}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|-
|'''''*tīwasdag'''''
|'Tuesday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Tīwesdæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Tīesdei'', <small>OHG</small> ''Ziestag''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=603}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Týsdagr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=603}}''
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of *''Tīwaz'' (]) and ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Martis dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=603}}''
|See *''Tīwaz'' above. Source of Modern English ''Tuesday''.
|-
|'''''*þonaresdag'''''
|'Thursday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Þunresdæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Thunresdei'', MDu. ''Donresdach'', <small>OHG</small> ''Donarestag''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=618}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Þórsdagr''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=618}}
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of *''Þun(a)raz'' (]) and ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Iovis dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=618}}''
|See ''*Þun(a)raz'' above. Source of Modern English ''Thursday''.
|- |-
|'''''*wīhaz{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}''''' |'''''*wīhaz{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}'''''
|'holy, divine' |'holy, divine'
|<small>OE</small> ''wīg''-, <small>OS</small> ''wīh''-, <small>OHG</small> ''wīh''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} |<small>OE</small> ''wīg''-, <small>OS</small> ''wīh''-, <small>OHG</small> ''wīh''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''weihs''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''weihs''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}
|From <small>PIE</small> *''wéik-o''-.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} Identical to <small>Lith.</small> ''viẽkas'' ('life force'), and further related to <small>Lat.</small> ''victima'' ('sacrificial animal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} |From <small>PIE</small> *''wéik-o''-.{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} Identical to <small>Lith.</small> ''viẽkas'' ('life force'), and further related to <small>Lat.</small> ''victima'' ('sacrificial animal').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}
|Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhēnan'' ~ *''wīhjanan'' ('to consecrate'), *''wīhislōn'' ('consecration'), and *''wīhiþō'' ('holiness, sanctity').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=465–466}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}} |Source of <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhēnan'' ~ *''wīhjanan'' ('to consecrate'),Proto-Celtic'consecration'), and *''wīhiþō'' ('holiness, sanctity').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|pp=465–466}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}
|- |-
|'''''*wīhan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |'''''*wīhan'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
Line 642: Line 784:
|<small>OE</small> ''wīh'', <small>OS</small> ''wīh'', <small>OHG</small> ''wīh''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |<small>OE</small> ''wīh'', <small>OS</small> ''wīh'', <small>OHG</small> ''wīh''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
|<small>ON</small> ''vé''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |<small>ON</small> ''vé''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhaz'' ('holy, divine').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhaz'' ('holy, divine').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}}
|See ] for further discussion. |See ] for further discussion.
Line 648: Line 790:
|'''''*wīhōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |'''''*wīhōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
|'priest' |'priest'
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<small>ON</small> ''Véi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |<small>ON</small> ''Véi''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
|<small>Goth.</small> ''weiha''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}} |<small>Goth.</small> ''weiha''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}
Line 657: Line 799:
|'to practice sorcery' |'to practice sorcery'
|<small>OE</small> ''wiccian'', <small>WFris.</small> ''wikje'', <small>MDu.</small> ''wicken'', <small>MHG</small> ''wicken''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}} |<small>OE</small> ''wiccian'', <small>WFris.</small> ''wikje'', <small>MDu.</small> ''wicken'', <small>MHG</small> ''wicken''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhaz'' ('holy, divine').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''wīhaz'' ('holy, divine').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}}
|This verb served as the derivational base for <small>OE</small> ''wicca'' ('witch') and <small>MHG</small> ''wicker'' ('soothsayer').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}} Source of modern English ]. |This verb served as the derivational base for <small>OE</small> ''wicca'' ('witch') and <small>MHG MDu.</small> ''wicker'' ('soothsayer').{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=586}} Source of Modern English '']''.
|- |-
|'''*''wītagōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}} |'''*''wītagōn'''''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}}
Line 666: Line 808:
|<small>OE</small> ''wítega'', <small>OHG</small> ''wīzago''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}} |<small>OE</small> ''wítega'', <small>OHG</small> ''wīzago''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}}
|<small>ON</small> ''vitki''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}} |<small>ON</small> ''vitki''{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}}
|<center>–</center> |{{center|–}}
|From <small>PGmc</small> *''witanan'' ('to know').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}} |From <small>PGmc</small> *''witanan'' ('to know').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}}
|Source of the <small>PGmc</small> verb ''*wītagōjanan'' ('to prophesy').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}} |Source of the <small>PGmc</small> verb ''*wītagōjanan'' ('to prophesy').{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=468}}
|- |-
|'''''*wōdanesdag'''''
| colspan="7" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small>
|'Wednesday'
|<small>OE</small> ''Wōdnesdæg'', <small>OFris.</small> ''Wērnisdei'', <small>MDu.</small> ''Woensdach'', <small>MLG</small> ''Wōdensdach'', <small>OHG</small> ''Wōdanstag{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=416}}''
|<small>ON</small> ''Óðinsdagr{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=416}}''
|{{center|–}}
|A <small>Late PGmc</small> compound of *''Wōdanaz'' (]) and ''*dag'' ('day'). Calque of <small>Lat</small> ''Mercurii dies''.''{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|p=416}}''
|See ''*Wōdanaz'' above. Source of Modern English ''Wednesday''.
|-
| colspan="8" |<small>Note: OE = ]; OFris = ]; OFrank. = ]; OS = ]; MLG = ]; OD = ]; MDu. = ]; OHG = ]; ON = ]; Goth. = ]; Lomb. = ]; Burg. = ]; PGmc = ]; Pre-Ger. = ]; PIE = ]; – = Unattested</small>
|} |}

== Shared lexicon with Celtic, Baltic and Slavic ==

=== Proto-Celtic ===
{{See also|Proto-Celtic paganism}}
The common religious vocabulary between Celtic and Germanic languages suggests that speakers of Proto-Germanic and ] were in close contact in ancient times and likely shared some of their beliefs.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|pp=79–80}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=van Sluis |first=Paulus |title=The Indo-European Puzzle Revisited: Integrating Archaeology, Genetics, and Linguistics |last2=Kroonen |first2=Guus |last3=Jørgensen |first3=Anders Richardt |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-26173-9 |chapter=European Prehistory between Celtic and Germanic: The Celto-Germanic Isoglosses Revisited}}</ref> This connection likely dates back even further to interactions between ] and Celtic languages, as shown by some cognates that do not exhibit the effects of ], which is usually dated to around 500 BCE.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|pp=79–80}}

Historian ] argues that Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic languages remained in close contact from 1800 to between 1200 and 900 BCE, partly due to the long-distance metal trade with Scandinavia. A few of these terms can be identified as Celtic loanwords that entered the Germanic languages between 900 and 500 BCE, after the sound changes in Proto-Celtic had been completed.{{Sfn|Koch|2020|pp=79–80}}

=== Baltic and Slavic ===
The relationship between Proto-Germanic speakers and those of Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic is unclear.<ref>{{Citation |last=Roberge |first=Paul |title=Contact and the History of Germanic Languages |date=2020 |work=The Handbook of Language Contact |pages=323–343 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Ltd |language=en |doi=10.1002/9781119485094.ch16 |isbn=978-1-119-48509-4}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> ] writes that the "acceptable lexical evidence exclusively shared by the Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic tribes is hardly sufficient to draw any definite conclusions as to their close relationship".<ref name=":0">{{Citation |last=Polomé |first=Edgar C. |title=2. Germanic and the other Indo-European languages |date=2011 |work=Toward a grammar of Proto-Germanic |pages=43–70 |editor-last=Coetsem |editor-first=Frans van |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783111549040.43/html |access-date=2025-01-17 |publisher=Max Niemeyer Verlag |language=en |doi=10.1515/9783111549040.43 |isbn=978-3-11-154904-0 |editor2-last=Kufner |editor2-first=Herbert L.}}</ref> ] argues that because a substantial portion of the vocabulary shared between Germanic and ] was borrowed after the Baltic–Slavic split, Germanic and ] could never have been contiguous Indo-European dialects. According to him, the earliest contacts between Germanic and Baltic-Slavic speakers must date to the early Middle Ages, and Germanic loanwords in Baltic must have passed through a Slavic intermediary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kortlandt |first=Frederik |date=2016 |title=Baltic, Slavic, Germanic |journal=Baltistica |language=en |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=81–86 |doi=10.15388/baltistica.51.1.2283 |issn=2345-0045|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some religious materials have been found to be shared between Germanic, Slavic and Celtic. For instance, the Proto-Germanic word for '']'' (''*wira-wulfaz'', 'man-wolf') appears to be semantically related to the ] and ] equivalents *''vьlko-dlakь'' ('wolf-haired') and *''wiro-kū'' ('man-dog'), respectively.{{sfn|Orel|2003|p=463}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|p=96}} The motif of the ] is also shared amongst the Germans, Celts, and Slavs.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Stith |title=The Folktale |date=1977 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0-520-03537-2 |page=257}}</ref>

=== Shared lexicon ===
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Germanic
!Celtic
!Balto-Slavic
!Meaning
!Sources
|-
|*''Ala-fader''
|''*Olo-(p)atīr''
|–
|'All-Father' (an epithet)
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|-
|''*alh(a)z''
|–
|<small>Lith.</small> ''alkas''
|'holy grove, temple'
|{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=14}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=22}}
|-
|''*Austrōn''
|–
|<small>Lith.</small> ''Aušrinė''
|a goddess connected with the dawn
|{{sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=43}}
|-
|''*dwas-''
|''*dwosyos''
|<small>Lith.</small> ''dvasià''
|'], daemon, spirit, soul, ghost'
|''{{Sfn|Delamarre|2003|p=158}}'''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}'''''
|-
|''*draugaz''
|*''drougo''-
|–
|'sprit, phantom'
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}
|-
|''*elhja-''
|''ol(c)c''
|–
|'bad, evil'
|'''''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}'''''
|-
|''*ferg(w)unjō''
|*''ferkunyo''
|<small>Slav.</small> ''*per(g)ynja''
|'wooded mountains' (realm of *])
|''{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=136}}''{{Sfn|West|2007|p=241}}
|-
|''*Haihaz''
|*''kaiko''-
|–
|'one-eyed, blind in one eye' (an epithet)
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|-
|''*har(u)gaz''
|''*karnom''
|–
|'holy stone, funerary monument'
|''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|-
|''*kunjaz''
|–
|<small>Lith.</small> ''žinià''
|'omen, knowledge, magic'
|{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=311}}
|-
|''*lēk(i)jaz''
|''*lēagis''
|–
|'healer'
|{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=244}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|-
|''*lubjan''
|*''lubi''-
|–
|'(medicinal) herb'
|{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=341}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|-
|*''marōn''
|''mor-''
|<small>Slav.</small> ''*morà''
|'nightly spirit, bad dream'
|{{sfn|Derksen|2007|p=324}}<ref name=":22">{{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2021}} s.v. mare, n.2.</ref>
|-
|*''meldunjaz''
|''*meldo-''
|–
|'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god'
|''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=143}}''
|-
|*''nemedaz''
|''*nemetom''
|–
|'sacred grove, sanctuary'
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=141}}
|-
|''*rūnō''
|''*rūnā''
|–
|'secret, magic, mystery'
|'''''{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=316}}'''''
|-
|*''saidaz''
|''*soytos''
|<small>Lith.</small> ''saitas''
|'magic, charm, soothsaying'
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=144}}
|-
|''*skaldaz''
|? *''sketlo''-
|–
|'poet'
|{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=137}}
|-
|*''skōhsla-''
|''*skāhslo-''
|–
|'demon, supernatural being, evil spirit'
|''{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=142}}''
|-
|''*Þun(a)raz''
|''*Tonaros''
|–
|From <small>PIE</small> *''(s)tenh₂-'' ('thunder')
|{{sfn|Matasović|2009|p=384}}{{sfn|Koch|2020|pp=142–144}}
|-
|''*wehtiz''
|–
|<small>Slav.</small> ''*vektь''
|'creature'
|<ref name="orel-kroonen2">{{harvnb|Orel|2003|pp=15, 452}}; {{harvnb|Kroonen|2013|p=578}}</ref>
|-
|''*wīhaz''
|–
|<small>Lith.</small> ''viẽkas''
|'holy, divine'
|{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=465}}{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=585}}
|-
|''*wōðaz''
|''*wātis''
|–
|'seer, sooth-sayer; ecstatic, possessed, (divinely) inspired'
|{{Sfn|Kroonen|2013|p=592}}{{Sfn|Koch|2020|p=140}}
|}

== See also ==
*]
*]
*]
*]


==Notes== ==Notes==
Line 682: Line 999:
*{{Cite book|last=de Vries|first=Jan|title=Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|year=1957|isbn=|edition=1970|volume=2|author-link=Jan de Vries (linguist)}} *{{Cite book|last=de Vries|first=Jan|title=Altgermanische Religionsgeschichte|publisher=Walter De Gruyter|year=1957|isbn=|edition=1970|volume=2|author-link=Jan de Vries (linguist)}}
*{{Cite book|last=de Vries|first=Jan|title=Altnordisches Etymologisches Worterbuch|publisher=Brill|year=1962|isbn=978-90-04-05436-3|edition=1977|author-link=Jan de Vries (philologist)}} *{{Cite book|last=de Vries|first=Jan|title=Altnordisches Etymologisches Worterbuch|publisher=Brill|year=1962|isbn=978-90-04-05436-3|edition=1977|author-link=Jan de Vries (philologist)}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Falluomini|first=Carla|author-link=Carla Falluomini|year=2017|title=Zum gotischen Fragment aus Bologna II: Berichtigungen und neue Lesungen|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und Literatur|volume=146|issue=3|pages=284–294}} *{{Cite journal|last=Falluomini|first=Carla|author-link=Carla Falluomini|year=2017|title=Zum gotischen Fragment aus Bologna II: Berichtigungen und neue Lesungen|journal=Zeitschrift für deutsches Altertum und deutsches Literatur|volume=146|issue=3|pages=284–294|doi=10.3813/zfda-2017-0012 |s2cid=217253695 }}
*{{Cite journal|last=Hopkins|first=Joseph|first2=Haukur|last2=Þorgeirsson|year=2011|title=The Ship in the Field|journal=]|issue=3|pages=14-18}} *{{Cite journal|last1=Hopkins|first1=Joseph|first2=Haukur|last2=Þorgeirsson|year=2011|title=The Ship in the Field|journal=]|issue=3|pages=14–18}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Hopkins|first=Joseph|year=2012|title=Goddesses Unknown I: Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr|journal=]|issue=5|pages=39-44}} *{{Cite journal|last=Hopkins|first=Joseph|year=2012|title=Goddesses Unknown I: Njǫrun and the Sister-Wife of Njǫrðr|journal=]|issue=5|pages=39–44}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472}} *{{Cite journal|last=Jackson|first=Peter|date=2002|title=Light from Distant Asterisks. Towards a Description of the Indo-European Religious Heritage|journal=Numen|volume=49|issue=1|pages=61–102|doi=10.1163/15685270252772777|issn=0029-5973|jstor=3270472}}
*{{cite book|last=Koch|first=John T.|title=Celto-Germanic, Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West |publisher=University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies|year=2020|isbn=9781907029325|author-link=John T. Koch}}
*{{Cite book|last=Kroonen|first=Guus|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|publisher=Brill|year=2013|isbn=9789004183407}} *{{Cite book|last=Kroonen|first=Guus|title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Germanic|publisher=Brill|year=2013|isbn=9789004183407}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lecouteux|first=Claude|title=Encyclopedia of Norse and Germanic Folklore, Mythology, and Magic|year=2016|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-62055-481-4|author-link=Claude Lecouteux}} *{{Cite book|last=Lecouteux|first=Claude|title=Encyclopedia of Norse and Germanic Folklore, Mythology, and Magic|year=2016|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-62055-481-4|author-link=Claude Lecouteux}}
*{{Cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Winfred P.|title=A Gothic Etymological Dictionary|year=1986|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-08176-5|author-link=Winfred P. Lehmann}} *{{Cite book|last=Lehmann|first=Winfred P.|title=A Gothic Etymological Dictionary|year=1986|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-08176-5|author-link=Winfred P. Lehmann}}
*{{Cite book |last=Lindow |first=John |author-link=John Lindow |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC |title=Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-983969-8 |language=en}}
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*{{Cite book|last=Orel|first=Jean-Paul|title=A Handbook of Germanic Etymology|year=2003|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12875-0|author-link=Vladimir Orel}} *{{Cite book |last=Matasović |first=Ranko |author-link=Ranko Matasović |title=Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |isbn=9789004173361}}
*{{Cite book|last=Orel|first=Vladimir|title=A Handbook of Germanic Etymology|year=2003|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-12875-0|author-link=Vladimir Orel}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Poirier|first=Joseph|year=2007|title=The Names of the Months in Europe: Agricultural and Meteorological influences|journal=European Review|issue=15 (2)|pages=199-207}}
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* {{cite book |last1=Rübekeil |first1=Ludwig |author-link1=Ludwig Rübekeil |year=2002 |chapter=Scandinavia In The Light of Ancient Tradition |editor1-last=Bandle |editor1-first=Oskar |editor1-link=:de:Oskar Bandle |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/?id=RqkBXIJkkuEC |volume=1 |publisher=] |pages=593–604 |isbn=9783110148763 }} * {{cite book |last1=Rübekeil |first1=Ludwig |author-link1=Ludwig Rübekeil |year=2002 |chapter=Scandinavia In The Light of Ancient Tradition |editor1-last=Bandle |editor1-first=Oskar|editor1-link=:de:Oskar Bandle |title=The Nordic Languages |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RqkBXIJkkuEC |volume=1 |publisher=] |pages=593–604 |isbn=9783110148763}}
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*{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie|year=1984|publisher=A. Kröner|isbn=3-520-36801-3|author-link=Rudolf Simek}} *{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie|year=1984|publisher=A. Kröner|isbn=3-520-36801-3|author-link=Rudolf Simek}}
*{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology|year=1993|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=0-85991-513-1|author-link=Rudolf Simek}} *{{Cite book|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|title=Dictionary of Northern Mythology|year=1993|publisher=Boydell & Brewer Ltd|isbn=0-85991-513-1|author-link=Rudolf Simek}}
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*{{Cite book|last=West|first=Martin L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|author-link=Martin Litchfield West}} *{{Cite book|last=West|first=Martin L.|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|author-link=Martin Litchfield West}}


] {{Germanic mythology}}
{{Germanic peoples}}

] ]

Latest revision as of 04:40, 22 January 2025

Beliefs of Proto-Germanic speakers

Proto-Germanic paganism was the beliefs of the speakers of Proto-Germanic and includes topics such as the Germanic mythology, legendry, and folk beliefs of early Germanic culture. By way of the comparative method, Germanic philologists, a variety of historical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Germanic folklore (reconstructions are indicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposed motifs from the early Germanic period.

Linguistic reconstructions can be obtained via comparison between the various Germanic languages, comparison with related words in other Indo-European languages, especially Celtic and Baltic, comparison with borrowings into neighbouring language families such as Uralic, or via a combination of those methods. This allows linguists to project some terms back to the Proto-Germanic period despite their attestation in only one Germanic language; for instance, *saidaz ('magic') is only attested in Old Norse seiðr, but has parallels in Proto-Celtic *soytos and Lithuanian saitas.

Deities

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Romano-Germanic West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
? *Agjō-þe(g)waz – OE Ecgþéow, OHG Eggideo ON Eggþér – Meaning 'edge-servant'. Peter H. Salus and Paul B. Taylor suggest that the name may have referred to an arouser of great battles and feuds, although other scholars remain skeptical about drawing a mythological parallel between Old English and Old Norsel. See Eggþér for further discussion.
? Ala-fader – – ON Alfǫðr – From Pre-Ger. *Ala-faþēr. Identical to PCelt. *Olo-(p)atīr (cf. Middle Irish Ollathair). An epithet meaning 'all-father', used as a byname of Óðinn in Old Norse. It can be compared with the Middle Irish Eochu Ollathair, commonly used for the Dagda.
*Austrōn (See entry notes) OE Ēostre, OHG *Ôstara, OS *Āsteron – – From the PIE stem *h2(e)wes- ('to shine, glow red'). Cognate with the Lithuanian deity Aušrinė, and further related to the PIE dawn-goddess *h₂éwsōs. A West Germanic spring goddess associated with a festival held in her name during the 'Easter-month', *Austro-mēnōþ, equivalent to modern 'April'. The matronae Austriahenae, if Germanic, derive from the same stem. The Old English and Old High German forms are the origin of the modern holiday names Easter and Ostern, respectively. See Ēostre for further discussion.
*Auza-wanđilaz – OE Ēarendel, OHG Aurendil, Lomb. Auriwandalo ON Aurvandil Goth. auzandil Probably a compound of PGmc *auzom ('shiny, shiny liquid') and a derivate of *wanđuz ('rod, cane'). The PGmc form would therefore perhaps mean 'Light-Beam' Generally seen as a personification of the 'rising light' of the morning, possibly embodying the Morning Star (Venus). See Aurvandill for further discussion.
*Balđraz – OE Bældæg, OHG Balder ON Baldr – From PGmc *balþaz ('brave'), which is identical to Lith. báltas ('white', also the name of a light-god), based on the semantic development from 'white' to 'shining' or 'strong' (man) > 'hero, lord, prince'. ON Baldr ('brave, defiant; lord, prince') and OHG Balder are close to OE bealdor ('prince, hero'). The OE theonym Bældæg likely means 'Shining Day', as suggested by his association with 'day' and by the name of the Lith. light-god Báltas. See Baldr for further discussion.
Divine horse twins or dioscuri (motif) Alcis OE Hengist and Horsa, Low German Hengist and Hors (Holstein, 1875) – – – Scholars have proposed a variety of figures in the ancient Germanic record as extensions of this motif. Tacitus (Germania), mentions twin deities, the Alcis (PGmc *alhiz ~ *algiz), who he compares to the Greek Dioscuri. The deities are generally seen as a reflex of the Proto-Indo-European Divine twins. Their name either means 'elk' or 'protector'. Some scholars have speculated that it may be related to the z-rune ᛉ (algiz), although evidence is scarse.
*Frawja- ~ *Fraw(j)ōn – OE frēa; OFris. frā; OS frōho, frāho; MDu. vroon; OHG frō ON Freyr (theonym) Goth. frauja Unclear etymology. An epithet meaning 'Lord'/'Lady'. Occurs as a theonym in Old Norse and, in a Christian context, in Old English. According to Kroonen, "both in form and meaning, fraiwa- ('seed') is reminiscent of Freyr 'fertility deity' < *frauja-. We may therefore consider the possibility that *fraiwa- was metathesized from *frawja-, a collective of some kind." See *Fraujaz for further discussion.
*Frawjōn – OS frūa, OHG frouwa ON Freyja (theonym) –
*Frijjō – OE Frīg, OFris Frīa, OS Frī, OHG Frīja ON Frigg – From PGmc *frijaz ('free'), itself from PIE *priH-o- ('one's own, beloved'). In a clan-based societal system, the meaning 'free' arose from the meaning 'related' (cf. PGmc *frijōnan 'to love', *friþuz 'friendship, peace'). Goddess, in most sources partner of *Wōđanaz. Source of *Frijjadag ('Frijjō-day; Friday'). See Frigg for further discussion.
*Fullōn – OHG Volla ON Fulla – From PGmc *fullaz ('full'), meaning 'fullness, plenitude' A goddess associated with *Frijjō. See Fulla for further discussion.
*Gautaz – OE Gēat, Lang.

Gausus

ON Gautr, Gauti Goth. Gaut (Gapt) Derived from PGmc *geutanan ('to pour'), or an ablaut variant of *gutaz ~ *gutōn ('Goth, Gut') A name for Odin. The early Germanic form may mean 'pourer (of semen)', i.e. 'man'. Rudolf Simek writes that as a mythical ancestor of the Goths (Gapt) and considered an ancestor in so many places he may have been the same as Odin in the Germanic peoples' common homeland in Scandinavia. Also the name of the Geats. See Gaut for further discussion.
? *Haihaz – – ON Hárr Goth. haihs Cognate with PCelt. *kaiko- ('one-eyed, blind in one eye') and, with a slightly different meaning, with PIt. *kaikos ('blind'). Perhaps an epithet meaning 'One-Eyed', attested as a common noun in Gothic. ON Hárr, a byname of Óðinn, has been derived from an earlier Proto-Norse *Haiha-hariz/ʀ ('the One-eyed Hero'). According to scholar Adam Hyllested, "the Celtic god Lug closes one eye in his magic ritual, while in Germanic mythology being one-eyed is a key attribute of Óðinn". See Hárr for further information.
*Hludanaz Hludana – ON Hlóðyn – Uncertain etymology. According to De Vries, probably a chthonic deity. The ON Hlóðyn was possibly borrowed from the West Germanic theonym Hludana around the 8th c. AD. See Hludana for further discussion.
? *Huldō – Ger. Holda ON Huld, Hulder – Meaning 'the Hidden One'. Although the relationship between the names is uncertain, all forms point to a common meaning of 'the hidden one'.
*Ingwaz – OE Ing, OS Ing ON Yngvi Goth. Ing, enguz Uncertain etymology A mythical ancestor, progenitor of the Ingvaeōnes. See also the Latinized Proto-Germanic personal name Inguiomērus. Name of the ŋ-rune ᛝ. See Yngvi for further discussion.
? *Ingwina-frawjaz – OE frēa Ingwina ON lngunarfreyr – Possibly a compound of PGmc *Ingwina- (Ing-friends') and *frawja- ('Lord'). *Ingwina- is derived from the name Ing- (see *Ingwaz) attached to PGmc *winiz ('friend'). Together, these forms mean 'Lord of the Ing-friends'. (See Ingaevones) See also ON Ygvifreyr (< *Ingwia-frawjaz).
*Mannaz ~ *Manwaz Mannus OE mann, OFris mann, OS mann, OHG man(n) ON maðr, mannr Goth. manna Meaning 'Man'. Cognate with Sanskrit Mánu and Avestan *Manuš. Cosmogonical figure; son of *Twistō, divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples (Tacitus). Name of the m-rune ᛗ (cf. man(n), maðr). See Mannus and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Mēnōn – OE móna, OFris mōna, OS māno, ODu. māne, OHG māno ON Máni Goth. mēna, Crim. Goth. mine Meaning 'Moon'. From PIE *meh₁n-ōs ('moon; month'). The Germanic n-stem arose secondarily from the nom. *mēnō, which may regularly continue *meh₁n-ōt (cf. PGmc *mēnōþ-z 'month'). Source of Late PGmc *Mēnandag ('Moon-day; Monday'). Personified as a deity, Máni ('Moon'), in Old Norse.
*Nerþuz Nerthus – ON Njǫrðr – The original meaning of the theonym is contested. It may be related to the Irish word nert, meaning 'force' and 'power'. The name Njǫrðr may be related to Njǫrun, an Old Norse goddess name. See Nerthus, Njörðr, and Sister-wife of Njörðr for further discussion.
*Sowelō ~ *Sōel – OHG Sunne (theonym), OE sigel ON Sól (theonym) Goth. sugil PGmc *Sowel- > *Sōel- (gen. *Sunnōn) derives from the PIE word for 'sun', *séh₂uel, whose genitive form is *sh₂éns, sh₂unós. *Sugelan is a variant of Sowelō that can be morphologically compared to PGmc *sweglaz ('sunlight'). Meaning 'Sun'. A goddess and personification of the Sun. The variant *Sugelan may have been the original name of the s-rune ᛊ (cf. sigel, sugil), via taboo avoidance. The genitive form *Sunnōn is at the origin of OHG Sunne and Late PGmc *Sunnandag ('Sun-day'); it is also the predecessor to modern English Sun. See Sól for further discussion.
*Tīwaz – OE Tīw, OHG *Ziu ON Týr Goth. *Teiws From PIE *deywós ('celestial', hence a 'deity'), itself from *dyēus ('daylight sky god'). A general epithet meaning 'god, deity' that eventually replaced the name of a specific deity whose original name is now lost. *Tīwaz was associated with the thing and equated with the Roman war god Mars through interpretatio germanica. Name of the t-rune (ᛏ). Source of Late PGmc *Tīwasdag ('Tīwaz-day; Tuesday'). See Týr for further discussion
*Twistō Tuisto – – – Etymologically 'Twofold' (i.e. 'Twin', 'Bisexual', or 'Hermaphrodite'). Related to PGmc *twistaz, which is structurally close to Sanskrit dviṣṭa- ('staying in two places, ambiguous'). Legendary divine ancestor of the West Germanic peoples according to Tacitus. See Tuisto and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Þingsaz Thingsus MDu. Dings*, MLG Dinges*, OHG Dinges* – – From PGmc *þingaz ('thing, assembly'). An epithet meaning 'of the thing' Attached to Mars (*Tīwaz) in early West Germanic cultures (see interpretatio germanica and interpretatio romana); perhaps originally a god associated with law. Attested in Latin as Thingsus, and probably included in the name for 'Tuesday' in some Germanic languages.
*Þun(a)raz – OE Þunor, OS Thunar, OFris Thuner, OHG Donar ON Þórr – From the PIE root *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder'). Cognate with the Celt. thunder-god Taranis (< *Tonaros), and further related to the Latin epithet Tonans. Meaning 'Thunder' According to Peter Jackson, the Celtic–Germanic theonym *Þun(a)raz ~ *Tonaros may have emerged as the result of the fossilization of an original epithet or epiclesis of the PIE thunder-god *Perkunos. Source of Late PGmc *Þonaresdag ('Þunraz-day; Thursday'). See also below *melđunjaz, the name of *Þunraz's weapon. See Thor for further discussion.
*Yum(i)yaz – – ON Ymir – Meaning 'Twin'. Cognate with Skt Yama, Av. Yima, and probably with Lat. Remus (< *Yemos). Cosmogonical figure, mythical primeval ancestor. See Ymir and Indo-European cosmogony for further discussion.
*Wōđanaz – OE Wōden, OS Woden, OD Wuodan, OHG Wuotan, Lomb. Godan ON Óðinn – Meaning 'Lord of Frenzy'. From PGmc *wōđaz ('delirious, raging') attached to the suffix -naz ('master of'). The former is identical to PCelt. *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and Lat. vātēs ('prophet, seer'). Evidence points to a god strongly associated with ecstatic divination and wisdom. Compare the numerous Germanic cognates connoting 'violent agitation, mad rage, possession' with ON Óðr ('wit, sense, song, poetry'), OE wōð ('sound, voice, song'), and the other Indo-European cognates meaning 'seer, prophet'. Source of Late PGmc *Wōdanesdag ('Wōdanaz-day; Wednesday'). See Óðinn for further discussion.
? *Wōđaz – OE wōð, OHG wuot, MD woet ON Óðr – From Pre-Germanic *uoh₂-tós. Related to PCelt *wātis ('seer, sooth-sayer') and *wātus ('prophesy, poetic inspiration'). Meaning 'possessed, inspired, delirious, raging'. The source of the Old Norse theonym *wōđa-naz. The related Celtic stem *wātu- is also attested in the Belgic god Vatumar. See Óðr for further discussion.
*Wulþuz (o)wlþu- – ON Ullr – From PIE *ul-tu- < *uel- ('to see'). Identical to Lat. vultus ('facial expression, appearance'). Meaning 'Glory'. Attested as owlþuþewaz ('servant of owlþuz') on the Thorsberg chape (3rd c. AD). Cf. also Goth. wulþus ('glory'). OE wuldor ('glory') stems from PGmc *wuldraz. See Ullr for further discussion.
*Wurđiz – OE wyrd, OS wurd, OHG wurt ON Urðr – Meaning 'Fate'. From PGmc *werþanan ('to come about, happen, become'). A concept comparable to fate personified as a female entity in Old Norse (a norn, a goddess-like being) and in Old English. See Urðr for further discussion.
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Entities

Proto-Germanic reconstruction West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*alƀaz OE ælf, MD alf, MLG alf, OHG alb ON álfr Burg. *alfs From the PIE root for '(matt) white', *h₂elbʰ-. Structurally close to Lat. albus ('(matt) white') and Grk alphoús ('white'). Evidence from the early Germanic languages, as well as occasional contemporary evidence of a Latin borrowing aelfae (referring to a diabolic being), point to a shared inherited belief in supernatural beings, though the precise details of this belief are hard to trace because of the limitation of sources. See elf for further discussion.
*al(j)a-wihtiz OE æl-wiht ON al-vitr – Compound of *aljaz ('other') and *wihtiz ('thing, creature'). See *wehtiz ~ *wihtiz below.
*ansuz ~ *ansiz OE ōs, OS ās, OHG ansi- ON áss Goth. anses Meaning '(a) deity'. From PIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth'). Identical to Hitt. ḫassu- ('king'), Skt. ásu- ('life, vital strength'), Av. ahu- ('lord'), or Venet. ahsu- ('cult image'). Further related to Skt ásura- and Av. ahura- ('god, lord'). Potentially connected to PGmc *ansaz 'beam' (see also Anthropomorphic wooden cult figurines of Central and Northern Europe). Also attested in early Scandinavian runic asu- (probably for *ansu-). Name of the a-rune ᚨ. See Æsir for further discussion.
*đīsō ~ dīsi- OE ides, OS idis, OHG itis ON dís – Uncertain etymology. The West Germanic forms present some difficulty to resolve but the North Germanic and West Germanic forms are used explicitly as cognates (e.g. OE ides Scildinga and ON dís Skjǫldunga). A variety of goddess-like supernatural female entity. Variously rendered by translators into modern English as terms like 'goddess', '(noble, divine) lady', or 'fairy'. The PGmc form may occur in the place name Idistaviso (perhaps PGmc *Idisiaviso 'plain of the Idisi') and may be further reflected in ON Iðavöllr if the location name is amended to *Iðavöllr. According to Jan de Vries, although the connection between the West Germanic and Old Norse forms remains controversial, the fact that ON dís goes back to Proto-Germanic is proved by the personal names Frank. Agedisus, Disibod, Aleman. Disi, Lomb. Tiso. See dís and Idis (Germanic) and compare *wala-kuzjōn below.
*draugaz – ON draugr – Identical to PCelt. *drougos (cf. OIr. airdrech 'sprite, phantom' < *(p)ari-drougo-). A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost. See draugr for further discussion.
*dwas- OE dwœs, MHG ge-twās – – From Pre-Ger. *dhwos-. Related to PCelt. *dwosyos (cf. Gaul. dusios 'incubus, daemon') and Lith. dvasià ('breath, spirit, soul'). A name for a supernatural being akin to a phantom or a ghost.
*đwergaz OE dweorg, OFris. dwirg, OS *dwerg, MDu. dwerch, OHG twerg ON dvergr – Unclear etymology. Perhaps from a PGmc verb *dwerganan ('to squeeze, press') possibly attested in MHG zwergen. References to dwarfs as supernatural beings occur in Old Norse, Middle High German, and Middle Dutch. While Old English texts do not clearly show the mythological sense, it is suggested by the use of the word to label an unknown illness (likely blamed on a supernatural being), which may be compared with the early Scandinavian (runic) term tuirk, an ailment apparently marked by headaches. Additionally, early place names such as Dueridene, Dwerihouse and Dwerffehole hint at a supernatural concept of dwarfs, often associated with subterranean spaces. For further discussion, see Dwarf.
*etunaz OE eōten ON jǫtunn – Probably from PGmc *etanan ('to eat'). One of several terms connected to a class of entity. See jötunn for further discussion.
*gaistaz OE gǽst, OFris gāst, OS gēst, ODu. gēst, OHG geist – – Meaning 'ghost, spirit, wrath'. From Pre-Ger. *ghois-t-oz ('fury, anger'), which is comparable to Sanskrit héḍas ('anger') and Avestan zōižda- ('terrible, ugly'). Although the word is only attested in the West Germanic languages, it appears to be of pre-Germanic formation. See ghost for further discussion.
*guđ(a)z OE god, OFris. god, ODu. god, OS god, OHG got ON guð Goth. guþ Meaning '(a) deity' and predecessor to modern English god. Unclear etymology. Traditionally derived from *ǵʰu-t(ó)- ('libated one') < *ǵʰeu- ('to pour'), although alternative connections with PIE *ǵʰeuH- ('to invoke'), with OCS gověti ('to revere'), or with Greek χυτὴ γαῖα ('burial mound') have also been proposed. The source of PGmc *guđ(a)-fuhtaz ('god-fearing'), *guđ(a)-lausaz ('god-less'), aƀa-guđaz ('godless, lit. off-god'), *guđ(a)-waƀjaz ('precious fabric, silk'), or *guđ(a)-hūsan (temple; if not a calque of Lat. domus Dei).
*lenþa-wurmaz MLG linde-worm, OHG lind-wurm ON linn-ormr – Compound of *lenþaz ('snake') and *wurmaz ('worm'). A dragon or serpent-like entity. See lindworm and germanic dragon for further discussion.
*marōn OE mære, MD māre, OS māra, OHG mara ON mara – From PIE *mor-eh₂, of unclear origin. Cognate with Slav. *morà ('nightly spirit, bad dream') and OIr. mor-rígain ('queen of bad dreams'; a goddess of the battlefield and female malicious entity). See also the Russian kiki-mora, a female house-spirit that spins at night. A malevolent female spirit associated with bad dreams (as in the second element of modern English night-mare). The image of a female ghost or malicious entity who tortures people by way of nightmares is apparently common to Slavic, Germanic and, possibly, Celtic. Borrowed from Middle Dutch into Old Picard as mare > cauque-mare (attached to cauquier 'to press'; mod. Fr. cauchemar), which designated a 'witch' haunting bad dreams. See Mare (folklore) for further discussion.
*nikwiz ~ *nikwuz ~ *nikwaza- OE nicor, MDu. nicker, MLG necker, OHG nichus, nihhus ON nykr – From PIE *nígʷ-ōs < *neigʷ- ('to wash'). An entity associated with water, which probably also existed under the feminine form *nikwazjōn (cf. OHG nickessa). See Nixie (folklore) for further discussion.
*skrattōn ~ *skradan- OE scrætte, OHG scratto ON skratti – An n-stem originally inflected as *skradō, gen. *skrattaz < *skrodʰōn, *skrodʰnós. A variety of malicious entity.
*skōhsla- – – Goth. skōhsl Identical to PCelt. *skāhslo- (cf. Old Irish scál ‘supernatural or superhuman being, phantom, giant, hero; the god Lug’, Middle Welsh yscaul ‘hero, champion, warrior'). A name for an evil spirit or a demon.
*þurisaz OE ðyrs, OHG duris ON þurs – No clear etymology. Perhaps related to ON þyrja ('to rush'), ON þora ('to dare'), or Icel. þursi ('quarrel, anger, rage'). One of a series of semantically related Proto-Germanic terms for a type of entity. Borrowed into early Finnish as Turisas, a war god and a sea monster. See jötunn for further discussion.
*wrisjōn OS wrisi-, OHG riso ON risi – Probably related to Greek ῥίον ('peak, headland'). One of the Proto-Germanic terms semantically related to jötunn. Occurs also in OS wrisi-līk ('enormous, wrisi-like'). For further discussion, see jötunn.
*wala-kuzjōn OE wælcyrge ON valkyrja – Meaning 'chooser of the slain'. Compound of *walaz ('the slain') and *kuzjōn ('chooser' < PGmc *keusanan 'to trial, select'). See also OE wæl-cēasega, a name for 'raven' that literally means 'chooser of the slain'. A variety of goddess-like female entity. Compare *đīsō above. See valkyrie for further discussion.
*wira-wulfaz OE were-wulf, OFrank. *wer-wolf, MDu. weer-wolf, MLG wer-wulf, WFris. waer-ûl(e), MHG wer-wolf ON varg-úlfr – Meaning 'man-wolf' and predecessor to modern English werewolf. Probably a compound of *wiraz ('man') and *wulfaz ('wolf'). Alternately derived from *wazi-wulfaz ('wolf-clothed'), bringing the compound semantically in line with the Slavic name for 'werewolf', *vьlko-dlakь, literally 'wolf-haired'. The Norse branch underwent taboo modifications, with ON vargúlfr replacing *wiraz ('man') with vargr ('outlaw; wolf'), probably under the influence of Old French leus warous, which literally means 'wolf-werewolf'. Old Frankish *werwolf is inferred from ONorm. garwa(l)f ~ garo(u)l. The modern Norse forms varulv (Danish, Norwegian) and varulf (Swedish) were probably borrowed from MLG werwulf, or else be derived from an unattested ON *varulfr, posited as the regular descendant form of PGmc *wira-wulfaz. See werewolf for further discussion.
*wehtiz ~ *wihtiz OE wiht, OS wiht, Du. wicht, OHG wiht ON vættr Goth. waihts A 'creature'. Related to Slav. *vektь ('thing'). Possibly from PIE *weḱti- ~ *weǵʰ-ti-, or a Germanic–Slavic isogloss. Cf. also Far. -vætti ('miserable creature') < *wehtja-. Referring to a 'creature, being, thing' in Germanic languages. See wight for further discussion
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Locations

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Translation West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*Ferg(w)unjan ~ *Ferg(w)unjō 'mountain' OHG Firgunnea ON Fjǫrgyn – Probably from PIE *per-kun-ih₂ ('wooded mountains', i.e. the realm of *Perkwunos). Cognate with PCelt. *ferkunyo > (H)ercynia. Cognate with or borrowed into Slav. as *per(g)ynja ('wooded hills'). Cf. also Goth. fairguni and OE firgen ('mountain'). See Perkwunos for further discussion.
*Haljō 'the concealed' OE hell, OFris helle, ODu. helle, OS hellia, OHG hella ON hel Goth. halja From PGmc *helanan ('to conceal, hide'). Precursor to modern English Hell, attested as an afterlife location throughout Germanic languages and personified as a female entity in Old Norse and Old English. See Hel (being) and Hel (location).
*Halja-wītjan 'hell-knowledge' OE helle-wīte, OS helli-wīti, MHG helle-wītze ON hel-víti – Compound of PGmc *Haljō ('Hell') and *wītjan ('knowledge, reason'). A poetic name for an underworld location. See *Haljō above.
*hem(e)naz 'heaven' OE heofon, OFris. himel, OS heƀan, ODu. himil, MLG hēven, OHG himil ON himinn Goth. himins From the gen. *h₂ḱmnós of PIE *h₂eḱmon ('heavenly vault of stone'). Possibly cognate with PGmc *hamaraz ('hammer') via a metathesized stem *ḱ(e)h₂-m-r- (cf. Grk kamára 'vault'). See Perkwunos#Heavenly vault of stone for further discussion.
*(hemena-)wangaz '(heaven-)meadow' OS heƀan-wang, OE (neorxna-)wang ON himin-vangr, (Fólk)vangr Gothic waggs Compound of PGmc *hemenaz ('heaven') and *wangaz ('meadow'). The noun *wangaz stems from the PIE root *uongʰ-, denoting a 'field'. A term denoting an afterlife heavenly meadow. PGmc *wangaz occurs as a gloss for 'paradise' in Old Norse, Old English, and Gothic, implying an early Germanic concept of an afterlife field in the heaven. Fólkvangr is an afterlife location associated with the goddess Freyja in Old Norse texts. See Fólkvangr and Neorxnawang.
*Meðjana-garðaz 'middle-enclosure' OE middan-geard, OS middil-gard, OHG mitti-gart ON mið-garðr Goth. midjun-gards Compound of PGmc *meðjanaz ('middle') and *garðaz ('enclosure, courtyard'). See Midgard for further discussion.
*wira-alđiz 'man-age' OE weorold, OFris. wrald, OS werold, MDu. werelt, OHG weralt ON verǫld – Compound of PGmc *wiraz ('man') and *alđiz ('age'). The inhabited world, the realm of humankind. Source of modern English world.
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Other

Proto-Germanic reconstruction Translation West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic Etymology Notes
*alh(a)z 'temple' OE ealh, OS alah ON -áll Goth. alhs Identical to Lith. alkas ('holy grove'). –
*austro-mēnōþ 'Austrōn-month' OE ēosturmōnaþ, ODu. ostermanoth, OHG ōstarmānōd – – A compound of WGmc *Austrōn (a female deity) and *mēnōþ ('month'). A West Germanic name for the 'month of *Austrōn', associated with a festival held around April and eventually displaced by the Christian Easter. See Ēostre and Ēosturmōnaþ for further discussion.
*ƀlōtanan 'to sacrifice' OE blōtan, OHG bluozan ON blóta Goth. blotan Traditionally compared to Lat. flāmen ('sacrificial priest'), possibly from an earlier *flādsmen < *bʰleh₂dmen-. Source of PGmc *ƀlostran ('sacrifice') and *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship').
*ƀlōta-hūsan 'house of worship, house of sacrifice' OHG bluoz-hūz ON blót-hús – Compound of PGmc *ƀlotan ('sacrifice, worship') and *hūsan ('house'). Place of worship, temple.
*elhja- 'evil' – ON illr – From Pre-Ger. *elkyo-, attested in the Finnish loanwords elkiä ('mean, malicious') and ilkeä ('bad, mean, wicked'). Possibly related to Old Irish ol(c)c ('bad, evil'). –
*frijjadag 'Friday' OE Frīgedæg, OFris. Frīadei, MDu. Vriendach, MLG Vrīdach, OHG Frīatag ON Frjádagr – A Late PGmc compound of *Frijjō ('Frigg') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Veneris dies. See *Frijjō above. ON Frjádagr was borrowed from OHG Frīatag. Source of Modern English Friday.
*galđran 'magic song, spell, charm' OE gealdor, OHG galtar ON galdr – From PGmc *galanan ('to shout, sing, chant'). See galdr for further discussion.
*guđ(j)ōn 'priest' OE *gydda ON goði, gyðja Goth. gudja From PGmc *guđaz ('god'). The Old English form appears as an apparent historical element of Modern English place names such as Gedding and Gidleigh.
*hailagaz 'holy' OE hālig, OFris. hēlich, OS hēlag, OHG heilag ON heilagr Goth. hailags From PGmc *hailaz ('hale, whole, sound'). Source of PGmc *hailagōjanan ('to make holy, consecrate').
*hailaga-mēnōþ 'holy-month' OE hāliġ-mōnaþ, ODu. heil-mānōth, OHG heilag-mānōth – – A compound of PGmc *hailagaz ('holy') and *mēnōþ ('month'). A West Germanic name for the 'holy month', equivalent to modern 'September' or 'December'. See Hāliġmōnaþ for further discussion.
*harƀistu-mēnōþz 'autumn-month, harvest-month' OE hærfest-mōnaþ, ODu. hervist-mānōth, OHG herbist-mānōth ON haust-mánuðr – A compound of PGmc *harƀistaz ('autumn, harvest') and *mēnōþz ('month'). Early Germanic name of the 'month of harvest'; roughly equivalent to modern 'August–November'. Cf. also ODu. Aranmānōth ~ OHG Aranmānōd ('harvest month, August'), from another PGmc stem *azani- ('harvest').
*har(u)gaz 'holy stone', perhaps 'sacrificial mound' OE hearg, OHG harug ON hǫrgr – From Pre-Ger. *karkú-. Probably borrowed from the same non-Indo-European source as PCelt. *karrikā ('stone'). See hörgr for further information
*halja-rūnō(n) 'witch, sorceress' OE helle-rūne, OHG helli-rūna – Lat.-Goth. pl. (Jordanes) haliurunae Compound of *haljō ('Hel') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune'). –
*hunslan 'sacrifice' OE hūsel ON húsl Goth. hunsl A sla-suffix added to the PIE stem *ḱuent- ('holy, sacred'). –
*hugi-rūnō 'secret of the mind, magical rune' OE hyge-rūn ON hug-rúnar – Compound of *hugiz ('understanding, mind') and *rūnō ('secret, mystery, rune'). –
*jehwlan 'Yule' OE geō(hho)l ON jól Goth. *jaihl No credible etymology. Name of a Germanic festival organized at the end of each year. Cf. also *Jehwla-đagaz ('Yule-day'). See Yule for further discussion.
*jehwla-mēnōþz ~ *jehwlaz 'Yule-month' OE gēol-mōnaþ, gīuli ON jól-mánuðr, ýlir Goth. jiuleis
*jēra-mēnōþz 'year-month' OHG jār-mānōd ON ár-mánaðr – A compound of PGmc *jēran ('year') and mēnōþz ('month'). Early Germanic name of the 'year-month'; equivalent to modern 'January'.
*kunjaz 'omen' – ON kyn – Closely related to Lith. žinià ('knowledge, magic'). –
*lēk(i)jaz 'healer, physician' OE lǣce, OS lāki, OFris. letza, OHG lāhhi ON lækir Goth. lekeis From Pre-Ger. *lēgyos. Borrowed from PCelt. lēagis (cf. OIr. lieig 'physician, healer, leech'). Source of PGmc *lēkinan ('cure, remedy') and *lēkinōjanan ('to heal').
*lubjan 'herbal medicine, magic potion' OE lybb, OS lubbi, MDu. lubbe, OHG lubbi ON lýf Goth. lubja- Related to PGmc *lauban ('foliage'; cf. PCelt. *lubi- 'herb'). Medicinal herb associated with magic (cf. Goth. lubja-leisei 'witchcraft, alchemist', OHG lubbari 'magician').
*melđunjaz 'lightning', 'hammer' – ON Mjǫllnir – From a PIE stem meld-n-, which may have originally designated Perkwunos' weapon. Cognate with Latv. milna (Pērkōns' hammer), OPrus. mealde ('lightning'), OCS mъldni ('lightning'), Welsh mellten ('bolt of lightning'). Thor's hammer. See Mjǫllnir for further discussion.
*mēnandag 'Monday' OE Mōnandæg, OFris. Mōnandei, MDu. MLG Mānendach, OHG Mānetag ON Mánadagr – A Late PGmc compound of *Menōn ('Moon') and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Lunae dies. See *Mēnōn above. Source of Modern English Monday.
*nemeđaz 'sacred grove' OFrank. nimid, OS nimidas Swed. Nymden – Related to or borrowed PCelt. *nemetom ('sacred grove, sanctuary'). See sacred trees and groves in Germanic paganism and mythology
*rūnō 'secret, mystery; secret counsel; rune' OE rūn, OS rūna, MDu. rūne, OHG rūna ON rún Goth. runa Borrowed from or cognate with PCelt. *rūna ('secret, magic'). Source of PGmc *runōn ('counsellor'), *rūnjan ('mystery'), *raunō ('trial, inquiry, experiment'). See runes for further discussion.
*rūna-stabaz 'runic letter' OE rūn-stæf, OHG rūn-stab ON rúna-stafr – A compound of PGmc *rūnō ('secret, mystery, counsel') and *stabaz ('staff; letter'). –
*saidaz 'spell, charm, magic' – ON seiðr – From Pre-Ger. *saiþa-, which is cognate with Lith. saitas ('soothsaying, talisman') and PCelt. *soyto- ('magic'). Probably originally identical to PIE *soito- ('string, rope'), from *seh2i- ('to bind'). See also the PGmc verb *sīdanan ('to work charms'; cf. ON síða) and OE -siden 'magic' (< *sidnō-).
*saiwalō 'soul' OE sāwel; OFris sēle; OS sēola, sēla; OHG sēola, sēla – Goth. saiwala According to Vladimir Orel, derived from PGmc *saiwiz ~ *saiwaz ('sea, lake'), "probably because of a Germanic belief in souls born out of and returning to sacred lakes". –
*skaldaz 'poet' OHG skelto ON skáld – Probably from a PGmc verb *skeldanan ~ *skadjanan ('to announce, reproach'; cf. ME scolden, OFri. skelda, ODu. sceldan, OHG sceltan). Perhaps related to PCelt. *sketlo- ('story, tidings'; cf. OIr. scél 'saga, narrative', MWelsh chwedl 'traditional narrative, tidings'). OHG skelto, MHG schelte mean 'blamer, criticizer, satirist'. Middle English scāld was borrowed from ON skáld. See skald for further discussion.
*sumlan 'banquet, symposium' OE symbel, OS sumbal ON sum(b)l – From PIE *sṃ-lo- ('joint meal'). See symbel for further discussion.
*sunnandag 'Sunday' OE Sunnandæg, OFris. Sunnandei, MDu. Sonnendach, MLG Sunnendach, OHG Sunnūntag ON Sunnudagr – A Late PGmc compound of *sunnōn (genitive of *Sowēlo 'Sun') attached to *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Solis dies. See Sowēlo ~ Sōel above. Source of Modern English Sunday.
*tafnan 'sacrificial meat' – ON tafn – From Pre-Ger. dapno- < PIE *dh₂p-no- ('sacrificial meal'). Cognate with Lat. damnum ('harm, damage, loss'), MIr. dúan ('poem, song') and Arm. tawn ('feast'). –
*taufran 'sorcery, magic' OE tēafor, OFris. tāver, MLG tover, OHG zoubar ON taufr – Possibly derived from PGmc *tawjanan ('to do, make'). –
*tiƀran 'sacrifice, animal offering' OE tiber, tifer, OHG zebar – Goth. aibr Cognate with Greek δεῖπνον ('meal') and Arm. tvar ('male sheep') < PIE *déip-r, gen. dip-n-ós. According to some scholars, Goth. aibr should be emended to *tibr. –
*tīwasdag 'Tuesday' OE Tīwesdæg, OFris. Tīesdei, OHG Ziestag ON Týsdagr – A Late PGmc compound of *Tīwaz (Týr) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Martis dies. See *Tīwaz above. Source of Modern English Tuesday.
*þonaresdag 'Thursday' OE Þunresdæg, OFris. Thunresdei, MDu. Donresdach, OHG Donarestag ON Þórsdagr – A Late PGmc compound of *Þun(a)raz (Thor) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Iovis dies. See *Þun(a)raz above. Source of Modern English Thursday.
*wīhaz 'holy, divine' OE wīg-, OS wīh-, OHG wīh – Goth. weihs From PIE *wéik-o-. Identical to Lith. viẽkas ('life force'), and further related to Lat. victima ('sacrificial animal'). Source of PGmc *wīhēnan ~ *wīhjanan ('to consecrate'),Proto-Celtic'consecration'), and *wīhiþō ('holiness, sanctity').
*wīhan 'sanctuary' OE wīh, OS wīh, OHG wīh ON vé – From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). See Vé (shrine) for further discussion.
*wīhōn 'priest' – ON Véi Goth. weiha From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). See Vili and Vé for further discussion.
*wikkōnan 'to practice sorcery' OE wiccian, WFris. wikje, MDu. wicken, MHG wicken – – From PGmc *wīhaz ('holy, divine'). This verb served as the derivational base for OE wicca ('witch') and MHG MDu. wicker ('soothsayer'). Source of Modern English witch.
*wītagōn 'wizard, prophet' OE wítega, OHG wīzago ON vitki – From PGmc *witanan ('to know'). Source of the PGmc verb *wītagōjanan ('to prophesy').
*wōdanesdag 'Wednesday' OE Wōdnesdæg, OFris. Wērnisdei, MDu. Woensdach, MLG Wōdensdach, OHG Wōdanstag ON Óðinsdagr – A Late PGmc compound of *Wōdanaz (Odin) and *dag ('day'). Calque of Lat Mercurii dies. See *Wōdanaz above. Source of Modern English Wednesday.
Note: OE = Old English; OFris = Old Frisian; OFrank. = Old Frankish; OS = Old Saxon; MLG = Middle Low German; OD = Old Dutch; MDu. = Middle Dutch; OHG = Old High German; ON = Old Norse; Goth. = Gothic; Lomb. = Lombardic; Burg. = Burgundian; PGmc = Proto-Germanic; Pre-Ger. = Pre-Germanic; PIE = Proto-Indo-European; – = Unattested

Shared lexicon with Celtic, Baltic and Slavic

Proto-Celtic

See also: Proto-Celtic paganism

The common religious vocabulary between Celtic and Germanic languages suggests that speakers of Proto-Germanic and Proto-Celtic were in close contact in ancient times and likely shared some of their beliefs. This connection likely dates back even further to interactions between Pre-Germanic and Celtic languages, as shown by some cognates that do not exhibit the effects of Grimm's Law, which is usually dated to around 500 BCE.

Historian John T. Koch argues that Pre-Germanic and Pre-Celtic languages remained in close contact from 1800 to between 1200 and 900 BCE, partly due to the long-distance metal trade with Scandinavia. A few of these terms can be identified as Celtic loanwords that entered the Germanic languages between 900 and 500 BCE, after the sound changes in Proto-Celtic had been completed.

Baltic and Slavic

The relationship between Proto-Germanic speakers and those of Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic is unclear. Edgar Polomé writes that the "acceptable lexical evidence exclusively shared by the Germanic, Baltic, and Slavic tribes is hardly sufficient to draw any definite conclusions as to their close relationship". Frederik Kortlandt argues that because a substantial portion of the vocabulary shared between Germanic and Balto-Slavic was borrowed after the Baltic–Slavic split, Germanic and Proto-Balto-Slavic could never have been contiguous Indo-European dialects. According to him, the earliest contacts between Germanic and Baltic-Slavic speakers must date to the early Middle Ages, and Germanic loanwords in Baltic must have passed through a Slavic intermediary.

Some religious materials have been found to be shared between Germanic, Slavic and Celtic. For instance, the Proto-Germanic word for werewolf (*wira-wulfaz, 'man-wolf') appears to be semantically related to the Proto-Slavic and Proto-Celtic equivalents *vьlko-dlakь ('wolf-haired') and *wiro-kū ('man-dog'), respectively. The motif of the Wild Hunt is also shared amongst the Germans, Celts, and Slavs.

Shared lexicon

Germanic Celtic Balto-Slavic Meaning Sources
*Ala-fader *Olo-(p)atīr – 'All-Father' (an epithet)
*alh(a)z – Lith. alkas 'holy grove, temple'
*Austrōn – Lith. Aušrinė a goddess connected with the dawn
*dwas- *dwosyos Lith. dvasià 'incubus, daemon, spirit, soul, ghost'
*draugaz *drougo- – 'sprit, phantom'
*elhja- ol(c)c – 'bad, evil'
*ferg(w)unjō *ferkunyo Slav. *per(g)ynja 'wooded mountains' (realm of *Perkwunos)
*Haihaz *kaiko- – 'one-eyed, blind in one eye' (an epithet)
*har(u)gaz *karnom – 'holy stone, funerary monument'
*kunjaz – Lith. žinià 'omen, knowledge, magic'
*lēk(i)jaz *lēagis – 'healer'
*lubjan *lubi- – '(medicinal) herb'
*marōn mor- Slav. *morà 'nightly spirit, bad dream'
*meldunjaz *meldo- – 'lightning, hammer of the thunder-god'
*nemedaz *nemetom – 'sacred grove, sanctuary'
*rūnō *rūnā – 'secret, magic, mystery'
*saidaz *soytos Lith. saitas 'magic, charm, soothsaying'
*skaldaz ? *sketlo- – 'poet'
*skōhsla- *skāhslo- – 'demon, supernatural being, evil spirit'
*Þun(a)raz *Tonaros – From PIE *(s)tenh₂- ('thunder')
*wehtiz – Slav. *vektь 'creature'
*wīhaz – Lith. viẽkas 'holy, divine'
*wōðaz *wātis – 'seer, sooth-sayer; ecstatic, possessed, (divinely) inspired'

See also

Notes

  1. ^ de Vries 1962, pp. 94–95, 609.
  2. ^ Orchard 1997, p. 35.
  3. Salus & Taylor 1969, p. 80. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSalusTaylor1969 (help)
  4. Lindow 2002, p. 102.
  5. ^ Koch 2020, p. 139.
  6. ^ Koch 2020, p. 140.
  7. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 43.
  8. ^ Sermon 2008, p. 338-339.
  9. ^ West 2007, pp. 217–218.
  10. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 20.
  11. ^ Falluomini 2017.
  12. ^ Simek 1984, pp. 31–32.
  13. ^ Orel 2003, p. 33.
  14. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 24.
  15. ^ Orel 2003, pp. 33–34.
  16. Simek 1996, p. 26. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek1996 (help)
  17. Simek 1993, p. 59-60, 7, 139.
  18. Simek 1993, p. 7.
  19. Simek 1993, p. 139.
  20. Simek 1984, p. 11.
  21. ^ Rosenfeld & Hauck 1984.
  22. de Vries 1962, p. 142.
  23. ^ Orel 2003, p. 112.
  24. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 153.
  25. Kroonen 2013, pp. 152–153.
  26. ^ Orel 2003, p. 114.
  27. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 155.
  28. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Friday, n. and adv.
  29. ^ Orel 2003, p. 118.
  30. ^ Orel 2003, p. 129.
  31. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 159.
  32. Orel 2003, pp. 129, 147.
  33. Rübekeil 2002, p. 603.
  34. Simek 1993, pp. 100–101.
  35. ^ Orel 2003, p. 151.
  36. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 239.
  37. ^ Simek 1984, p. 185.
  38. ^ de Vries 1957, pp. 321–322.
  39. Orel 2003, p. 191.
  40. ^ Simek 1984, pp. 185, 198.
  41. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 678.
  42. ^ Lehmann 1986, p. 100.
  43. ^ de Vries 1962, pp. 286, 679.
  44. ^ Lehmann 1986, p. 244.
  45. Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 367.
  46. ^ Orel 2003, p. 270.
  47. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. moon, n.1
  48. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 365.
  49. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Monday, n. and adv.
  50. ^ Puhvel 1987, p. 205.
  51. Simek 1993, p. 230.
  52. ^ Simek & 2007 , p. 230. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007_[1993] (help)
  53. Magnússon 1989, p. 671. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  54. Hopkins 2012, p. 39.
  55. ^ Orel 2003, p. 385.
  56. Magnússon 1989, pp. 463–464. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMagnússon1989 (help)
  57. ^ Orel 2003, pp. 361, 385, 387.
  58. ^ Kroonen 2013, pp. 463–464.
  59. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Sunday, n. and adv.
  60. ^ Orel 2003, p. 408.
  61. Lehmann 1986, p. 352.
  62. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 519.
  63. Simek 1984, pp. 413, 420.
  64. West 2007, p. 167 n. 8.
  65. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Tuesday, n. and adv.
  66. de Vries 1957, pp. 363–364.
  67. Simek 1984, p. 418.
  68. Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 129.
  69. de Vries 1962, p. 602.
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  71. de Vries 1957, pp. 11–14.
  72. Delamarre 2003, p. 290. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDelamarre2003 (help)
  73. ^ Matasović 2009, p. 384.
  74. Jackson 2002, p. 61-102.
  75. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Thursday, n. and adv.
  76. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 274.
  77. Puhvel 1987, p. 63.
  78. Mallory & Adams 1997, pp. 129–130.
  79. ^ Orel 2003, p. 469.
  80. West 2007, p. 137.
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  82. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. Wednesday, n. and adv.
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  85. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 633.
  86. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 599.
  87. ^ Orel 2003, p. 475.
  88. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 600.
  89. ^ Orel 2003, p. 13.
  90. Burgundian's status as an East Germanic language remains unclear.
  91. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. elf (n.1 & adj.)
  92. ^ Orel 2003, p. 15.
  93. Orel 2003, p. 21.
  94. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 16; Simek 1984, p. 25; Orel 2003, p. 21; Kroonen 2013, p. 30
  95. ^ Orel 2003, p. 20–21.
  96. Kroonen 2013, p. 30.
  97. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. Aesir (n.)
  98. ^ Orel 2003, p. 72.
  99. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 96.
  100. Kroonen 2013, pp. 114–115.
  101. Kroonen 2013, pp. 96, 114.
  102. Simek 1993, p. 171.
  103. de Vries 1962, p. 77.
  104. ^ Koch 2020, p. 142.
  105. ^ Koch 2020, p. 144.
  106. ^ Orel 2003, p. 81.
  107. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. dwarf, n. and adj.
  108. Kroonen 2013, p. 112.
  109. Oxford English Dictionary 2024 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_English_Dictionary2024 (help), s.v. dwarf (n. & adj.)
  110. ^ Orel 2003, p. 86.
  111. ^ Orel 2003, p. 262.
  112. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 163.
  113. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. ghost, n.
  114. ^ Orel 2003, p. 145.
  115. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. god, n. and int.
  116. Kroonen 2013, pp. 193–194.
  117. Orel 2003, pp. 144–145.
  118. ^ Orel 2003, p. 241.
  119. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2021 s.v. mare, n.2.
  120. ^ Derksen 2007, p. 324.
  121. Derksen 2007, pp. 302, 324.
  122. TLFi, s.v. cauchemar.
  123. ^ Orel 2003, p. 287.
  124. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 390.
  125. ^ Orel 2003, p. 343.
  126. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 447.
  127. ^ Orel 2003, p. 429.
  128. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 552.
  129. ^ Orel 2003, p. 472.
  130. ^ Orel 2003, p. 442.
  131. Kroonen 2013, p. 569.
  132. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. † walkyrie, n.
  133. ^ Orel 2003, p. 463.
  134. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. werewolf, n.
  135. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 646.
  136. ^ Orel 2003, p. 463, 450.
  137. ^ DEAF G:334–338.
  138. FEW 17:569.
  139. ^ Orel 2003, pp. 15, 452; Kroonen 2013, p. 578
  140. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 578.
  141. ^ Orel 2003, p. 99.
  142. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 136.
  143. ^ West 2007, p. 241.
  144. ^ Orel 2003, p. 156.
  145. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. hell, n. and int.
  146. Kroonen 2013, p. 204.
  147. ^ Orel 2003, p. 169.
  148. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 220.
  149. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. heaven, n.
  150. Kroonen 2013, pp. 206, 220.
  151. ^ Hopkins & Haukur 2011, p. 14-17. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHopkins_&_Haukur2011 (help)
  152. Kroonen 2013, p. 573.
  153. ^ Orel 2003, p. 264.
  154. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. † middenerd, n.
  155. ^ Orel 2003, p. 462.
  156. ^ Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. world, n.
  157. ^ Orel 2003, p. 14.
  158. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 22.
  159. ^ Simek 1996, p. 255. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek1996 (help)
  160. ^ Orel 2003, p. 51.
  161. de Vries 1962, p. 45.
  162. Kroonen 2013, p. 70.
  163. ^ Orel 2003, p. 50.
  164. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 143.
  165. Simek 2007, pp. 93–94. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSimek2007 (help)
  166. ^ Orel 2003, p. 124.
  167. Kroonen 2013, p. 164.
  168. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 194.
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  172. ^ Orel 2003, p. 164.
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  177. ^ Orel 2003, p. 190.
  178. ^ Orel 2003, p. 205.
  179. ^ Lehmann 1986, p. 211.
  180. ^ Orel 2003, pp. 205–206.
  181. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 311.
  182. ^ Orel 2003, p. 244.
  183. ^ Orel 2003, p. 249.
  184. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 341.
  185. ^ Orel 2003, p. 266.
  186. Watkins 1995, p. 429.
  187. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 379.
  188. ^ Orel 2003, p. 283.
  189. ^ Koch 2020, p. 141.
  190. ^ Orel 2003, p. 310.
  191. ^ Orel 2003, p. 313.
  192. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 421.
  193. ^ Orel 2003, p. 314.
  194. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 439.
  195. ^ Koch 2020, p. 137.
  196. de Vries 1962, p. 481.
  197. Oxford English Dictionary 2021, s.v. scold, n.
  198. ^ Orel 2003, p. 386.
  199. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 562.
  200. ^ Orel 2003, p. 398.
  201. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 504.
  202. Koch 2020, p. 119.
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  205. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 516.
  206. Lehmann 1986, p. 13.
  207. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 603.
  208. ^ de Vries 1962, p. 618.
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  212. ^ Kroonen 2013, p. 586.
  213. ^ Orel 2003, p. 468.
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  222. Delamarre 2003, p. 158. sfn error: no target: CITEREFDelamarre2003 (help)
  223. Oxford English Dictionary 2021 s.v. mare, n.2.
  224. Koch 2020, p. 143.
  225. Matasović 2009, p. 316.
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  227. Orel 2003, pp. 15, 452; Kroonen 2013, p. 578

References

Germanic mythology
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Heroic legend
Heroic Age
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Germanic peoples
Ethnolinguistic group of Northern European origin primarily identified as speakers of Germanic languages
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