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{{Short description|Violent conflict between U.S. soldiers and Italian POWs}}
{{Infobox Historical Event
{{more citations needed|date=February 2013}}
|Event_Name = Fort Lawton Riot
{{Infobox historical event
|Image_Name = Fort_Lawton_headstone_of_Gugliemo_Olivotto.jpg
| Event_Name = Fort Lawton riot
|Image_Caption = Headstone of Pvt. Guglielmo Olivotto at Fort Lawton military cemetery, Seattle
| Image_Name = Fort_Lawton_headstone_of_Gugliemo_Olivotto.jpg
|AKA =
| Imagesize = 300
|Participants = ] soldiers and ] ] (POW)
| partof = ]
|Location = ], ], ] (U.S.)
| Image_Caption = Headstone of Pvt. Guglielmo Olivotto at Fort Lawton military cemetery, Seattle
|Date = ] ]
| AKA =
|Result = 1 Italian POW killed,<br>28 U.S. soldiers convicted and imprisoned
| Participants = ] soldiers and ] ] (POW)
| Location = ], ], ] (U.S.)
| Date = August 14, 1944
| Result = 1 Italian POW killed<br />28 U.S. soldiers convicted and imprisoned
}} }}
{{Campaignbox North American Theater}}


The '''Fort Lawton riot''' refers to a series of events in August 1944 starting with a violent conflict between U.S. soldiers and Italian ] at ] in ] during World War II.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fort Lawton photos|url=http://www.jackhamann.com/lawton.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415052556/http://www.jackhamann.com/lawton.html|archive-date=2012-04-15|access-date=2021-07-08|website=Jackhamannn.com}}</ref> After the riot, prisoner Guglielmo Olivotto was found dead.<ref group="nb">Some resources spell his name Guglieamo Olivotto.<!--Redirect established--></ref> This led to the court-martial of 43 soldiers, all of them African Americans.
==Overview==


The '''largest and longest U.S. Army court-martial of World War II''' took place at Seattle's Fort Lawton. 43 U.S. soldiers—all of them African-American—were charged with rioting; three were also charged with the lynching death of an Italian prisoner of war named Guglielmo Olivotto. A 2005 book, '''''' convinced the U.S. Army's highest court of appeals that prosecutor '''Leon Jaworski''' had committed "egregious error," and that all convictions should be reversed. President George W. Bush signed legislation allowing the Army to disburse back pay to the defendants or their surviving relatives. In 2005, the book ''On American Soil'' helped to convince the U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records that prosecutor ] had committed "egregious error," and that all convictions should be reversed. President ] signed legislation allowing the Army to disburse back pay to the defendants or their survivors.


===The riot=== ==Riot==
The night of August 14, 1944, an ] port company at ], ] was under orders to ship out to the war zone the next morning. Just after 11 p.m, an ] Black soldier and his three companions crossed paths with three ] prisoners of war. Words were exchanged, the Black soldier rushed forward, and with one punch, an Italian knocked the American out cold.


The Italians retreated to adjacent barracks, but the call went out about the confrontation. A number of Black soldiers, including Pvt. Samuel Snow, ran after the Italians, wielding boards from a fence that they broke down. The Italians, who were in their bunks for the night, heard rocks and bricks being thrown against their windows in their dark quarters. Believing they were under attack, the Italians began running, with some jumping out of windows. In the melee, both Italians and United States soldiers were injured. Hearing the commotion, and responding to a 'whistle' calling them to defend their fellow soldiers, dozens of Black soldiers came out of their barracks. A false rumor began that one American was dead. Dozens of Black soldiers headed into the Italian area, armed with rocks, fence posts, and a couple of knives.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}
The night of August 14, 1944, an all-black port company at Seattle's Fort Lawton was under orders to ship out to the war zone the next morning. Anxious soldiers packed their bags, wrote letters and read the Bible. Others played cards, shot craps, visited girlfriends and drank beer or bootleg liquor. Just after 11pm, an intoxicated black soldier and his three companions crossed paths with three Italians, who may have also been drinking. Words were exchanged, the black soldier rushed forward, and with one punch, an Italian knocked the American out cold.


Private Clyde Lomax, a ] member of the ], was responsible for patrolling the area known as the "Colored Area," and was on the scene almost immediately. He loaded the most severely injured American into his jeep, but delayed transporting him to the hospital. Lomax failed to request back up from fellow MPs or to notify the chain of command of the severity of the situation. {{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}
As the Italians retreated to adjacent barracks, the call went out: US soldiers had been attacked by one or more enemy prisoners. A small contingent of black soldiers, including Pvt. '''Samuel Snow''', ran after the Italians, but were quickly wounded by frightened Italians wielding boards. Hearing the commotion, dozens of black soldiers poured out of their barracks and saw at least three of their comrades on the ground, each bleeding from the head, each under the care of '''Luther Larkin'''. A rumor flew that one American was dead. Assuming they were under attack, and responding to months of military training, dozens of black soldiers headed into the Italian area, armed with rocks, fence posts and a couple of knives.


More than forty minutes passed before a contingent of MPs arrived. By then, dozens of men were injured. The most seriously injured were all Italian prisoners-of-war; they were transported to hospitals for treatment. One Italian spent 16 months recovering from his injuries.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}
'''Clyde Lomax''', a white military policeman, was responsible for patrolling the area known as the "Colored Area," and was on the scene almost immediately. He loaded the most severely injured American into his jeep, but delayed transporting him to the fort’s hospital. As the melee grew, several witnesses—white, black and Italian—reported seeing Lomax contributing to the fray. Rather than restore order or call for reinforcement, Lomax instead encouraged black soldiers to attack, even handing weapons to some.


More than forty minutes passed before a contingent of military policemen finally arrived. By then, dozens lay injured. The MPs restored order, but chose not to take anyone into custody. Later, every single MP claimed it had been too dark to identify even one of the participants in the riot. After belatedly bringing the injured American to the post’s most remote hospital, Pvt. Lomax disappeared for at least two hours. The military policemen restored order without taking anyone into custody. Later, they claimed it had been too dark to identify any of the participants in the riot. The next morning, Lomax, accompanied by a Black MP, discovered the body of prisoner Guglielmo Olivotto, hanging from a noose on the obstacle course.{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}


==Investigation==
At 5:00 the next morning, Lomax drove his jeep to a distant gully at the base of the fort’s Magnolia bluffs. In the dark of the pre-dawn night, he walked through brush and purported to discover the lifeless body of '''Guglielmo Olivotto''', lynched from a noose tied to an obstacle course guywire.
By sunset on the day Olivotto's body was discovered, ] Harry Branson, Fort Lawton's ], had ordered all evidence destroyed. No fingerprints were secured, no footprints saved, no weapons properly catalogued. When Branson tried to ship the black soldiers to ] that same day, he was countermanded after a subordinate reported his actions to ].
]
The riot and lynching was front page news in Seattle, and became a major story across the ]. The ] sent a prosecutor, ] of ], to conduct a two-month investigation. During weeks of interrogations, Jaworski's investigators offered immunity to several soldiers who would agree to testify. Most refused, including Samuel Snow and Roy Montgomery. Five black soldiers agreed, however, to testify for the prosecution in exchange for ]. Six decades later, all five were said to have had unrelated grudges against many of the men they accused.


Most Italian prisoners-of-war were unable to identify a single black soldier, citing the darkness and confusion. Two, however, offered confident identifications of dozens of the Americans, and Jaworski used those two as his main witnesses. Decades later, a review of the case found that both had been previously identified as unreliable security risks by officers of the ].
===The investigation===


As reports of the riot and lynching reached the Pentagon, General Elliot Cooke was sent to Seattle, charged with determining who, if anyone, had failed to prevent the riot and ]. Cooke conducted an investigation before Jaworski had arrived. Cooke was not responsible for helping Jaworski with the criminal investigation, but Jaworski was given access to all of Cooke's interrogations and conclusions.
By sunset on the day Olivotto’s body was discovered, Fort Lawton commanding officer Col. '''Harry Branson''' (1890-1963)had ordered all evidence destroyed. No fingerprints were secured, no footprints saved, no weapons properly catalogued. When Branson tried to quickly ship the black soldiers to San Francisco that same day, he was countermanded after a subordinate reported his attempt to the Pentagon.


In a classified report to Virgil L. Peterson, the ], Cooke concluded that the Fort Lawton commander had botched the initial criminal investigation, recommended Branson's demotion and/or reassignment, and ordered that Private Lomax be court-martialed for abandoning his post during the riot and lynching.
The riot and lynching was front page news in Seattle, and became a major story across the nation. The Army sent its best young prosecutor, '''Leon Jaworski''' (1905-1982) of Houston, to conduct a two-month investigation. Jaworski would eventually distinguish himself as one of the most powerful American lawyers of the 20th Century, culminating in his appointment as special prosecutor in the Watergate investigation and the winning litigant in U.S. v Nixon.


==Defense==
During weeks of interrogations, Jaworski’s investigators threatened several black soldiers with harm—even with lynching—if they refused to testify against their fellow soldiers. Most did refuse, including '''Samuel Snow''' and '''Roy Montgomery'''. Five black soldiers agreed, however, to testify for the prosecution in exchange for immunity. Six decades later, all five were shown to hold unrelated grudges against many of the men they fingered.

Most Italian POWs were unable to identify a single black soldier, citing the darkness and confusion. Two, however, offered confident identifications of dozens of the Americans; those two became Jaworski’s star witnesses. Decades later, both were found to have been previously identified as unreliable security risks by Army Intelligence officers.

As reports of the riot and lynching reached the Pentagon, the Army sent Gen. '''Elliot Cooke''' (1891-1961) to Seattle, charged with determining whom, if anyone, had failed to prevent the riot and lynching. Cooke was not responsible for helping Jaworski with the criminal investigation, but Jaworski was given access to all of Cooke’s interrogations and conclusions.

In a scathing classified report to the Army Inspector General, Cooke concluded that Fort Lawton commander Col. Branson had utterly botched the initial criminal investigation, and demanded Branson’s demotion and/or reassignment. He characterized Pvt. Lomax a “coward,” and ordered that he be court-martialed for abandoning his post during the riot and lynching.

===The defense===
] ]
After weeks of investigation, Jaworski decided to charge 43 US soldiers—all of them African American—with rioting, a crime with a maximum penalty of life in prison. Three of the men—Luther Larkin (1921-1948), Arthur Hurks (1921-1991) and William Jones (1924-1992)—were also charged with the first-degree murder of Guglielmo Olivotto, and faced death by hanging if convicted. It was the largest number of defendants in a single US Army trial during all of World War II. After weeks of investigation, Jaworski decided to charge 43 soldiers with rioting; all the suspects were African American and charged with a crime with a maximum penalty of ]. Three of the men – Luther Larkin (1921–1948), Arthur Hurks (1921–1991) and William Jones (1924–1992) – were also charged with premeditated murder. They faced a possible ]. This was the largest number of defendants in a single United States Army trial during ].


The 43 defendants were forced to share just two lawyers between them, and those lawyers were given just ten days to prepare their cases. The lead defense attorney, '''William Beeks''' (1906-1988), was a brilliant Army lawyer who would later become a renowned, if cantankerous, federal judge. He was assisted by '''Howard Noyd''', a former football player from Iowa. The defendants were provided two lawyers to represent them, and they were given 10 days to prepare their cases. ], the lead defense attorney, later was appointed as a federal judge. He was assisted by ], a former football player from Iowa.


With barely time to learn the names of their clients, defense lawyers decided to focus most of their energies on trying to keep the soldiers from the gallows. Without much time, the defense lawyers decided to concentrate on trying to save their clients from the first-degree murder charges.


===The trial=== ==Trial==
The nine-member ], all white officers, convened on November 16, 1944. Trial was held six days a week and all day on ].


On December 8, 1944, Beeks discovered for the first time that Jaworski had gained access to General Cooke's lengthy confidential report. Citing concerns about wartime security, Jaworski repeatedly refused to give the report to the defense, despite a prosecutorial obligation to do so. The court refused to intervene. Beeks never learned about Cooke's criticism of Branson, Lomax and others, information which would likely have discredited most of Jaworski's main witnesses. Jaworski called Lomax to testify against the black soldiers.
The nine-member panel of court-martial judges—all officers, all white—convened on November 16, 1944. Trial was held six days a week and all day on Thanksgiving. Beeks and Noyd raised dozens of objections; most were overruled.


==Verdicts==
On December 8, 1944 Beeks discovered for the first time that Jaworski had gained access to Gen. Cooke’s lengthy confidential report. Citing concerns about wartime security, Jaworski repeatedly refused to turn the report over to the defense, despite a prosecutorial obligation to do so, and the court refused to intervene. Beeks never learned about Cooke’s blistering attacks on Branson, Lomax and others, information which would likely have discredited most of Jaworski’s central witnesses. Jaworski even called Lomax to testify against the black soldiers.
]
After five weeks in what was the longest United States Army court-martial of World War II, the court found 28 of the 43 defendants guilty of rioting. They found two: Luther Larkin and William Jones, guilty of ]. Sentences ranged from six months to 25 years at ]. All but one defendant were issued ] at the completion of their prison sentences.


Because it was a capital case, an automatic appeal was sent to the U.S. Army's Board of Review. The appeals were rejected without elaboration.
===The verdicts===


In 1945, at the end of World War II, ] ] was eager to establish a reputation of being helpful to ]s. He began issuing annual "]", reducing the sentences of thousands of soldiers, including the Fort Lawton defendants. By 1949, the last Fort Lawton defendant left prison.
After five weeks—the longest US Army court-martial of World War II—the court found 28 of the defendants guilty of rioting, and two—'''Luther Larkin''' and '''William Jones'''—guilty of manslaughter. Sentences ranged from six months to 25 years at hard labor. All but one defendant were issued dishonorable discharges at the completion of their prison sentences.


==Investigative journalism==
Because it was a capital case, an automatic appeal was sent to the US Army’s Board of Review. Despite the huge trial record and dozens of Beeks’ objections, all appeals were summarily rejected without elaboration.
In 1986, journalist ] found Guglielmo Olivotto's headstone in the Fort Lawton cemetery. Hamann undertook months of research, most of it relying on secondary sources, and produced a special one-hour documentary program for Seattle's ] affiliate, ]. The program raised some questions about the prosecution, but did not offer any substantial evidence to refute Jaworski's case.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} It won an ].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-02-04|title=Jack Hamann {{!}} documentaries|url=http://www.jackhamann.com/documentaries.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204111129/http://www.jackhamann.com/documentaries.html|archive-date=2012-02-04|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Jackhamann.com|quote=Discovery Park Graves KING-TV 1987}}</ref>


In 2001, Hamann and his wife, Leslie Hamann, began a four-year effort to locate primary sources, including documents and witnesses. During several weeks of research at the ] in ], the Hamanns came across General Cooke's newly declassified report. The revelations in that report became the basis for their book, ''On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-04-04|title=On American Soil {{!}} Media Coverage of on American Soil|url=http://www.jackhamann.com/media.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404180147/http://www.jackhamann.com/media.html|archive-date=2012-04-04|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Jackhamann.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-08|title=Jack Hamann, Rewriting History in '(On) American Soil'|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4659346|website=Npr.org|quote=A new book by Jack Hamann -- TV correspondent and documentary producer -- asserts that much of what was reported about the incident at the time was inaccurate, and the court-martial ended in a miscarriage of justice. He tells Sheilah Kast about his new book On American Soil, which uses recently declassified evidence to tell a fuller story of a bleak moment in U.S. history. Read the first chapter:}}</ref> In 2006, ], Inc. (IRE) named ''On American Soil'' the nation's best investigative book of the year.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2008-12-04|title=Books {{!}} Jack Hamann|url=http://www.jackhamann.com/books.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204071557/http://www.jackhamann.com/books.html|archive-date=2008-12-04|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Jackhamann.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-04-19|title=reviews of On American Soil|url=http://www.jackhamann.com/reviews.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419215736/http://www.jackhamann.com/reviews.html|archive-date=2012-04-19|access-date=2021-07-09|website=Jackhamann.com}}</ref>
In 1945, at war’s end, President '''Harry Truman''' was eager to help heal the nation’s wounds. Because so many servicemen were behind bars, he began issuing annual “Christmas clemencies,” reducing the sentences of thousands of soldiers, including the Fort Lawton defendants. By 1949, the last Fort Lawton defendant left prison, although it remains a mystery why Luther Larkin and William Jones were released long before the term of their remaining sentences.


===The book=== ==U.S. Congress==
On July 1, 2005, U.S. Rep ] (D-WA) introduced HR 3174, a bill demanding that the United States Army reopen the Fort Lawton case, based on the allegations made in ''On American Soil''. The bill, with dozens of co-sponsors, remained in the ] until the chairman of that committee, U.S. Rep. ] (R-CA) received a letter from constituent Julianna Hamann, mother of author Jack Hamann. After committee staff vetted the book, Rep. McDermott and Rep. Hunter agreed on June 8, 2006, to exercise a Congressional privilege allowing them to insist that the U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records (ABCMR) review the convictions.{{Citation needed|date=August 2010}}
]
In 1986, journalist '''Jack Hamann''' came across Guglielmo Olivotto’s headstone in the Fort Lawton cemetery. After months of research, most of it relying on secondary sources, Hamann produced an Emmy Award winning one-hour special program for Seattle’s NBC affiliate, KING-TV. The program raised some questions about the prosecution, but offered no substantial evidence to refute Jaworski’s case.


==U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records==
In 2001, Hamann and his wife, '''Leslie Hamann''', began a four-year effort to locate primary sources, including documents and witnesses. During several weeks of research at the National Archives in College Park, MD, the Hamann’s came across Gen. Cooke’s newly-declassified report. The revelations in that report became the basis for their book, . In 2006, '''Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc.''' (IRE) named On American Soil the nation’s best investigative book of the year.
]
On October 26, 2007, the ABCMR ruled unanimously that Leon Jaworski had committed "egregious error" in his prosecution of the Fort Lawton case, particularly by refusing to make the Cooke Report available to the defense.<ref name=NPR_Lawton>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=16820404|title=Black Soldiers Exonerated in WWII Lynching Incident|author=Andrea Seabrook|date=December 2, 2007|journal=NPR|access-date=August 8, 2022}}</ref>{{fact|date=August 2022}} The board, calling the trial "fundamentally unfair", overturned the convictions. They ordered that defendants be issued retroactive honorable discharges. In addition, the surviving defendants – or the estates of those who have since died – were deemed entitled to "all rights, privileges and property lost as a result of the convictions", including "all due pay and allowances".


===The US Congress=== ==$725 check==
On November 29, 2007, Samuel Snow received a check for $725. An army spokesman explained that the Board's order was so unusual and sweeping that army regulations contained no provision for payment of interest in such cases. The small checks received by Snow and by the families of other Fort Lawton veterans resulted in stories about the supposed unfairness and inadequacy of the regulations.<ref>{{Dead link|date=December 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>


On January 23, 2008, Rep. ] introduced HR 5130 in the House, authorizing the U.S. Army to pay interest on the Fort Lawton awards. Sen. ] (D-FL) introduced companion bill S 2548 in the Senate. The bills were approved by the Armed Services Committees of both houses, and were supported by testimony from Secretary of the Army ]. He described Snow's small check as "a travesty of justice."{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
On July 1, 2005, U.S. Rep '''Jim McDermott''' (D-WA) introduced '''HR 3174''', a bill demanding that the US Army reopen the Fort Lawton case, based on the evidence disclosed in On American Soil. The bill, with dozens of co-sponsors, languished in the House Armed Services Committee until the chairman of that committee, U.S. Rep. '''Duncan Hunter''' (R-CA) received a letter from constituent '''Julianna Hamann''', mother of author Jack Hamann. After committee staff vetted the book, Rep. McDermott and Rep. Hunter agreed on June 8, 2006 to exercise a Congressional privilege allowing them to insist that the '''US Army Board for Correction of Military Records''' (ABCMR) review the decades-old convictions.


On October 14, 2008, President ] signed the Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for FY 2009. The bill included the legislation authorizing the Army to add tens of thousands of dollars interest to the back pay due to the Fort Lawton veterans.
===The US Army Board for Correction of Military Records===


==Tribute==
On October 26, 2007, the ABCMR ruled unanimously that Leon Jaworski had committed '''“egregious error”''' in his prosecution of the Fort Lawton case, particularly by refusing to make the Cooke Report available to the defense. The court, calling the trial “fundamentally unfair,” overturned the convictions and ordered that defendants be issued retroactive honorable discharges. In addition, the surviving defendants—or the estates of those who have since died—were deemed entitled to “all rights, privileges and property lost as a result of the convictions,” including “all due pay and allowances.” By all accounts, it was an extraordinary, unprecedented remedy.
By the summer of 2008, the army had located two living defendants (Samuel Snow of Florida and Roy Montgomery of Illinois), plus the families of ten others who had since died. King County Executive ] and Seattle Mayor ] organized a tribute to the Fort Lawton defendants and surviving families. It featured a dinner, a parade, a formal military ceremony, and a Catholic mass honoring the memory of Guglielmo Olivotto. At the military ceremony, Assistant Army Secretary ] offered a tribute to the wrongly convicted men, including an apology and the presentation of belated honorable discharges.


===The $725 check=== ===Samuel Snow===
During the morning of the Seattle military ceremony, Samuel Snow became ill. Hours later, his family brought his honorable discharge to his hospital bedside, where he held it to his chest and smiled broadly. That same evening, he died of heart failure, with his wife and son at his side.


Snow's death was worldwide news. His funeral in Leesburg, Florida, drew hundreds of mourners; he received a burial with full military honors.
On November 29, 2007, '''Samuel Snow''' received a check … for a mere $725. An Army spokesman explained that the Board’s order was so unusual and sweeping that Army regulations contained no provision for payment of interest in such cases. The small checks received by Snow and by the families of other Fort Lawton veterans spurred a flurry of in the national media about the unfairness and inadequacy of the regulations.


===Roy Montgomery===
On January 23, 2008, Rep. '''Jim McDermott''' introduced '''HR 5130''' in the House, authorizing the US Army to pay interest on the Fort Lawton awards. Sen. '''Bill Nelson''' (D-FL) introduced companion bill '''S 2548''' in the Senate. The bills sailed through the Armed Services Committees of both houses, and included testimony from Secretary of the Army '''Pete Geren''', who called Snow’s small check '''“a travesty of justice.”'''
Roy Montgomery did not attend the Seattle ceremony, so Assistant Army Secretary Ronald James went to his home in Illinois to present a personal apology and hand-deliver his back pay. Montgomery responded, "This is a great satisfaction. Now I can forget about the whole thing. That's all I ever wanted to do." On December 6, 2012, Roy Laine Montgomery died at the age of 91, survived by a daughter, three grandsons and numerous great-grandchildren.<ref name=montgomery>{{cite web
|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/localnews/2019871937_montgomery10m.html
|title=Roy Montgomery, wrongly convicted in POW's lynching, dies at 91
|author=Ken Armstrong
|date=December 9, 2012
|accessdate= December 9, 2012
|publisher=]}}</ref>


===The Tribute=== ==See also==
{{Portal|United States}}
* ] – 1944 court-martial of 50 African-American Navy men for refusing unsafe munitions loading work following a deadly explosion.
* ] – December 1944 conflict between African-American sailors and white Marines in Guam.
* ] – part of the court-martial resulting from the riot.
* ]


==Notes==
By the summer of 2008, the Army had only been able to locate two living defendants ('''Samuel Snow''' of Florida and '''Roy Montgomery''' of Illinois), plus the families of just ten others who had since passed. King County Executive '''Ron Sims''' and Seattle Mayor '''Greg Nickels''' organized a tribute to the Fort Lawton defendants and surviving families, featuring a dinner, a parade, a formal military ceremony and a Catholic mass honoring the memory of '''Guglielmo Olivotto'''. At the military ceremony, Assistant Army Secretary '''Ronald James''' offered a moving tribute, including an apology and the presentation of belated honorable discharges.
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

===The Death of Samuel Snow===

On the morning of the Seattle military ceremony, '''Samuel Snow''' took ill. Hours later, his family brought his honorable discharge to his hospital bedside, where he held it to his chest and smiled broadly. That same evening, he died of heart failure, with his wife and son at his side.

Snow’s death was worldwide news. The consensus of his family, his doctors and outside observers was that Snow had willed himself to stay alive long enough to see justice served. His funeral in Leesburg, Florida, drew hundreds of mourners; he received a full military burial.

===The bill becomes law===

On October 14, 2008, President '''George W. Bush''' signed the '''Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act''' for FY 2009. The bill included the legislation authorizing the Army to add tens of thousands of dollars in interest to the Fort Lawton veterans’ awards.


==References== ==References==
{{Reflist}}
=== Notes ===


===Books=== ===Books===
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Hamann | last = Hamann
| first = Jack | first = Jack
| authorlink = | authorlink =
| year = 2005 | year = 2005
| title = '''''' | publisher = Algonquin Books | title = On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II
| publisher = Algonquin Books,
| location = Chapel Hill|New York
| id = ISBN 0295987057 | location = Chapel Hill
| isbn = 0-295-98705-7
}} }}
*{{cite book * {{cite book
| last = Hamann
| first = Jack
| authorlink =
| year = 2007
| title = '''''' | publisher = University of Washington Press
| location = Seattle
| id = ISBN 0295987057
}}
*{{cite book
| last = Moreo | last = Moreo
| first = Dominic W. | first = Dominic W.
| authorlink = | authorlink =
| year = 2004 | year = 2004
| title = Riot at Fort Lawton, 1944 | title = Riot at Fort Lawton, 1944
| publisher = iUniverse '''<self-published>''' | publisher = iUniverse
| location = | location = Lincoln, Nebraska
| id = ISBN 0595662544 | isbn = 0-595-66254-4
}} }}


===Media=== ===Media===
*{{Citation * {{Cite news
| last = Yardley | last = Yardley
| first = William | first = William
| author-link = | author-link =
| last2 = | last2 =
| first2 = | first2 =
| author2-link = | author2-link =
| title = '''1944 Conviction of Black G.I.’s Is Ruled Flawed''' | title = 1944 Conviction of Black G.I.'s Is Ruled Flawed
| newspaper = The New York Times | newspaper = The New York Times
| pages = | pages =
| date = October 28, 2007
| year =
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/27/us/27punish.html
| date = October 28,2007
}}
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/27/us/27punish.html}}
*{{Citation * {{Cite news
| last = Yardley | last = Yardley
| first = William | first = William
| author-link = | author-link =
| last2 = | last2 =
| first2 = | first2 =
| author2-link = | author2-link =
| title = '''Army Pays $725 in Set-Aside World War II Case''' | title = Army Pays $725 in Set-Aside World War II Case
| newspaper = The New York Times | newspaper = The New York Times
| pages = | pages =
| date = December 12, 2007
| year =
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/01/us/01lawton.html
| date = December 12,2007
}}
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/01/us/01lawton.html}}
*{{Citation * {{Cite news
| last = Yardley | last = Yardley
| first = William | first = William
| author-link = | author-link =
| last2 = | last2 =
| first2 = | first2 =
| author2-link = | author2-link =
| title = '''Wrongly convicted WWII vet dies after apology''' | title = Wrongly convicted World War II vet dies after apology
| newspaper = The New York Times | newspaper = The New York Times
| pages = | pages =
| year = | date = July 30, 2008
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/30/us/30lawton.html
| date = July 30, 2008
}}
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/30/us/30lawton.html}}
*{{Citation * {{Cite news
| last = Yardley | last = Yardley
| first = William | first = William
| author-link = | author-link =
| last2 = | last2 =
| first2 = | first2 =
| author2-link = | author2-link =
| title = '''Back pay for soldier's widow''' | title = Back pay for soldier's widow
| newspaper = The New York Times | newspaper = The New York Times
| pages = | pages =
| date = October 22, 2008
| year =
| url = https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/23/us/23brfs-001.html
| date = October 22, 2008
}}
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/23/us/23brfs-001.html}}
*{{Citation * {{Cite news
| last = Murphy | last = Murphy
| first = Kim | first = Kim
| author-link = | author-link =
| last2 = | last2 =
| first2 = | first2 =
| author2-link = | author2-link =
| title = Justice, 64 years later | title = Justice, 64 years later
| newspaper = The Los Angeles Times | newspaper = The Los Angeles Times
| pages = | pages =
| year = | date = July 27, 2008
| url = http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-apology27-2008jul27,0,7520728.story
| date = July 27, 2008
}}
| url = http://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/nation/la-na-apology27-2008jul27,0,7520728.story}}
*{{cite web * {{cite web
| last = Fredrix | last = Fredrix
| first = Emily | first = Emily
| date = ], ] | date = January 20, 2008
| url = http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/01/20/court_martial_voided_late_black_wwii_veteran_honored_at_his_gravesite/ | url = http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/01/20/court_martial_voided_late_black_wwii_veteran_honored_at_his_gravesite/
| title = Court-martial voided, late black WWII veteran honored at his gravesite | title = Court-martial voided, late black World War II veteran honored at his gravesite
| format = Newspaper article | format = Newspaper article
| work = ] | work = ]
| accessdate = 2008-01-22 | accessdate = 2008-01-22
}} }}
*{{cite web * {{cite web
| last = MacIntosh | last = MacIntosh
| first = Heather, Priscilla Long, and David Wilma | first = Heather, Priscilla Long, and David Wilma
| date = ], ] | date = July 6, 2005
| url = http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=7378 | url = http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=7378
| title = Riot involving African American soldiers occurs at Fort Lawton and an Italian POW is lynched on August 14, 1944 | title = Riot involving African American soldiers occurs at Fort Lawton and an Italian POW is lynched on August 14, 1944
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| accessdate = 2007-10-28 | accessdate = 2007-10-28
}} }}
*{{cite web * {{cite web
| last = Martin | last = Martin
| first = Jonathan | first = Jonathan
| date = ], ] | date = October 26, 2007
| url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003976785_webfortlawton27.html | url = http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003976785_webfortlawton27.html
| title = U.S. Army overturns convictions of Fort Lawton soldiers court-martialed in 1944 after riot, lynching | title = U.S. Army overturns convictions of Fort Lawton soldiers court-martialed in 1944 after riot, lynching
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| accessdate = 2007-10-28 | accessdate = 2007-10-28
}} }}
*{{cite web * {{cite web
| last = Ortega | last = Ortega
| first = Tony | first = Tony
| date = ], ] | date = April 22, 2008
| url = http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0817,raw-deal,419583,1.html | url = http://www.villagevoice.com/news/0817,raw-deal,419583,1.html
| title = A Staten Island Trombonist Breaks a 64-Year Silence About a Military Race Riot | title = A Staten Island Trombonist Breaks a 64-Year Silence About a Military Race Riot
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Violent conflict between U.S. soldiers and Italian POWs
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Find sources: "Fort Lawton riot" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message)
Fort Lawton riot
Part of World War Two
Headstone of Pvt. Guglielmo Olivotto at Fort Lawton military cemetery, Seattle
DateAugust 14, 1944
LocationFort Lawton, Washington, United States (U.S.)
ParticipantsUnited States Army soldiers and Italian prisoners of war (POW)
Outcome1 Italian POW killed
28 U.S. soldiers convicted and imprisoned
American Theater (WWII)
Battle of the Atlantic
Canada
United States
Central and South America
Saint Pierre and Miquelon
Greenland

The Fort Lawton riot refers to a series of events in August 1944 starting with a violent conflict between U.S. soldiers and Italian prisoners of war at Fort Lawton in Seattle, Washington during World War II. After the riot, prisoner Guglielmo Olivotto was found dead. This led to the court-martial of 43 soldiers, all of them African Americans.

In 2005, the book On American Soil helped to convince the U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records that prosecutor Leon Jaworski had committed "egregious error," and that all convictions should be reversed. President George W. Bush signed legislation allowing the Army to disburse back pay to the defendants or their survivors.

Riot

The night of August 14, 1944, an African-American port company at Fort Lawton, Seattle was under orders to ship out to the war zone the next morning. Just after 11 p.m, an intoxicated Black soldier and his three companions crossed paths with three Italian prisoners of war. Words were exchanged, the Black soldier rushed forward, and with one punch, an Italian knocked the American out cold.

The Italians retreated to adjacent barracks, but the call went out about the confrontation. A number of Black soldiers, including Pvt. Samuel Snow, ran after the Italians, wielding boards from a fence that they broke down. The Italians, who were in their bunks for the night, heard rocks and bricks being thrown against their windows in their dark quarters. Believing they were under attack, the Italians began running, with some jumping out of windows. In the melee, both Italians and United States soldiers were injured. Hearing the commotion, and responding to a 'whistle' calling them to defend their fellow soldiers, dozens of Black soldiers came out of their barracks. A false rumor began that one American was dead. Dozens of Black soldiers headed into the Italian area, armed with rocks, fence posts, and a couple of knives.

Private Clyde Lomax, a white member of the Military Police Corps, was responsible for patrolling the area known as the "Colored Area," and was on the scene almost immediately. He loaded the most severely injured American into his jeep, but delayed transporting him to the hospital. Lomax failed to request back up from fellow MPs or to notify the chain of command of the severity of the situation.

More than forty minutes passed before a contingent of MPs arrived. By then, dozens of men were injured. The most seriously injured were all Italian prisoners-of-war; they were transported to hospitals for treatment. One Italian spent 16 months recovering from his injuries.

The military policemen restored order without taking anyone into custody. Later, they claimed it had been too dark to identify any of the participants in the riot. The next morning, Lomax, accompanied by a Black MP, discovered the body of prisoner Guglielmo Olivotto, hanging from a noose on the obstacle course.

Investigation

By sunset on the day Olivotto's body was discovered, Colonel Harry Branson, Fort Lawton's commanding officer, had ordered all evidence destroyed. No fingerprints were secured, no footprints saved, no weapons properly catalogued. When Branson tried to ship the black soldiers to San Francisco that same day, he was countermanded after a subordinate reported his actions to the Pentagon.

Staff Sergeant Charles M. Robinson at the site of Guglielmo Olivotto lynching, 1944

The riot and lynching was front page news in Seattle, and became a major story across the United States. The United States Army sent a prosecutor, Leon Jaworski of Houston, to conduct a two-month investigation. During weeks of interrogations, Jaworski's investigators offered immunity to several soldiers who would agree to testify. Most refused, including Samuel Snow and Roy Montgomery. Five black soldiers agreed, however, to testify for the prosecution in exchange for immunity. Six decades later, all five were said to have had unrelated grudges against many of the men they accused.

Most Italian prisoners-of-war were unable to identify a single black soldier, citing the darkness and confusion. Two, however, offered confident identifications of dozens of the Americans, and Jaworski used those two as his main witnesses. Decades later, a review of the case found that both had been previously identified as unreliable security risks by officers of the Military Intelligence Corps.

As reports of the riot and lynching reached the Pentagon, General Elliot Cooke was sent to Seattle, charged with determining who, if anyone, had failed to prevent the riot and lynching. Cooke conducted an investigation before Jaworski had arrived. Cooke was not responsible for helping Jaworski with the criminal investigation, but Jaworski was given access to all of Cooke's interrogations and conclusions.

In a classified report to Virgil L. Peterson, the Inspector General, Cooke concluded that the Fort Lawton commander had botched the initial criminal investigation, recommended Branson's demotion and/or reassignment, and ordered that Private Lomax be court-martialed for abandoning his post during the riot and lynching.

Defense

Howard Noyd (2009)

After weeks of investigation, Jaworski decided to charge 43 soldiers with rioting; all the suspects were African American and charged with a crime with a maximum penalty of life imprisonment. Three of the men – Luther Larkin (1921–1948), Arthur Hurks (1921–1991) and William Jones (1924–1992) – were also charged with premeditated murder. They faced a possible death sentence. This was the largest number of defendants in a single United States Army trial during World War II.

The defendants were provided two lawyers to represent them, and they were given 10 days to prepare their cases. William T. Beeks, the lead defense attorney, later was appointed as a federal judge. He was assisted by Howard Noyd, a former football player from Iowa.

Without much time, the defense lawyers decided to concentrate on trying to save their clients from the first-degree murder charges.

Trial

The nine-member court-martial, all white officers, convened on November 16, 1944. Trial was held six days a week and all day on Thanksgiving.

On December 8, 1944, Beeks discovered for the first time that Jaworski had gained access to General Cooke's lengthy confidential report. Citing concerns about wartime security, Jaworski repeatedly refused to give the report to the defense, despite a prosecutorial obligation to do so. The court refused to intervene. Beeks never learned about Cooke's criticism of Branson, Lomax and others, information which would likely have discredited most of Jaworski's main witnesses. Jaworski called Lomax to testify against the black soldiers.

Verdicts

Members of the Fort Lawton Court Martial Panel (top) with Judge Advocate General Corps defense (bottom left) and prosecution lawyers (bottom right) and stenographer (bottom center).

After five weeks in what was the longest United States Army court-martial of World War II, the court found 28 of the 43 defendants guilty of rioting. They found two: Luther Larkin and William Jones, guilty of manslaughter. Sentences ranged from six months to 25 years at penal labour. All but one defendant were issued dishonorable discharges at the completion of their prison sentences.

Because it was a capital case, an automatic appeal was sent to the U.S. Army's Board of Review. The appeals were rejected without elaboration.

In 1945, at the end of World War II, President Harry Truman was eager to establish a reputation of being helpful to veterans. He began issuing annual "Christmas clemencies", reducing the sentences of thousands of soldiers, including the Fort Lawton defendants. By 1949, the last Fort Lawton defendant left prison.

Investigative journalism

In 1986, journalist Jack Hamann found Guglielmo Olivotto's headstone in the Fort Lawton cemetery. Hamann undertook months of research, most of it relying on secondary sources, and produced a special one-hour documentary program for Seattle's NBC affiliate, KING-TV. The program raised some questions about the prosecution, but did not offer any substantial evidence to refute Jaworski's case. It won an Emmy Award.

In 2001, Hamann and his wife, Leslie Hamann, began a four-year effort to locate primary sources, including documents and witnesses. During several weeks of research at the National Archives in College Park, Maryland, the Hamanns came across General Cooke's newly declassified report. The revelations in that report became the basis for their book, On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II. In 2006, Investigative Reporters and Editors, Inc. (IRE) named On American Soil the nation's best investigative book of the year.

U.S. Congress

On July 1, 2005, U.S. Rep Jim McDermott (D-WA) introduced HR 3174, a bill demanding that the United States Army reopen the Fort Lawton case, based on the allegations made in On American Soil. The bill, with dozens of co-sponsors, remained in the House Armed Services Committee until the chairman of that committee, U.S. Rep. Duncan Hunter (R-CA) received a letter from constituent Julianna Hamann, mother of author Jack Hamann. After committee staff vetted the book, Rep. McDermott and Rep. Hunter agreed on June 8, 2006, to exercise a Congressional privilege allowing them to insist that the U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records (ABCMR) review the convictions.

U.S. Army Board for Correction of Military Records

Leon Jaworski

On October 26, 2007, the ABCMR ruled unanimously that Leon Jaworski had committed "egregious error" in his prosecution of the Fort Lawton case, particularly by refusing to make the Cooke Report available to the defense. The board, calling the trial "fundamentally unfair", overturned the convictions. They ordered that defendants be issued retroactive honorable discharges. In addition, the surviving defendants – or the estates of those who have since died – were deemed entitled to "all rights, privileges and property lost as a result of the convictions", including "all due pay and allowances".

$725 check

On November 29, 2007, Samuel Snow received a check for $725. An army spokesman explained that the Board's order was so unusual and sweeping that army regulations contained no provision for payment of interest in such cases. The small checks received by Snow and by the families of other Fort Lawton veterans resulted in stories about the supposed unfairness and inadequacy of the regulations.

On January 23, 2008, Rep. Jim McDermott introduced HR 5130 in the House, authorizing the U.S. Army to pay interest on the Fort Lawton awards. Sen. Bill Nelson (D-FL) introduced companion bill S 2548 in the Senate. The bills were approved by the Armed Services Committees of both houses, and were supported by testimony from Secretary of the Army Pete Geren. He described Snow's small check as "a travesty of justice."

On October 14, 2008, President George W. Bush signed the Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for FY 2009. The bill included the legislation authorizing the Army to add tens of thousands of dollars interest to the back pay due to the Fort Lawton veterans.

Tribute

By the summer of 2008, the army had located two living defendants (Samuel Snow of Florida and Roy Montgomery of Illinois), plus the families of ten others who had since died. King County Executive Ron Sims and Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels organized a tribute to the Fort Lawton defendants and surviving families. It featured a dinner, a parade, a formal military ceremony, and a Catholic mass honoring the memory of Guglielmo Olivotto. At the military ceremony, Assistant Army Secretary Ronald James offered a tribute to the wrongly convicted men, including an apology and the presentation of belated honorable discharges.

Samuel Snow

During the morning of the Seattle military ceremony, Samuel Snow became ill. Hours later, his family brought his honorable discharge to his hospital bedside, where he held it to his chest and smiled broadly. That same evening, he died of heart failure, with his wife and son at his side.

Snow's death was worldwide news. His funeral in Leesburg, Florida, drew hundreds of mourners; he received a burial with full military honors.

Roy Montgomery

Roy Montgomery did not attend the Seattle ceremony, so Assistant Army Secretary Ronald James went to his home in Illinois to present a personal apology and hand-deliver his back pay. Montgomery responded, "This is a great satisfaction. Now I can forget about the whole thing. That's all I ever wanted to do." On December 6, 2012, Roy Laine Montgomery died at the age of 91, survived by a daughter, three grandsons and numerous great-grandchildren.

See also

Notes

  1. Some resources spell his name Guglieamo Olivotto.

References

  1. "Fort Lawton photos". Jackhamannn.com. Archived from the original on 2012-04-15. Retrieved 2021-07-08.
  2. "Army - On American Soil". 2008-08-20. Archived from the original on 2008-08-20. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  3. "Jack Hamann | documentaries". Jackhamann.com. 2012-02-04. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 2021-07-09. Discovery Park Graves KING-TV 1987
  4. "On American Soil | Media Coverage of on American Soil". Jackhamann.com. 2012-04-04. Archived from the original on 2012-04-04. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  5. "Jack Hamann, Rewriting History in '(On) American Soil'". Npr.org. 2021-07-08. A new book by Jack Hamann -- TV correspondent and documentary producer -- asserts that much of what was reported about the incident at the time was inaccurate, and the court-martial ended in a miscarriage of justice. He tells Sheilah Kast about his new book On American Soil, which uses recently declassified evidence to tell a fuller story of a bleak moment in U.S. history. Read the first chapter:
  6. "Books | Jack Hamann". Jackhamann.com. 2008-12-04. Archived from the original on 2008-12-04. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  7. "reviews of On American Soil". Jackhamann.com. 2012-04-19. Archived from the original on 2012-04-19. Retrieved 2021-07-09.
  8. Andrea Seabrook (December 2, 2007). "Black Soldiers Exonerated in WWII Lynching Incident". NPR. Retrieved August 8, 2022.
  9. Jack Hamann media
  10. Ken Armstrong (December 9, 2012). "Roy Montgomery, wrongly convicted in POW's lynching, dies at 91". Seattle Times. Retrieved December 9, 2012.

Books

  • Hamann, Jack (2005). On American Soil: How Justice Became a Casualty of World War II. Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, . ISBN 0-295-98705-7.
  • Moreo, Dominic W. (2004). Riot at Fort Lawton, 1944. Lincoln, Nebraska: iUniverse. ISBN 0-595-66254-4.

Media

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