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{{Short description|Tamil caste belonging to the triumvirate known as Mukkulathor}} | |||
''Italic text''{{Infobox Ethnic group | |||
{{For|the caste of Northern India|Kalwar (caste)}} | |||
|image = ]<br>] | |||
{{pp-extended|small=yes}} | |||
|caption = ] • ] • ]<br> | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2018}} | |||
• ] • ] | |||
{{Use Indian English|date=November 2018}} | |||
{{Infobox ethnic group | |||
|image = Kallan siblings.jpg | |||
|caption = Kallar children with dilated earlobes, formerly a common practice | |||
|group = Kallar | |group = Kallar | ||
|popplace = ] | |||
|pop = '''65,00,000''' ('''10%''' of ] population)<ref>Census of India 2001</ref> | |||
|popplace = ], ], ] | |||
|languages = ] | |languages = ] | ||
|religions = ] | |religions = ] | ||
|related = |
|related-c = | ||
}} | }} | ||
], prominent ] leader from the ] subcaste]] | |||
'''Kallar''' (or '''Kallan''', formerly spelled as '''Colleries''') is one of the three related castes of ] which constitute the ] confederacy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Kingship and Political Practice in Colonial India |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages= 62, 87, 193 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aqKSTs4ajsAC&pg=PA193 |first=Pamela G. |last=Price |edition=Reprinted |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-52155-247-9}}</ref> The Kallar, along with the ] and ], constitute a united social caste on the basis of parallel professions, though their locations and heritages are wholly separate from one another.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} | |||
'''Kallar''' (Tamil: '''கள்ளர்''') are one of the three related castes which constitute the ] confederacy. The community shows many signs of independence and non-submission to any form of subjugation. They strongly resisted every British attempt to subjugate them.<ref>Thenpandi Singam by M. Karunanidhi</ref> Kallars are found largely in the Thanjavur, Trichy, Pudukkottai, Madurai, Theni, Dindigul, Sivagangai, Ramanathapuram, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam ,Thirunelveli, Karur and Kanchipuram districts of Tamil Nadu. Significant Kallar populations are also found in Srilanka, Malaysia and other south east Asian countries. The Royal House of ] belongs to the Kallar community. | |||
==Etymology== | |||
==Meaning of Kallar== | |||
''Kallar'' is a Tamil word meaning ''thief''. Their history has included periods of banditry.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cegr6zH9PFEC&pg=PA242 |page=242 |title=The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom |first=Nicholas B. |last=Dirks |authorlink=Nicholas Dirks |edition=2nd |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1993 |isbn=9780472081875}}</ref> Kallars themselves use titles such as "landlord",<ref>{{cite book|title= Journal Of Madras University Vol 81|url=https://archive.org/details/journalofmadrasuniversityvol81no1jan1990_202003_30/mode/1up?q=|year=1990|pages=}}</ref> Other proposed etymological origins include "black skinned", "hero", and "]-tappers".<ref>{{cite book |first=G. |last=Kuppuram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lPcgAAAAMAAJ&q=kallar+brave+etymology&dq=kallar+brave+etymology |title=India through the ages: history, art, culture, and religion, Volume 1 |publisher=Sundeep Prakashan |year=1988 |page=366|isbn=9788185067087 }}</ref> | |||
The anthropologist ] notes that the name Kallar, as with that of Maravar, was a title bestowed by Tamil ] (warrior-chiefs) on pastoral peasants who acted as their armed retainers. The majority of those poligars, who during the late 17th and 18th centuries controlled much of the ] region as well as the Tamil area, had themselves come from the Kallar, Maravar and ] communities.<ref name="Bayly2001p39">{{cite book |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |first=Susan |last=Bayly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC |page=39}}</ref> ''Kallar'' is synonymous with the western Indian term, ''Koli'', having connotations of thievery but also of upland pastoralism.<ref name="Bayly2001p61">{{cite book |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |first=Susan |last=Bayly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC |page=61}}</ref> According to Bayly, ''Kallar'' should be considered a "title of rural groups in Tamil Nadu with warrior-pastoralist ancestral traditions".<ref>{{cite book |title=Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age |first=Susan |last=Bayly |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-79842-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HbAjKR_iHogC |page=385}}</ref> | |||
Kallar means "brave people". Historians like Srinivasa Iyengar, Venkataswmy Nattar postulate the word Kallar, derived from Kalla, means "black" in Sanskrit and Tamil. (கள்வனென் கிளவி கரியோனென்ப' - திவாகரம்) They also postulate Dravidians were called Kalla by Aryans. The name Thirumal (Mal Means black) also Derived from Black.<ref>கள்ளர் சரித்திரம் - நாவலர் பண்டித ந மு வேங்கடசாமி நாட்டார்</ref>. | |||
== |
==History== | ||
] of ] seated in his palace, 1858]] | |||
Bayly notes that the Kallar and Maravar identities as a caste, rather than as a title, "... were clearly not ancient facts of life in the Tamil Nadu region. Insofar as these people of the turbulent poligar country really did become castes, their bonds of affinity were shaped in the relatively recent past".<ref name="Bayly2001p61" /> Prior to the late 18th century, their exposure to ], the concept of ] and practices such as ] that define the Indian caste system was minimal. Thereafter, the evolution as a caste developed as a result of various influences, including increased interaction with other groups as a consequence of jungle clearances, state-building and ideological shifts.<ref name="Bayly2001p39" /> | |||
Kallar are one of the castes in the ] (meaning three clans) community. The other two are Maravar and Agamudayar and together they are called ]. The royal title "Thevar/Devar" means Divine. In olden days the people viewed kings as a representation of Gods and were accorded titles of respect.<ref>{{cite web |title= Mukkulathor|url=http://devarcaste.wetpaint.com|publisher=devarcaste.wetpaint.com/}}</ref>. | |||
British sources often characterized the Kallars, and the related castes, as "soldiers out of work." Many Kallars had been warriors as well as peasants for the last few centuries. Kallar chieftaincies, organized into networks of ''nadus'', controlled the region north and west of Madurai. The Nayaks attempted to pacify or subjugate them by titling Kallar chieftains, with limited success. These ''nadus'' were well outside Nayaka control, and folk songs told of fields that could not be harvested and raids by Kallar parties, who were considered sovereign and independent, in Madurai city. This situation persisted past the downfall of the Nayakas and the advent of Yusuf Khan, until the mid-18th century. Starting in 1755, the ] of the ] engaged in several campaigns against the Kallars of ], but decades later Kallar raiding parties still posed a significant threat. In 1801, they networked with palegars of Tamil and Telugu regions to spearhead a series of revolts against British control.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Pandian|first=Anand|date=2005|title=Securing the rural citizen|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/001946460504200101|journal=The Indian Economic & Social History Review|volume=42|issue=1|pages=1–39|doi=10.1177/001946460504200101|issn=0019-4646|via=}}</ref> | |||
==Surnames== | |||
By the late 18th century, the Kallars were working as ''kavalkarars'', or watchmen, in hundreds of villages throughout southern Tamil Nadu, especially the region west of Madurai. These ''kavalkarars'' were given ''maniyam'', rent-free land, to ensure they did their job correctly. These ''kaval maniyams'' were commonly held by ''palaiyakarars'' who used land, and shares of the crops, to maintain a small militia. A common allegation made by colonial officials was that these ''kavalkarars'' were "abusing" their position and exploiting the peasants whose livelihoods they were supposed to protect. Kallars were often also hired as ] by ''palaiyakarars'', who according to British sources, used them to loot villagers. In 1803, these rights were abolished by the East India Company and the militias were abolished. However, the ''kaval'' system was not abolished but placed under the supervision of the East India Company.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
In Tamil Nadu, Kallars are called by various surnames, which came to them during various times by the places they have ruled, battlefields and to state their strong valour and bravery in the battle with foreign forces. It is a general practice in Southern Tamil Nadu to address a Thevar woman as Nachiyar. <ref>கள்ளர் பட்டப்பெயர்கள் - Pulamai Venkathachala Vanniyar</ref>. | |||
Reforms in 1816 abolished the responsibility ''kavalkarars'' had towards compensation for damaged crops while keeping fees, which British sources claimed led to the ''kavalkarars'' charging exorbitant fees. By the end of the 19th century, the watchmen formed a "shadow administration." Although British claims that Kallar watchmen were operating a "protection racket" were exaggerated, the Kallar watchmen still had the power of violence over the cultivators who paid them.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
==Sangam Age== | |||
Around the beginning of the 20th century, the cultivators, of many communities, near Madurai staged an anti-Kallar movement against the community's authority. The reasons for the movement are complex: partly the abuse of authority shown by Kallar watchmen, partly ], and part-personal feud. The agitations took the form of violence against the Kallars, including arson, and forcing them out of the villages. In 1918, the community was placed on the list of Criminal Tribes.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
Kallar, along with Maravar, are one of the ancient clans mentioned in the Sangam literature. The literature from the first Tamil Sangam period is dated around the last centuries of the pre-Christian era. | |||
The ] of the erstwhile ] hailed from the Kallar community.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cegr6zH9PFEC&pg=PA130&dq=tondaiman+kallar+caste#q=tondaiman%20kallar%20caste|title=The Hollow Crown: Ethnohistory of an Indian Kingdom|author=Nicholas B. Dirks|year=1993|publisher=University of Michigan Press, 1993 - Social Science - 430 pages|page=130|isbn=9780472081875}}</ref> | |||
'''Thondaiman''' | |||
==Culture== | |||
The Kings (Araiyars), known as Thondaiman, were then ruling Thondai Nadu (Thondaimandalam). | |||
Among the traditional customs of the Kallar noted by colonial officials was the use of the "collery stick" ({{langx|ta|], kallartādi}}), a bent ] or "false boomerang" which could be thrown up to {{convert|100|yd|m}}.<ref name="YuleBurnell1903">{{cite book|author1=Sir Henry Yule|author2=Arthur Coke Burnell|title=Hobson-Jobson: a glossary of colloquial Anglo-Indian words and phrases, and of kindred terms, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Z5iAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA236|accessdate=21 March 2012|year=1903|publisher=J. Murray|pages=236–}}</ref> Writing in 1957, ] noted that despite the weapon's frequent mention in literature, it had disappeared amongst the ].<ref name="DumontStern1986">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQduAAAAMAAJ |title=A South Indian subcaste: social organization and religion of the Pramalai Kallar |first1=Louis |last1=Dumont |authorlink1=Louis Dumont |first2=A. |last2=Stern |first3=Michael |last3=Moffatt|year=1986|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780195617856 }}</ref>{{page needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
There are hundreds of records pertaining to this dynasty. Thondai in Tamil means Kilai or Pirivu, Pallava in Sanskrit means the same. This indicates that ]s were the ] ] who ruled the medieval Pallava dynasty and who were in fact a later offshoot of the ] dynasty. | |||
===Diet=== | |||
'''Malayaman''' | |||
The Kallar were traditionally a non-vegetarian people,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d8k98lBxwM4C&pg=PA21 |title=Criminal gods and demon devotees: essays on the guardians of popular Hinduism |first=Alf |last=Hiltebeitel |date=21 September 1989 |authorlink=Alf Hiltebeitel |page=21|isbn=9780887069826 }}</ref> though a 1970s survey of Tamil Nadu indicated that 30% of Kallar surveyed, though non-vegetarian, refrained from eating fish after puberty.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHsxM3h_JX4C&pg=PA98 |title=Food, ecology, and culture: readings in the anthropology of dietary practices |first=John R. K. |last=Robson |year=1980 |page=98|isbn=9780677160900 }}</ref> Meat, though present in the Kallar diet, was not frequently eaten but restricted to Saturday nights and festival days. Even so, this small amount of meat was sufficient to affect perceptions of Kallar social status.<ref name="DumontStern1986"/>{{page needed|date=July 2020}} | |||
===Martial arts=== | |||
The Kings (Araiyars) ruled ] during the ascendancy of the Chola empire, with the title Malayaman (which is one of the family names of the Kallar community). Sangam literature mentions of Malaiyamaan Kaari, a Malayaman chief who fought alongside Perunarkilli Chola to defeat Cheral Irumporai (Irumporai Cheras). Descendants of Kaari are collectively called by the name Parkavakulam (Udayar & Moopanar). | |||
The Kallars traditionally practised a Tamil martial art variously known as '']'', ''chinna adi'' and ''varna ati''. In recent years, since 1958, these have been referred to as Southern-style ], although they are distinct from the ancient martial art of Kalaripayattu itself that was historically the style found in ].<ref>{{cite book |title=Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia. A – L |volume=1 |editor-first=Thomas A. |editor-last=Green |year=2001| page=177 |chapter=India |first=Philip B. |last=Zarilli |publisher=ABC-CLIO | isbn=978-1-57607-150-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v32oHSE5t6cC&pg=PA177}}</ref> | |||
'''Adigaman''' | |||
The Kings were ruling Tagadur, present day Dharmapuri district. One of The Four kingdoms mentioned in the rock-edict of Ashoka. ] Naduman Anji King of Tagadur is mentioned in the rock-edict of Ashoka as ]s inscriptions found from Villupuram indicates that stating Adigaman (which is one of the family name of the Kallar community) as Satyaputra Adhiyan Neduman Anji intha Pali. | |||
==Chola== | |||
The ] Dynasty (Tamil:'''சோழர் குலம்''') was a native Tamil dynasty that ruled ] and Ilangai (Ceylon) until the later half of the 13th century A.D. The other two Tamil Royal dynasties are the Pandyas and Cheras. And Pallavas are later offshoots of Cholas, and the word Pallava means ''branch'' in Sanskrit, indicating the latter as an offshoot of Cholas. | |||
The Chola dynasty originated in the fertile valley of the ] River. ] was the most famous among the early Chola kings, while Aditya I, Parantaka I, Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola, Kulothunga Chola and Kulothunga Chola III were notable emperors of the medieval Cholas. | |||
Kalapadiyar, Melkondar, Chozangar, Thevar, etc are now used by Kallars only shows that Cholas, Pallavas and Early Pandyas were from the Royal community of Kallars. The Bramanda puranas Puvindra puranam and Kalla Kesari Purannam also Mentions the same.<ref>{{cite web |title= கள்ளர் | |||
|url=http://ta.wikipedia.org/%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D |publisher=ta.wikipedia.org}}</ref> | |||
Lots of marriages takes place between Cholas with Malavarayar<ref>{{cite web |title= South Indian Inscription | |||
|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_23/introduction_1.html | |||
|publisher= www.whatisindia.com }}</ref>, ]<ref>{{cite web |title= South Indian Inscription | |||
|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_22/part_1/kulottunga_3.html | |||
|publisher= www.whatisindia.com }}</ref>, ]<ref>{{cite web |title= South IndianInscription|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_13/introduction_1.html|publisher= www.whatisindia.com }}</ref>,Melkondar<ref>{{cite web |title= South Indian Inscription | |||
|url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_2/no_21_north_wall_lower_tier.html|publisher= www.whatisindia.com }}</ref> | |||
and Vallavaraiyar. they also belongs to Kallar community.<ref>Rajarajan Meikirthigal By Pandarathar</ref> | |||
<ref>KalvethugalKurum Unmaigal By Pandarathar</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= South Indian Inscriptions Volume13 |url=http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_13/introduction_1.html |publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|accessdate=2008-11-09}}</ref> | |||
==Pallavas== | |||
The word ] (Tamil: பல்லவர்) means ''branch'' in Sanskrit, denoting that they are a later offshoot (Kilai) of Cholas. The Pallava kingdom was a medieval Dravidian Tamil dynasty of South India that had its capital at ] and ruled Northern Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh (till Northern Circars) around the 4th century CE. | |||
They rose in power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the Andhra Pradesh and Northern parts of Tamil Nadu for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century. | |||
"Pallava" is rendered as Tondaiyar in the Tamil language. The Pallava kings at several places are called Thondamans or Thondaiyarkon. The territory of the Pallavas was known as Tundaka Visaya or Tundaka Rashtra. The Sanskrit meaning of Pallava is Kilai The Tamil Thondai means the same, it shows that Pallavas are descendants (Kilay or Pirivu) of Cholas. | |||
Pathupattu, one of the Sangam literatures, reads that the King Thondaiman Ilandirayan ruled this town around 2,500 years ago. The Pallavas are told as the descendents of Thondaiman Ilandirayan. | |||
They were also called by surnames like Sethurayar, Pallavarayar, Vandarayar, Kadurayar, Vallavarayar, Vanathirayar, Kaliyarayar..<ref>{{cite web |title= கள்ளர் சரித்திரம் | |||
|url=http://www.thinnai.com/?module=displaystory&story_id=20212014&format=print&edition_id=20021201 | |||
|publisher=www.thinnai.com}}</ref> | |||
==Link With Pandiyan== | |||
Historians postulate that ]s are ] but some Pandiyan kings were Kallar. | |||
A Pandiyan king was mentioned as Kallar Perumagan Thennavan. Also the bulk of Kallar warriors were serving in the Pandian army. | |||
After the end of Pandian Rule, then Pandi nadu, also known as Kallar nadu, Was ruled by Kallar Ambalakkarrars. | |||
==Link With Cheras== | |||
The title Servaikkarar, used by Mukkulathors and derived from Chera Avaikkarar, | |||
means people who served in Chera avai. | |||
Once Chera country was ruled by eight Chera kings who combined their armies and chose one king to lead them. Avai is known as Enperayam or Chera Avai.<ref>கள்ளர் பட்டப்பெயர்கள் - Pulamai Venkathachala Vanniyar</ref>. | |||
People belonging to Cheraavai are called Cheravaikkarar or Servaikkarar. One of the famous kings with this title, Maruthu Pandiyar Servaikkarar, belongs to ]. | |||
==Tamil copper-plate inscriptions== | |||
The discovery of Indian copper plate inscriptions provided a relative abundance of new evidence for use in evolving a chronicle of India's elusive history{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}. | |||
During Chola rule there were many small kings(Araiyar) ruling there respective areas under the Chola. Some of the names are seen in ] are also mentioned in ] (a Tamil historical novel written by Kalki Krishnamurthy) | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*Malayaman | |||
*Vallavaraiyar | |||
*Muniaraiyar | |||
*Puvaraiyar | |||
*Velar | |||
*Vanataraiyar | |||
==During Vijayanagar Empire== | |||
The downfall of the Mukkulathors occurred in 1345 with the fall of Vira Pandyan IV and the subsequent conquest of Madurai by the Delhi Sultanate <ref>Thenpandi Singam by M. Karunanidhi</ref> However, the southern territories of the Sultanate soon asserted their independence and the Mukkulathors recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire and later under the Nayak dynasty during whose period they served as Polygars or chieftains. | |||
The south-western parts of Tamil Nadu except for ] was called ''Kallar Nadu'' and was governed by Kallar Palayakkarar. | |||
==Notable people== | |||
* ] (1923–1979) | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
* ] | |||
==See also== | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
==References== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
{{Reflist}} | |||
] | |||
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kallar (Caste)}} | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] |
Latest revision as of 20:37, 27 October 2024
Tamil caste belonging to the triumvirate known as Mukkulathor For the caste of Northern India, see Kalwar (caste).Ethnic group
Kallar children with dilated earlobes, formerly a common practice | |
Regions with significant populations | |
---|---|
Tamil Nadu | |
Languages | |
Tamil | |
Religion | |
Folk Hinduism |
Kallar (or Kallan, formerly spelled as Colleries) is one of the three related castes of southern India which constitute the Mukkulathor confederacy. The Kallar, along with the Maravar and Agamudayar, constitute a united social caste on the basis of parallel professions, though their locations and heritages are wholly separate from one another.
Etymology
Kallar is a Tamil word meaning thief. Their history has included periods of banditry. Kallars themselves use titles such as "landlord", Other proposed etymological origins include "black skinned", "hero", and "toddy-tappers".
The anthropologist Susan Bayly notes that the name Kallar, as with that of Maravar, was a title bestowed by Tamil palaiyakkarars (warrior-chiefs) on pastoral peasants who acted as their armed retainers. The majority of those poligars, who during the late 17th and 18th centuries controlled much of the Telugu region as well as the Tamil area, had themselves come from the Kallar, Maravar and Vatuka communities. Kallar is synonymous with the western Indian term, Koli, having connotations of thievery but also of upland pastoralism. According to Bayly, Kallar should be considered a "title of rural groups in Tamil Nadu with warrior-pastoralist ancestral traditions".
History
Bayly notes that the Kallar and Maravar identities as a caste, rather than as a title, "... were clearly not ancient facts of life in the Tamil Nadu region. Insofar as these people of the turbulent poligar country really did become castes, their bonds of affinity were shaped in the relatively recent past". Prior to the late 18th century, their exposure to Brahmanic Hinduism, the concept of varna and practices such as endogamy that define the Indian caste system was minimal. Thereafter, the evolution as a caste developed as a result of various influences, including increased interaction with other groups as a consequence of jungle clearances, state-building and ideological shifts.
British sources often characterized the Kallars, and the related castes, as "soldiers out of work." Many Kallars had been warriors as well as peasants for the last few centuries. Kallar chieftaincies, organized into networks of nadus, controlled the region north and west of Madurai. The Nayaks attempted to pacify or subjugate them by titling Kallar chieftains, with limited success. These nadus were well outside Nayaka control, and folk songs told of fields that could not be harvested and raids by Kallar parties, who were considered sovereign and independent, in Madurai city. This situation persisted past the downfall of the Nayakas and the advent of Yusuf Khan, until the mid-18th century. Starting in 1755, the Presidency armies of the East India Company engaged in several campaigns against the Kallars of Melur, but decades later Kallar raiding parties still posed a significant threat. In 1801, they networked with palegars of Tamil and Telugu regions to spearhead a series of revolts against British control.
By the late 18th century, the Kallars were working as kavalkarars, or watchmen, in hundreds of villages throughout southern Tamil Nadu, especially the region west of Madurai. These kavalkarars were given maniyam, rent-free land, to ensure they did their job correctly. These kaval maniyams were commonly held by palaiyakarars who used land, and shares of the crops, to maintain a small militia. A common allegation made by colonial officials was that these kavalkarars were "abusing" their position and exploiting the peasants whose livelihoods they were supposed to protect. Kallars were often also hired as mercenaries by palaiyakarars, who according to British sources, used them to loot villagers. In 1803, these rights were abolished by the East India Company and the militias were abolished. However, the kaval system was not abolished but placed under the supervision of the East India Company.
Reforms in 1816 abolished the responsibility kavalkarars had towards compensation for damaged crops while keeping fees, which British sources claimed led to the kavalkarars charging exorbitant fees. By the end of the 19th century, the watchmen formed a "shadow administration." Although British claims that Kallar watchmen were operating a "protection racket" were exaggerated, the Kallar watchmen still had the power of violence over the cultivators who paid them.
Around the beginning of the 20th century, the cultivators, of many communities, near Madurai staged an anti-Kallar movement against the community's authority. The reasons for the movement are complex: partly the abuse of authority shown by Kallar watchmen, partly agrarian distress, and part-personal feud. The agitations took the form of violence against the Kallars, including arson, and forcing them out of the villages. In 1918, the community was placed on the list of Criminal Tribes.
The Thondaiman dynasty of the erstwhile Pudukkottai state hailed from the Kallar community.
Culture
Among the traditional customs of the Kallar noted by colonial officials was the use of the "collery stick" (Tamil: valai tādi, kallartādi), a bent throwing stick or "false boomerang" which could be thrown up to 100 yards (91 m). Writing in 1957, Louis Dumont noted that despite the weapon's frequent mention in literature, it had disappeared amongst the Piramalai Kallar.
Diet
The Kallar were traditionally a non-vegetarian people, though a 1970s survey of Tamil Nadu indicated that 30% of Kallar surveyed, though non-vegetarian, refrained from eating fish after puberty. Meat, though present in the Kallar diet, was not frequently eaten but restricted to Saturday nights and festival days. Even so, this small amount of meat was sufficient to affect perceptions of Kallar social status.
Martial arts
The Kallars traditionally practised a Tamil martial art variously known as Adimurai, chinna adi and varna ati. In recent years, since 1958, these have been referred to as Southern-style Kalaripayattu, although they are distinct from the ancient martial art of Kalaripayattu itself that was historically the style found in Kerala.
References
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