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Republic of IndonesiaRepublik Indonesia (Indonesian)
Flag Emblem
Motto:  Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Old Javanese) "Unity in Diversity"
Anthem: Indonesia Raya "Indonesia the Great"
National ideology: Pancasila (Sanskrit) "The Five Principles"
Show globeShow map of ASEAN
Capitaland largest city	Jakarta 6°10′S 106°49′E / 6.167°S 106.817°E / -6.167; 106.817
Official languages	Indonesian
Indigenous languages	718 languages
Ethnic groups	See ethnic groups
Religion (2023)	87.1% Islam 10.5% Christianity 7.4% Protestant 3.1% Catholic 1.7% Hinduism 0.7% Buddhism 0.08% Folk, Confucianism, and others
Demonym(s)	Indonesian
Government	Unitary presidential republic
• President	Prabowo Subianto
• Vice President	Gibran Rakabuming Raka
• House Speaker	Puan Maharani
• Supreme Court	Sunarto
• Constitutional Court	Suhartoyo
Legislature	People's Consultative Assembly (MPR)
• Upper house	Regional Representative Council (DPD)
• Lower house	House of Representatives (DPR)
Independence from the Netherlands
• Proclaimed	17 August 1945
• Recognised	27 December 1949
Area
• Total	1,904,569 km (735,358 sq mi) (14th)
• Water (%)	4.85
Population
• Q2 2024 estimate	282,477,584 (4th)
• 2020 census	270,203,917
• Density	143/km (370.4/sq mi) (88th)
GDP (PPP)	2024 estimate
• Total	$4.658 trillion (8th)
• Per capita	$16,542 (102nd)
GDP (nominal)	2024 estimate
• Total	$1.402 trillion (16th)
• Per capita	$4,980 (118th)
Gini (2024)	37.9 medium inequality
HDI (2022)	0.713 high (112th)
Currency	Indonesian rupiah (Rp) (IDR)
Time zone	UTC+7 to +9 (IDT)
Date format	DD/MM/YYYY
Drives on	Left
Calling code	+62
ISO 3166 code	ID
Internet TLD	.id

Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea. Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature. It has 38 provinces, of which nine have special autonomous status. The country's largest city, Jakarta, is the world's second-most-populous urban area. Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and the eastern part of Malaysia, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Peninsular Malaysia, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, Palau, and India. Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity.

The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least the seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent. Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam, and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth.

Indonesia consists of hundreds of distinct ethnic and linguistic groups, with Javanese being the largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika" ("Unity in Diversity" literally, "many, yet one"), defined by a national language, cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country, Indonesia is classified a newly industrialised country, with its economy the world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 8th-largest by PPP. It is the world's third-largest democracy, regional power, and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization, G20, BRICS and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, Association of Southeast Asian Nations, East Asia Summit, MIKTA, APEC, D-8, and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation.

Etymology

The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos (Ἰνδός) and nesos (νῆσος), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl, an English ethnologist, proposed the terms Indunesians—and, his preference, Malayunesians—for the inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan, used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago. Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia. They preferred Malay Archipelago (Dutch: Maleische Archipel); the Netherlands East Indies (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), popularly Indië; the East (de Oost); and Insulinde.

After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularised the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established a press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau.

History

Early history

The Indonesian archipelago has been inhabited since the time of homo erectus or "Java Man," with fossils dating back 2 million to 500,000 BCE. Fossils of homo floresiensis, found on Flores, date around 700,000 to 60,000 BCE, while homo sapiens arrived around 43,000 BCE. Sulawesi and Borneo are home to the world's oldest known cave paintings, dating back 40,000 to 60,000 years, and megalithic sites such as western Java's Gunung Padang, Sulawesi's Lore Lindu as well as Sumatra's Nias and Sumba reflect early human settlements and ceremonial practices.

Around 2,000 BCE, Austronesian peoples began arriving from the island now known as Taiwan in Southeast Asia, gradually displacing native Melanesians to the far eastern part of the archipelago as they spread east, and would eventually form the majority of Indonesia's modern population. Favorable agricultural conditions and advancements like wet-field rice cultivation by the 8th century BCE enabled the growth of villages and kingdoms by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic location fostered inter-island and international exchange with civilizations from the Indian subcontinent and mainland China, profoundly influencing Indonesian history and culture through trade.

By the 7th century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom thrived on trade, adopting Hindu and Buddhist influences. The 8th to 10th centuries saw the rise and decline of the Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties, leaving monumental legacies like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples. Majapahit, a Hindu kingdom established in the late 13th century in eastern Java, dominated much of the archipelago under the leadership of Gajah Mada in a period often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. Islam arrived in the 13th century in northern Sumatra, and following gradual adoption in other islands, it became the dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the 16th century, blending with pre-existing traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture, particularly in Java.

Colonial era

In 1512, Europeans began arriving in the archipelago led by Portuguese traders under Francisco Serrão to seek monopoly of the lucrative spice trade in the Maluku Islands. Dutch and British traders soon followed, with the former establishing the Dutch East India Company (Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) in 1602 that eventuall became the dominant European power for almost two centuries. After the VOC's dissolution in 1799 due to bankruptcy, the Dutch East Indies was established as a nationalised colony, marking the beginning of formal colonial rule by the Netherlands. Over the next century and a half, Dutch control over the archipelago was tenuous for much of this period, as they faced continuous rebellions from local leaders like Prince Diponegoro in central Java Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku, and rebels in Aceh. Dutch dominance only extended to Indonesia's modern boundaries in the early 20th century, with the establishment of Dutch posts in New Guinea.

The Japanese invasion and occupation of the Indies during World War II ended Dutch rule and encouraged Indonesia's independence movement. Only two days after Japan's surrender in August 1945, Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, and they became the country's first president and vice-president along with Sutan Sjahrir as Prime Minister. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule, prompting the start of Indonesia's war of independence against the Dutch. The conflict lasted until 1949 when the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference following international pressure. Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence.

Post-World War II

As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing the opposing forces of the military, political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto, countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps. The PKI was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno, Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment, which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth.

Indonesia was the country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis. It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses. Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting the country's first direct presidential election in 2004.

Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh was achieved in 2005.

Geography

Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E. A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state, extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investment Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at the UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 922 of which are permanently inhabited. The largest are Sumatra, Java, Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi, and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik, Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor, and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, the Philippines, Palau, and Australia.

At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas, Barito, Mamberamo, Sepik and Mahakam. They serve as communication and transport links between the island's river settlements.

Climate

Indonesia's equatorial position ensures a relatively stable climate year-round, characterised by two main seasons: dry season from May to October and wet season from November to April, with no extremes of summer and winter. The climate is predominantly tropical rainforest, with cooler climates in mountainous areas over 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates, the subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb) is more pronounced during dry season. There is a variation in rainfall patterns, with regions like western Sumatra, Java, and the interiors of Kalimantan and Papua receiving more precipitation, while areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, are drier. The warm waters covering 81% of Indonesia's area keep land temperatures stable, with high humidity (70-90%) and moderate, predictable winds influenced by monsoon cycles. Major weather hazards include strong currents in straits, such as the Lombok and Sape Straits, rather than typhoons or storms.

Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change, including a temperature rise of 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century due to unreduced emissions. This warming could intensify droughts, disrupt rainfall patterns critical to agriculture, and increase occurrences of food shortages, diseases, and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten the country's densely populated coastal regions, and impoverished communities are expected to be disproportionately affected by climate change.

Geology

In terms of tectonics, most of Indonesia's area is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire, where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate, where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java, Bali and Nusa Tenggara, and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi. Of the 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali.

A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of the archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816. The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake.

Biodiversity

Recognised by Conservation International as one of 17 megadiverse countries, Indonesia hosts one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity due to its tropical climate, large size, and archipelagic geography. The country's flora and fauna include a mix of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, and Borneo) have a wealth of Asian fauna as they were once linked to mainland Asia, while Sulawesi, Lesser Sunda Islands, Maluku and Papua evolved unique ecosystems due to their separation from the continental landmasses. Papua, once part of the Australian landmass, is home to over 600 bird species closely related to Australia. Indonesia is second only to Australia in total endemic species, with 6% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic.

The country also boasts 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline, featuring diverse sea and coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and mangroves, as well as coral reefs in the Coral Triangle that harbor the highest diversity of coral reef fish globally, with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia. The Wallace Line, described by English naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace, marks the biogeographical divide between Asian and Australasian species, with the region between the Wallace and Weber Lines (called Wallacea) hosting unique biodiversity as described in Wallace's 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago. Indonesia's extensive forests, comprising 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest, are deemed crucial for the region's ecological balance and carbon storage.

Indonesia faces severe environmental challenges due to extensive deforestation, peatland destruction, and over-exploitation of resources, driven by industries such as logging, plantations and agriculture since the 1970s, and in most recent years, palm oil. Forest cover declined from 87% in 1950 to 48% in 2022, highlighting the country as a leading forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. These issues are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. They also threaten indigenous and endemic species, with the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing many as critically endangered, such as the Bali myna, Sumatran orangutan, and Javan rhinoceros. Environmental degradation has prompted some academics to label these activities as ecocide.

Conservation

As of 2023, Indonesia has designated 21.3% of its land as protected areas and aims to align its strategy with the 2022 Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. Additionally, 411 marine reserves account for 9% of the country's maritime area, with a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a recent study highlights that the current efforts are off track and existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Approximately 390 marine areas are managed by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for classification as other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), though there is no national mechanism for reporting them.

Indonesia's conservation framework includes 55 national parks, covering around 9% of the country's surface area. Among these, nine are predominantly marine parks, with six recognised as World Heritage Sites, seven as part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and five wetlands of international importance under the 1971 Ramsar Convention. Notably, Indonesia has over 100 marine protected areas spanning 15.7 million hectares as of 2012 managed by the Ministry of Forestry and local governments. Previous targets included reaching 20 million hectares by 2020 under former President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono's 2009 initiative and 10% of territorial waters, or 31 million hectares.

Government and politics

Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the New Order's fall in 1998, sweeping constitutional reforms has restructured the executive, legislative, and judicial branches while maintaining its unitary state framework despite the push to delegate powers to regional entities. The President serves as head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces (Tentara Nasional Indonesia, TNI) and overseeing domestic and foreign policies. Presidents may serve up to two consecutive five-year terms.

The People's Consultative Assembly (Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat, MPR) is Indonesia's highest representative body, responsible for amending the constitution, inaugurating or impeaching the president, and formalising state policies. It consists of two houses, the People's Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat, DPR), which has 575 members and handles legislation and executive oversight, and the Regional Representative Council (Dewan Perwakilan Daerah, DPD) with 136 members, which focuses on regional matters. Since 1998, reforms have significantly enhanced the DPR's governance role, while the DPD represents Indonesia's diverse regional interests.

Indonesia's judiciary includes several key institutions. The Supreme Court (Mahkamah Agung) is the highest judicial authority, handling final appeals and case reviews. The Constitutional Court (Mahkamah Konstitusi) addresses constitutional and political matters, while the Religious Court (Pengadilan Agama) oversees Islamic personal law cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission (Komisi Yudisial) monitors judicial performance.

Parties and elections

Indonesia has had a multi-party system since 1999 where no political party has won a majority of seats in the legislative elections. Political parties are broadly categorized into two groups, secular parties such as Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), the Party of the Functional Groups (Golkar), and the Great Indonesia Movement Party (Gerinda), and Islamic parties such as National Awakening Party (PKB) and Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). Indonesia's political spectrum is characterised by preference for pragmatism and ideological fluidity over strict ideological adherence to fit the prevailing political climate, as well as what is called cartel parties, with extensive power-sharing among parties and limited accountability to voters. Pre-election alliances are also the norm, which is unlike in many democracies where the reverse case are common.

In 1955, the first general election was held to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly (Konstituante). The most recent elections in 2024 brought eight political parties to the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections, elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019.

Administrative divisions

Indonesia is divided into several administrative levels. At the first level are the provinces, each with a legislature (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah, DPRD) and an elected governor. The number of provinces has grown from 8 in 1945 to 38 today, with the most recent one, Southwest Papua, established in 2022. The second level includes regencies (kabupaten) and cities (kota), led by regents (bupati) and mayors (walikota), respectively, both supported by legislatures (DPRD Kabupaten/Kota). Below this are districts (kecamatan, distrik in Papua), and the fourth level comprises villages, known by various names like desa, kelurahan, kampung, nagari (in West Sumatra), or gampong (in Aceh). Villages are subdivided into community groups (rukun warga, RW) and neighborhood groups (rukun tetangga, RT), with further subdivisions like hamlets (dusun or dukuh) in Java.

The village level is the lowest administrative unit but holds significant influence over daily life. Village governments are led by elected heads (lurah or kepala desa) and handle local matters. Since the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, regencies and cities have become key administrative units, responsible for most government services. Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua, Central Papua, Highland Papua, South Papua, Southwest Papua, and West Papua—are granted a special autonomous status (otonomi khusus) from the central government. A conservative Islamic territory, Aceh applies aspects of sharia law, while Yogyakarta uniquely retains its pre-colonial monarchy, with its Sultan and Duke serving as governor and vice governor. The Papuan provinces are the only ones where indigenous people hold privileges in local governance.

Foreign relations

Indonesia follows an "independent and active" (bebas aktif) foreign policy, a term coined by former Vice President Mohammad Hatta in 1948 by which the country aims to navigate great power politics and maintain autonomy and avoid alignment with major powers. The President holds the ultimate authority in determining foreign policy directions while the Foreign Affairs Ministry is responsible for formulating and implementing foreign policy. Meanwhile, the Parliament (DPR) provides oversight and ratifies international treaties. Indonesia is considered to be a middle power internationally.

As the largest country in Southeast Asia and a founding member of Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Indonesia has put ASEAN as the cornerstone of its foreign policy and outlook. Indonesia has actively supported Palestine while refraining from formal diplomatic relations with Israel, though the two countries maintain discreet ties. In the past decade and a half, Indonesia has built deep relations with China, primarily relating to substantial investments in infrastructure and trade, while at the same time maintaining a strategic partnership with the United States, focusing on economic cooperation, security, and counterterrorism efforts.

Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the East Asia Summit. Indonesia is also a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group, and the World Trade Organization (WTO). Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967 but it has established an overseas aid programme of its own in 2019. As part of its role in maintaining international peace and security, Indonesia has deployed thousands of military and police personnel to multiple United Nations peacekeeping missions, including in Lebanon, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Mali.

Military

Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) consist of the Army (TNI-AD), Navy (TNI-AL) (including the Marine Corps), and Air Force (TNI-AU), with the Army comprising around 400,000 active personnel. Established during the Indonesian National Revolution, the TNI initially engaged in guerrilla warfare alongside informal militias. Its territorial structure focuses on maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. Though political reforms in 1998 removed TNI's formal legislative role, it continues to wield political influence, albeit reduced from its peak during the New Order. Defence spending in 2022 was 0.7% of GDP, with controversies surrounding military-owned commercial ventures.

Since independence, Indonesia has struggled to maintain unity against separatist movements and insurgencies, notably in Aceh and Papua. While the former ended peacefully in 2005, the latter has continued amid an implementation of regional autonomy as well as allegations of human rights abuses, including extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances, reported by Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the UNHRC. Indonesia's historical military engagements include conflicts with the Netherlands over Dutch New Guinea, opposition to the British-backed creation of Malaysia (Konfrontasi), the anti-communist mass killings, and the invasion of East Timor, which was Indonesia's largest military operation.

Law enforcement and human rights

Law enforcement in Indonesia is chiefly performed by the Indonesian National Police (POLRI), together with other law enforcement agencies under the president, a certain ministry or state-owned enterprise (BUMN) which perform policing duties for a certain public service. These law enforcement agencies are under the supervision and trained by the POLRI. The National Police essentially is the national civilian police force of the country responsible for enforcing law and order of the state.

Throughout the country's history, instances of racism and discrimination, especially against Chinese Indonesians and Papuans, have been well documented. The former case notably peaked in the anti-Chinese riots in 1998, following a series of similar riots dating back to 1994 in Medan and discriminatory laws dating back to 1967. Independence movements, such as the Free Aceh Movement (who fought for an independent Aceh based on sharia law), Fretilin (a resistance movement to Indonesian rule in East Timor) and the Free Papua Movement (who aims to separate West Papua from Indonesia) have led to violent conflicts and accusations of human rights abuses of all sides involved.

The situation has improved since the fall of Suharto in 1998 and the subsequent reforms. East Timor gained independence from Indonesia in 2002 and the insurgency in Aceh were solved in 2005 under the Helsinki agreement, in which Aceh was to be granted a special autonomy. The reforms ushered a more democratic political climate in the country, where it saw the abolishment of several laws deemed discriminatory, especially against Chinese Indonesians. Chinese New Year has also become an official holiday since 2002. The conflict in Papua, however, remains ongoing as of 2024 and has continued since 1962.

Economy

Indonesia operates a mixed economy where both the private sector and the government play significant roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, it has the region's largest economy and is classified as a newly industrialised country. In 2024, its nominal GDP was US$1.402 trillion, ranking 16th globally, while its GDP at purchasing power parity (PPP) was US$4.658 trillion, ranking 8th. Per capita GDP in PPP is US$16,542, while nominal per capita GDP is US$4,980. Based on 2022 data, services dominate the economy in terms employment (48.8%), followed by agriculture (29.2%) and industry (21.8%), while in terms of share of GDP, both services and industry dominate (roughly 41% each), with agriculture coming second (12.4%).

The economic structure has shifted significantly over time, transitioning from agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s to gradual industrialization and urbanization, especially from the late 1960s to the 1980s. Falling oil prices in the 1980s prompted diversification into manufactured exports, resulting in substantial economic growth (the GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%.) and poverty reduction from 60% to 15%. However, the growth ended during the Asian economic crisis in the late 1990s, causing a severe setback where the economy experienced a 13.1% GDP contraction, a 78% inflation and a real GDP growth of only 0.8% in 1999. The economy began recovering in the early 2000s, achieving consistent growth rates between 4% and 6% from 2004 to 2024 due to banking improvements and increased domestic consumption, which helped Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession. Although the COVID-19 pandemic in the early 2020s caused the country's first recession since 1997, the economy rebounded within a year.

Indonesia boasts abundant natural resources, including nickel, coal, palm oil, and petroleum, which dominate its export portfolio. It imports refined and crude petroleum, vehicle parts, and wheat, with major trade partners including China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand. Despite these resources and decades of development, disparities in wealth, employment and economic opportunities persist between densely populated and economically advantaged regions in the western islands like Java and Sumatra, and sparsely populated, underdeveloped areas in the east like Maluku and Papua.

Tourism

Tourism contributed around US$9.8 billion to GDP in 2020, and in the previous year, Indonesia received 15.4 million visitors. Overall, Australia, China, Singapore, Malaysia, and Japan are the top five sources of visitors to Indonesia. Since 2011, Wonderful Indonesia has been the country's international marketing campaign slogan to promote tourism.

Nature and culture are prime attractions of Indonesian tourism. The country has a well-preserved natural ecosystem with rainforests stretching over about 57% of Indonesia's land (225 million acres). Forests on Sumatra and Kalimantan are examples of popular destinations, such as the Orangutan wildlife reserve. Moreover, Indonesia has one of the world's longest coastlines, measuring 54,716 kilometres (33,999 mi). The ancient Borobudur and Prambanan temples, as well as Toraja and Bali with their traditional festivities, are some of the popular destinations for cultural tourism.

Indonesia has ten UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the Komodo National Park and the Cosmological Axis of Yogyakarta and its Historic Landmarks; and a further 18 in a tentative list that includes Bunaken National Park and Raja Ampat Islands. Other attractions include specific points in Indonesian history, such as the colonial heritage of the Dutch East Indies in the old towns of Jakarta and Semarang and the royal palaces of Pagaruyung and Ubud.

Science and technology

Government spending on research and development is relatively low at 0.3% of GDP in 2019. Despite being ranked 54th among 133 countries on the 2024 Global Innovation Index, the country performs above expectations for its upper middle-income status. Historical innovations include terasering, the terracing techniques for rice cultivation, and the pinisi boats of the Bugis and Makassar people. In the 1980s, Tjokorda Raka Sukawati developed the Sosrobahu road construction technique that is now used internationally. Indonesia also produces passenger trains and freight wagons through its state-owned Indonesian Railway Industry (Industri Kereta Api, INKA), which exports trains abroad.

Indonesia has a long history of manufacturing military and commuter aircraft and is the only country in Southeast Asia to do so. Its state-owned aerospace company, Indonesian Aerospace (PT. Dirgantara Indonesia), has supplied components to Boeing and Airbus and co-developed the CASA/IPTN CN-235 aircraft with Spain's EADS CASA, which is widely used internationally. Former President B. J. Habibie, who was an aerospace engineer before getting into politics, played a key role in advancing the country's aerospace research. Recently, Indonesia has been collaborating with South Korea on the 4.5-generation fighter jet KAI KF-21 Boramae.

Indonesia's space program, managed by the National Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional, LAPAN), launched its first satellite in 1976 (Palapa), making it the first developing country with a satellite system. As of 2024, Indonesia has launched 19 satellites for communication and other purposes. Recently, the government licensed Starlink to provide internet connectivity to rural and underserved regions.

Infrastructure

Transport

Indonesia's transport system has been shaped over time by the economic resource base of an archipelago and the distribution of its 275 million people highly concentrated on Java. In 2016, the transport sector generated about 5.2% of GDP. The road transport system has a total length of 548,097 kilometres (340,572 miles) as of 2022. Jakarta has the longest bus rapid transit system globally, boasting 251.2 kilometres (156.1 miles) in 13 corridors and ten cross-corridor routes. Rickshaws such as bajaj and becak and share taxis such as Angkot and Minibus are a regular sight in the country.

Most railways are in Java, and partly Sumatra and Sulawesi, used for freight and passenger transport, such as local commuter rail services (mainly in Greater Jakarta and Yogyakarta–Solo) complementing the inter-city rail network in several cities. In the late 2010s, Jakarta and Palembang were the first cities in Indonesia to have rapid transit systems, with more planned for other cities in the future. In 2023, a high-speed rail called Whoosh connecting the cities of Jakarta and Bandung commenced operations, a first for Southeast Asia and the Southern Hemisphere.

Indonesia's largest airport, Soekarno–Hatta International Airport, is among the busiest in the Southern Hemisphere, serving 49 million passengers in 2023. Ngurah Rai International Airport and Juanda International Airport are the country's second-and third-busiest airport, respectively. Garuda Indonesia, the country's flag carrier since 1949, is one of the world's leading airlines and a member of the global airline alliance SkyTeam. The Port of Tanjung Priok is the busiest and most advanced Indonesian port, handling more than 50% of Indonesia's trans-shipment cargo traffic.

Energy

In 2019, Indonesia produced 4,999 terawatt-hours (17.059 quadrillion British thermal units) and consumed 2,357 terawatt-hours (8.043 quadrillion British thermal units) worth of energy. The country has substantial energy resources, including 22 billion barrels (3.5 billion cubic metres) of conventional oil and gas reserves (of which about 4 billion barrels are recoverable), 8 billion barrels of oil-equivalent coal-based methane (CBM) resources, and 28 billion tonnes of recoverable coal.

In late 2020, Indonesia's total national installed power generation capacity stands at 72,750.72 MW. Although reliance on domestic coal and imported oil has increased between 2010 and 2019, Indonesia has seen progress in renewable energy, with hydropower and geothermal being the most abundant sources that account for more than 8% of the country's energy mix. As of 2021, power generation from solar, wind, biomass, and ocean energy is still small. The country's largest dam, Jatiluhur, has an installed capacity of 186.5 MW that feeds into the Java grid managed by the State Electricity Company (Perusahaan Listrik Negara, PLN).

Demographics

The 2020 census recorded Indonesia's population as 270.2 million, the fourth largest in the world, with a moderately high population growth rate of 1.25%. Java is the world's most populous island, where 56% of the country's population lives. The population density is 141 people per square kilometre (370 people/sq mi), ranking 88th in the world, although Java has a population density of 1,067 people per square kilometre (2,760 people/sq mi). In 1961, the first post-colonial census recorded a total of 97 million people. It is expected to grow to around 295 million by 2030 and 321 million by 2050. The country currently possesses a relatively young population, with a median age of 31.5 years (2024 estimate).

The spread of the population is uneven throughout the archipelago, with a varying habitats and levels of development, ranging from the megacity of Jakarta to uncontacted tribes in Papua. As of 2022, about 58% of the population lives in urban areas. Jakarta is the country's primate city and the second-most populous urban area globally, with over 34 million residents. About 8 million Indonesians live overseas; most settled in Malaysia, the Netherlands, Saudi Arabia, Taiwan, South Africa, Singapore, Hong Kong, the United States, and Australia.

v t e Largest cities in Indonesia 2023 BPS estimate
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Jakarta Surabaya	1	Jakarta	Special Capital Region	11,135,191	11	South Tangerang	Banten	1,429,529	Bandung Medan
	2	Surabaya	East Java	3,017,382	12	Batam	Riau Islands	1,294,548
	3	Bandung	West Java	2,579,837	13	Pekanbaru	Riau	1,138,530
	4	Medan	North Sumatra	2,539,829	14	Bogor	West Java	1,137,018
	5	Bekasi	West Java	2,526,133	15	Bandar Lampung	Lampung	1,073,451
	6	Depok	West Java	1,967,831	16	Padang	West Sumatra	939,851
	7	Tangerang	Banten	1,927,815	17	Malang	East Java	885,271
	8	Palembang	South Sumatra	1,781,672	18	Samarinda	East Kalimantan	868,499
	9	Semarang	Central Java	1,699,585	19	Tasikmalaya	West Java	761,080
	10	Makassar	South Sulawesi	1,477,861	20	Denpasar	Bali	670,210

Ethnic groups and languages

Indonesia is home to around 600 distinct native ethnic groups, predominantly descended from Austronesian peoples originating in Proto-Austronesian languages, likely from modern-day Taiwan. The Melanesians, who inhabit eastern Indonesia, represent another significant ethnic grouping. The Javanese, making up 40.06% of the population, are the largest ethnic group and politically dominant, primarily residing in central and eastern Java but also has sizable numbers in other provinces. Other major groups include the Sundanese, Malay, Batak, Madurese, Betawi, Minangkabau, and Bugis. A sense of Indonesian nationhood exists alongside strong regional identities.

The official language, Indonesia, is a variant of Malay based on its prestige dialect that became the archipelago's lingua franca over the course of centuries. It was first promoted by nationalists in the 1920s and gained official status in 1945 following independence under the name Bahasa Indonesia, and has since been widely adopted due to its use in education, media, business, and governance. While nearly all Indonesians speak Indonesian, most also speak one of over 700 local languages, often as their first language. These are predominantly from the Austronesian family, with over 270 Papuan languages in eastern Indonesia. Javanese is the most widely spoken local language, and it holds co-official status in Yogyakarta.

The Dutch and other European-descended populations like the Indos, though significant during colonial times, always represented a small fraction of the population, numbering 240,000 in 1930. The Dutch language never gained substantial traction due to the Dutch colonial focus on commerce rather than cultural integration. Dutch fluency exists today among some older generations and legal professionals, as specific legal codes remain available only in Dutch.

Religion

Indonesia officially recognizes six religions: Islam, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism—while also acknowledging indigenous religions for administrative purposes as well as religious freedom in the constitution. As of 2023, 87.1% of the population (244 million Indonesians), are Muslims, making Indonesia the world's most populous Muslim-majority country, with Sunnis constituting 99% of the Muslim population. Christians, comprising 10% of the population, form majorities in several eastern provinces, while Hindus and Buddhists are primarily Balinese and Chinese Indonesians, respectively.

Before the arrival of major world religions, Indonesia's natives practiced animism and dynamism, worshiping ancestral spirits and believing in the supernatural (hyang) inhabiting natural elements, such as large trees, mountains and forests. Such beliefs are common to the Austronesian peoples. These indigenous traditions, such as Sundanese Sunda Wiwitan, Javanese Kejawèn and Dayak's Kaharingan, have profoundly influenced modern religious practices, resulting in a less orthodox and syncretic form of faith like Javanese abangan, Balinese Hinduism and Dayak Christianity.

Hinduism reached the archipelago in the 1st century CE, followed by Buddhism in the 6th century. Both religions shaped Indonesia's religious history through influential empires like Majapahit, Srivijaya, and Sailendra, leaving a lasting cultural impact that remains today despite both no longer being the majority. Islam arrived as early as the 8th century through Sunni and Sufi traders from the Indian subcontinent and southern Arabian peninsula, mixing with local cultural and religious traditions to form a distinct Islamic culture (santri). By the 16th century, Islam had become the dominant religion on Java and Sumatra, resulting from the combination of trade, dawah such as by the Wali Sanga and Chinese explorer Zheng He, and military campaigns by several sultanates.

Catholicism and Protestantism were later introduced through missionary efforts during European colonization, such as by Jesuit Francis Xavier, though the spread of the former faced challenges under the policies of VOC and the Dutch colonial era. The latter's primary branches include Calvinism and Lutheranism, though a multitude of other denominations exist in the country. A small Jewish presence has existed in the archipelago, primarily descendants of Dutch and Iraqi Jews, though their numbers have dwindled since independence in 1945. Only a few Jews remain today, mostly in major cities like Jakarta and Manado and Surabaya. One of the remaining synagogues, Sha'ar Hashamayim, is located in Tondano, North Sulawesi, which is around 31 km from Manado.

Interfaith relations in Indonesia are significantly shaped by political leadership and civil society, guided by the first principle of Pancasila, which emphasises belief in a supreme deity and religious tolerance. While the principle promotes harmony, instances of intolerance continue to be a recurring issue. Religion is central to the lives of overwhelming majority of Indonesians, which reflects its integral role in the country's society, culture and identity.

Education

Education is compulsory for 12 years. Parents can choose between state-run, non-sectarian schools or private or semi-private religious (usually Islamic) schools, supervised by the ministries of Education and Religion, respectively. Private international schools that do not follow the national curriculum are also available. The enrolment rate is 93% for primary education, 79% for secondary education, and 36% for tertiary education (2018). The literacy rate is 96% (2018), and the government spends about 3.6% of GDP (2015) on education. In 2018, there were 4,670 higher educational institutions in Indonesia, with most (74%) located in Sumatra and Java. According to the QS World University Rankings, Indonesia's top universities are the University of Indonesia, Gadjah Mada University, and the Bandung Institute of Technology.

Healthcare

Government expenditure on healthcare was about 3.3% of GDP in 2016. As part of an attempt to achieve universal health care, the government launched the National Health Insurance (Jaminan Kesehatan Nasional, JKN) in 2014. It includes coverage for a range of services from the public and also private firms that have opted to join the scheme. Despite remarkable improvements in the past half-century, such as rising life expectancy (from 54.9 years in 1973 to 71.1 years in 2023) and declining child mortality (from 15.5 deaths per 100 live births in 1972 to 2.1 deaths in 2022), challenges remain, including maternal and child health, low air quality, malnutrition, a high rate of smoking, and infectious diseases.

Culture

The cultural history of Indonesia spans over two thousand years, influenced by the Indian subcontinent, China, the Middle East, Europe, Melanesian, and Austronesian peoples. These influences have shaped the country’s multicultural, multilingual, and multi-ethnic identity, distinct from its indigenous roots. Indonesia holds 16 items recognised by UNESCO as Intangible Cultural Heritage, including wayang puppet theatre, batik, angklung, the saman dance, and pencak silat. Recent joint nominations added pantun, kebaya, and kolintang to the list.

Art and architecture

Indonesian arts encompasses traditional and contemporary forms shaped by influences from India, the Arab world, China, and Europe, driven by cultural exchange and trade. Bali's artistic traditions, such as classical Kamasan and Wayang-style painting, are renowned, originating from visual narratives depicted on candi bas-reliefs from eastern Java. Traditional architecture reflects ethnic diversity, with iconic and traditional houses (rumah adat) like Toraja's Tongkonan, Minangkabau's Rumah Gadang, Java's Pendopo, and Dayak longhouses each showcasing unique customs and histories. Other traditional crafts, including carpentry and masonry, showcase intricate decorations and techniques passed down through generations.

Discoveries of megalithic sculptures led to the flourishing of tribal art among the Nias, Batak, Asmat, Dayak, and Toraja communities, who utilised wood and stone as primary sculpting materials. From the 8th to 15th centuries, the Javanese civilization excelled in sophisticated stone sculpting and architecture, heavily influenced by the Hindu-Buddhist Dharmic culture. This period produced monumental works like the Borobudur and Prambanan temples, which today remain celebrated as masterpieces of Indonesia's sophisticated artistic and architectural heritage.

Music, dance and clothing

Indonesia's musical heritage predates historical records, with indigenous tribes using chants and traditional instruments like the angklung, gamelan, and sasando in rituals. Influences from other cultures have enriched Indonesian music, such as the gambus and qasida from the Middle East, keroncong from Portugal, and dangdut (one of the country's most popular music genres), which incorporates Hindi, Malay, and Middle Eastern elements. Today, Indonesian music enjoys regional popularity in Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei due to cultural similarities and language intelligibility.

With over 3,000 traditional dances, Indonesian dance forms have its origins in rituals and religious worship, such as a dance of witch doctors and Hudoq, as well as periods of Hindu-Buddhist and Islamic influence. While modern and urban dances shaped by Western, Japanese, and South Korean cultures are growing in popularity, traditional dances like those of Java, Bali, and Dayak remain a living tradition.

Indonesia's rich cultural history is also reflected in its diverse clothing styles, with national costumes like batik and kebaya being widely recognised, which have its roots in Javanese, Sundanese and Balinese cultures. Traditional attire varies by region and by each province, such as the Batak ulos, Malay and Minangkabau songket, and Sasak ikat, and is commonly worn for ceremonies, weddings, and formal events.

Theatre and cinema

Traditional Indonesian theatre, such as wayang shadow puppetry often depicts Hindu epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Other forms of dramas, such as Ludruk, Ketoprak, Sandiwara, Lenong and Balinese dance dramas often incorporate humor, music, and audience interaction. Unique traditions like the Minangkabau Randai combine music, dance, and martial arts (silat), telling semi-historical legends during traditional ceremonies and festivals. Modern theatre, exemplified by Teater Koma, addresses social and political themes through satire.

The first film produced in the archipelago was Loetoeng Kasaroeng (1926), a silent film by Dutch director L. Heuveldorp, and the film industry expanded post-independence with Usmar Ismail's pioneering work in the 1950s. During the latter part of Sukarno era in the 1960s, films were used to promote nationalism and anti-Western sentiment, while Suharto's New Order imposed censorship to maintain social order. Film productions peaked in the 1980s with notable titles such as Pengabdi Setan (1980), Tjoet Nja' Dhien (1988) and Warkop comedy films, but the industry declined in the next decade.

In the post-Suharto era, the industry saw a resurgence, and independent filmmakers tackled previously censored themes like race, religion and love, producing notable films such as Petualangan Sherina (2000) and Ada Apa dengan Cinta? (2002) and Laskar Pelangi (2008). The 2022 film KKN di Desa Penari set box office records, becoming the most-watched Indonesian film with 9.2 million tickets sold. The Indonesian Film Festival (Festival Film Indonesia), awarding the Citra Award, has celebrated cinematic achievements since 1955.

Mass media and literature

Media freedom in Indonesia significantly improved after the fall of Suharto's rule, during which media was tightly controlled by the Ministry of Information. The television landscape shifted from a monopoly by public broadcaster TVRI (1962–1989) to a competitive market with national and provincial networks. By the 21st century, television signals have reached every village, offering up to 11 channels. Private radio stations provide news, while foreign broadcasters offer diverse programming. Print publications also expanded significantly after 1998. Indonesia's internet development began in the early 1990s, with the first commercial Internet service provider, PT. Indo Internet, starting operations in 1994. By 2018, the country had 171 million internet users, primarily aged 15 to 19, who accessed the internet mostly through mobile phones rather than computers. Internet penetration continues to grow annually.

Indonesian literature has roots in Sanskrit inscriptions from the 5th century and a strong oral tradition, while early modern literature originates in Sumatran tradition. Traditional forms such as syair, pantun, hikayat, and babad dominate early prose and poetry, with notable works such as Syair Abdul Muluk, Hikayat Hang Tuah, Sulalatus Salatin, and Babad Tanah Jawi. The establishment of Balai Pustaka in 1917 marked a push to develop indigenous literature, leading to a literary Golden Age in the 1950s and 1960s. Influenced by the dynamics of the country's political and social landscape, modern literature includes works from notable figures like Chairil Anwar, Pramoedya Ananta Toer, and Ayu Utami.

Cuisine

Indonesian cuisine has many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture and foreign influences such as Chinese, African, European, Middle Eastern, and Indian precedents. Rice is the leading staple food and is served with side dishes of meat and vegetables. Spices (notably chili), coconut milk, fish, and chicken are fundamental ingredients.

Some popular dishes such as nasi goreng, gado-gado, sate, and soto are ubiquitous and considered national dishes. The Ministry of Tourism, however, chose tumpeng as the official national dish in 2014, describing it as binding the diversity of various culinary traditions. Other popular dishes include rendang, one of the many Minangkabau cuisines along with dendeng and gulai. Another fermented food is oncom, similar in some ways to tempeh but uses a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and is prevalent in West Java.

Sports

Badminton and football are the most popular sports in Indonesia. Indonesia is among the few countries that have won the Thomas and Uber Cup, the world team championship of men's and women's badminton. Along with weightlifting, it is the sport that contributes the most to Indonesia's Olympic medal tally. Liga 1 is the country's premier football club league. On the international stage, Indonesia was the first Asian team to participate in the FIFA World Cup in 1938 as the Dutch East Indies. On a regional level, Indonesia won a bronze medal at the 1958 Asian Games as well as three gold medals at the 1987, 1991, and 2023 Southeast Asian Games (SEA Games). Indonesia's first appearance at the AFC Asian Cup was in 1996.

Other popular sports include boxing and basketball, which were part of the first National Games (Pekan Olahraga Nasional, PON) in 1948. Sepak takraw and karapan sapi (bull racing) in Madura are some examples of Indonesia's traditional sports. In areas with a history of tribal warfare, mock fighting contests are held, such as caci in Flores and pasola in Sumba. Pencak silat is an Indonesian martial art that, in 2018, became one of the sporting events in the Asian Games, with Indonesia appearing as one of the leading competitors. In Southeast Asia, Indonesia topped the SEA Games medal table ten times since 1977, most recently in 2011.

See also

• Indonesia
• Asia
• Islands
• Countries

• List of Indonesia-related topics
• Index of Indonesia-related articles
• Outline of Indonesia

Notes

1. Excludes dialects and subdialects.
2. According 2023 data.
3. UK: /ˌɪndəˈniːziə, -ʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zee-ə, -⁠zhə US: /ˌɪndəˈniːʒə, -ʃə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə, -⁠shə; Indonesian pronunciation: [ɪndoˈnesia]
4. Republik Indonesia ([reˈpublik ɪndoˈnesia] ) is the most-used official name, though the name Unitary State of the Republic of Indonesia (Negara Kesatuan Republik Indonesia, NKRI) also appears in some official documents.
5. During the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, Indonesia withdrew from the UN due to the latter's election to the United Nations Security Council, although it returned 18 months later. It marked the first time in UN history that a member state had attempted a withdrawal.
6. Small but significant populations of ethnic Chinese, Indians, Europeans and Arabs are concentrated mostly in urban areas.
7. Due to significant contact with other languages, it is rich in local and foreign influences, which include Javanese, Sundanese, Minangkabau, Makassarese, Sanskrit, Chinese, Arabic, Dutch, Portuguese and English.
8. The rest consists of the Shias and Ahmadis, who form 1% (1–3 million) and 0.2% (200,000–400,000) of the Muslim population.

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