Revision as of 04:57, 4 January 2007 edit202.83.173.155 (talk)No edit summary← Previous edit | Latest revision as of 15:33, 22 January 2025 edit undoFowler&fowler (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, File movers, Pending changes reviewers, Rollbackers63,218 edits Reverted good faith edits by Qaiser-i-Mashriq (talk): For the final time: MOS:SEEALSO is WP policy. Indian pages disregarding it, does not give you the right.Tags: Twinkle Undo | ||
Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
{{short description|Archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan}} | |||
<!-- Unsourced image removed: ] --> | |||
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}} | |||
'''Harappa''' (]: '''ہڑپا''', ] हरप्पा) is a ] in ], northeast ], about 35km (22 miles) southwest of ]. | |||
{{Use Pakistani English|date=October 2024}} | |||
{{Infobox ancient site | |||
|name = Harappa | |||
|alternate_name = | |||
|image = File:View of Granary and Great Hall on Mound F - Archaeological site of Harappa .jpg | |||
|alt = | |||
|caption = A view of Harappa's Granary and Great Hall | |||
|map_type = Punjab Pakistan#Pakistan#South Asia | |||
| map_caption = Location in Punjab (Pakistan)##Location in Pakistan##Location in South Asia | |||
|map_alt = | |||
|map_size = | |||
|relief = yes | |||
|coordinates = {{Coord|30|37|44|N|72|51|50|E|type:landmark_region:PK|display=inline,title}} | |||
|location = ], ] | |||
|region = | |||
|type = Settlement | |||
|part_of = | |||
|length = | |||
|width = | |||
|area = {{convert|150|ha|abbr=on}} | |||
|height = | |||
|builder = | |||
|material = | |||
|built = | |||
|abandoned = | |||
|epochs = ] to ] | |||
|cultures = ] | |||
|dependency_of = | |||
|occupants = | |||
|event = | |||
|excavations = | |||
|archaeologists = | |||
|condition = Ruined | |||
|ownership = Public | |||
|management = ] (Directorate General of Archaeology) | |||
|public_access = Yes | |||
|website = {{URL|https://www.harappa.com}} | |||
|notes = | |||
}} | |||
'''Harappa''' ({{IPA|pa|ɦəɽəˈpaː|prron}}) is an ] in ], about {{convert|24|km|mi|abbr=off}} west of ]. The ], now more often called the ], is named after the site, which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the ], which now runs {{convert|8|km|mi|0|spell=on|abbr=off}} to the north. The core of the Harappan civilisation extended over a large area, from ] in the south, across ] and ] and extending into Punjab and ]. Numerous sites have been found outside the core area, including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of ], not far from Iran.<ref>Giosan, L., Clift, P. D., Macklin, M. G., Fuller, D. Q., Constantinescu, S., Durcan, J. A., ... & Syvitski, J. P. (2012). Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization. ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'', ''109''(26), E1688-E1694.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dales |first=George F. |date=June 1962 |title=Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0003598x00029689 |journal=Antiquity |volume=36 |issue=142 |pages=86–92 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00029689 |s2cid=164175444 |issn=0003-598X}}</ref> | |||
The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a ] ] city, which was part of the ] centred in ] and the ], and then the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Basham|first1=A. L.|last2=Dani|first2=D. H.|author-link1=Arthur Llewellyn Basham|title=(Review of) A Short History of Pakistan: Book One: Pre-Muslim Period.|journal=Pacific Affairs|date=Winter 1968–1969|volume=41|issue=4|pages=641–643|doi=10.2307/2754608|jstor=2754608}}</ref> The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about {{convert|150|ha}} with ] brick houses at its greatest extent during the ] phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered ] for its time.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Brian|title=People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory|year=2003|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-111316-9|page=414}}</ref><ref name= unesco /> Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation. | |||
The modern town is by a former course of the ] and beside the remains of an ] ] city, which was part of the ] and the ]. The city existed from about ] until ] . It is believed to have had as many as 40,000 residents, extremely large for its time. | |||
The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under ] and ], when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the ] {{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}. The current village of Harappa is less than {{convert|1|km|mi|frac=8|spell=in}} from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy ] from the ] period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today. In 2005, a controversial ] scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work.<ref>Tahir, Zulqernain. 26 May 2005. , '']''. Retrieved 13 January 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070311094301/http://www.dawn.com/2005/05/26/nat24.htm |date=11 March 2007 }}</ref> | |||
The Harappa Culture extended well beyond the bounds of present day ] but its centres were in ] and the ]. In ancient days this region was affected both culturally and politically, by influences from Iran and Central Asia to a far greater extent than was the Ganges valley.<ref> </ref> | |||
==History== | |||
In ] a controversial ] scheme at the site was abandoned when builders encountered large quantities of artifacts during the beginning of construction work. A plea from the prominent Pakistani archaeologist ] to the Ministry of Culture resulted in a restoration of the site<ref> ], 26 May 2005</ref> | |||
]. Harappa was the centre of one of the core regions of the Indus Valley Civilization, located in central ]. The ] and Harappan Civilization was one of the most developed in the old ].]] | |||
The ] has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of ], approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, ] and Harappa, emerged {{Circa|2600 BC}} along the ] valley in ] and ].<ref>{{cite book | last = Beck | first = Roger B. | title = World History: Patterns of Interaction | url = https://archive.org/details/mcdougallittellw00beck | url-access = registration | publisher = McDougal Littell | year = 1999 | location = Evanston, IL | isbn = 978-0-395-87274-1 }}</ref> The civilization, with a possible ], urban centres, ] and diversified ] and ], was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at ] in Sindh near ], and Harappan cities, in west ] south of ]. A number of other sites stretching from the ]n foothills in the east ], ] in the west, to ] in the south and east, and to ] in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857<ref>Michel Danino. The Lost River. Penguin India.</ref> when engineers constructing the ]-] railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for ], an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.<ref>], 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of ], who gets credit for preliminary excavations of Harappa.</ref> | |||
Because of the reduced ], certain regions in the late Harappan period were abandoned | |||
== History == | |||
.<ref name="Mcintosh 2008 94">{{cite book|title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives |first= Jane |last= Mcintosh |publisher= Routledge |year=2008 |page=94 |isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&dq=harappan+civilization+oxford&pg=PA104}}</ref> Towards its end, the Harappan civilization lost features such as ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives |first= Jane |last= Mcintosh |publisher= Routledge |year=2008 |page=101 |isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC&dq=harappan+civilization+oxford&pg=PA104}}</ref> As a result, the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges' cities developed.<ref name="Mcintosh 2008 94"/> | |||
The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC. This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC. The civilization's mature phase lasted from 2600 BC to 2000 BC. This is when the great cities were at their height. Then, from around 2000 BC, there was a steady disintegration that lasted till 1400 BC – what is usually called Late Harappan.<ref>{{Citation |title=Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insights on Vedic Aryan issues |date=2004-08-02 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203641880-7 |work=The Indo-Aryan Controversy |pages=33–61 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780203641880-7 |isbn=978-0-203-64188-0 |access-date=2022-03-30}}</ref> There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders. The evidence strongly points to natural causes. A number of studies show that the area which is today the ] was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Q. |first=Madella, Marco Fuller, Dorian |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1103344632ndjabcxsabchbbcvdsscbuhdchnaeuc |title=Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilization of South Asia: a reconsideration |date=2006-01-18 |publisher=Elsevier |oclc=1103344632}}</ref> | |||
From the earliest times, the ] valley region has been both a transmitter of cultures and a receptacle of different ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups. ] (known also as Harappan culture) appeared around 2500 B.C. along the Indus River valley in ] and ]. This civilization, which had a ], urban centers, and a diversified ] and ], was discovered in the 1920s at its two most important sites: ], in Sindh near ], and Harappa, in ] south of ]. A number of other lesser sites stretching from the ] foothills in ] to ] east of the Indus River and to ] to the west have also been discovered and studied. How closely these places were connected to ] and Harappa is not clearly known, but evidence indicates that there was some link and that the people inhabiting these places were probably related. | |||
==Culture and economy== | |||
An abundance of artifacts<ref>Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from Harappa Pakistan, World Archaeology, 29(2), pp. 260-280, High definition archaeology</ref> have been found at Harappa--so much so, that the name of that city has been equated with the ] (Harappan culture) it represents. Yet the site was damaged in the latter part of the nineteenth century when engineers constructing the ]-] railroad from 1857 on used ] from the ancient city for ]. Fortunately, the site at ] has been less disturbed in modern times and shows a well-planned and well-constructed city of ]. | |||
The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with ] and ] in southern ]. Both ] and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers."<ref name=loc>Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702145021/http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/indusvalleyciv/a/harappanculture.htm |date=2 July 2007 }}. Retrieved 13 January 2006.</ref> Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of ] and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion. | |||
== Culture and economy == | |||
Indus Valley |
The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and ] were in use, ] was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were ]; and a number of animals, including the ], was ],"<ref name="loc" /> as well as "]".<ref> Poultry: Identification, Fabrication, Utilization by Thomas Schneller – Cengage Learning, 28 September 2009 – page 16</ref> Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial ]. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were ] and ].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Worlds Together, Worlds Apart|last = Pollard|first = Elizabeth|publisher = Norton|year = 2015|isbn = 978-0-393-92207-3|location = New York|page = 67}}</ref> | ||
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory.<ref>{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012 | pmid=29539378 | volume=2 | issue=2–3 | title=A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa | year=2012 | journal=International Journal of Paleopathology | pages=136–147 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| s2cid=3933522 | url=http://libres.uncg.edu/ir/uncg/f/G_Robbins_Schug_Peaceful_2012.pdf }}</ref> Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Robbins Schug |first1=Gwen |last2=Blevins |first2=K. Elaine |last3=Cox |first3=Brett |last4=Gray |first4=Kelsey |last5=Mushrif-Tripathy |first5=V. |date=2013-12-17 |title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=12 |pages=e84814 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 |pmid=24358372 |pmc=3866234 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...884814R |issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free }}</ref> Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that ] and ] were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ] located south-east of the city walls).<ref name="plosone.org">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0084814 | volume=8 | issue=12 | title=Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilisation | year=2013 | journal=PLOS ONE | page=e84814 | last1 = Robbins Schug | first1 = Gwen| pmc=3866234 | pmid=24358372| bibcode=2013PLoSO...884814R | doi-access=free }}</ref> Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety. | |||
== Archaeology == | |||
==Trade== | |||
By far the most exquisite but most obscure artifacts unearthed to date are the small, square ] seals engraved with human or animal motifs. Large numbers of the seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro, many bearing pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a kind of script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, however, and despite the use of computers, the script remains undeciphered, and it is unknown if it is proto-] or proto-]. Nevertheless, extensive research on the Indus Valley sites, which has led to speculations on both the archaeological and the linguistic contributions of the pre--Aryan population to Hinduism's subsequent development, has offered new insights into the cultural heritage of the Dravidian population still dominant in southern India. Artifacts with motifs relating to asceticism and fertility rites suggest that these concepts entered Hinduism from the earlier civilization. Although historians agree that the civilization ceased abruptly, at least in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa there is disagreement on the possible causes for its end. Invaders from central and western Asia are considered by some historians to have been "destroyers" of Indus Valley civilization, but this view is open to reinterpretation. More plausible explanations are recurrent floods caused by tectonic earth movement, soil salinity, and ]. | |||
The Harappans had traded with ancient ], especially ], among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well, which served as trading centres.<ref>{{cite book | first= Jane| last= Mcintosh | year=2008| title= The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives| pages=183–184, 394| publisher= ABC-CLIO| isbn= 978-1-57607-907-2 | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC }}</ref> They also traded extensively with people living in ], near modern-day ], to procure gold and copper from them.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}} | |||
==Archaeology== | |||
== Socio-political system == | |||
].]] | |||
The excavators of the site have proposed the following ] of Harappa's occupation:<ref name=unesco /> | |||
#Ravi Aspect of the ] phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC | |||
#Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC | |||
#Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC | |||
#Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC | |||
#Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC | |||
Period 1 occupation was thought to be around 7 to 10 hectares, but following excavations and findings of pottery in Mound E, along with previously found Mound AB pottery, suggest Ravi/Hakra phase would have been extended, together in both mounds, to 25 hectares.<ref>Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). , in ARWA Association, '''min. 5:48 to 6:41''', "Period 1 Ravi/Hakra Phase, area greater than 10 to 25+ hectares, possibly divided into two mounds, one to the north, Mound AB and the other to the southeast, Mound E."</ref> | |||
Until the entry of the Europeans by sea in the late fifteenth century, and with the exception of the ] of ] in the early eighth century, the route taken by peoples who migrated to India has been through the mountain passes, most notably the ], in northwestern ]. Although unrecorded migrations may have taken place earlier, it is certain that migrations increased in the second millennium B.C. The records of these people--who spoke an Indo-European language--are literary, not archaeological, and were preserved in the Vedas, collections of orally transmitted hymns. In the greatest of these, the "Rig Veda," the Aryan speakers appear as a tribally organized, pastoral, and pantheistic people. The later Vedas and other Sanskritic sources, such as the Puranas (literally, "old writings"--an encyclopedic collection of Hindu legends, myths, and genealogy), indicate an eastward movement from the Indus Valley into the Ganges Valley (called Ganga in Asia) and southward at least as far as the Vindhya Range, in central India. A social and political system evolved in which the Aryans dominated, but various indigenous peoples and ideas were accommodated and absorbed. The ] system that remained characteristic of Hinduism also evolved. One theory is that the three highest castes--Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas--were composed of Aryans, while a lower caste--the Sudras--came from the indigenous peoples. | |||
Period 2, Kot Diji phase, was extended in the same two mounds, AB and E, covering over 27 hectares.<ref>Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). , in ARWA Association, '''min. 8:04 to 9:30'''.</ref> | |||
== Religion == | |||
In Period 3, Harappa phase, the settlement reached 150 hectares.<ref>{{cite book|last=Fagan|first=Brian|title=People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory|year=2003|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-13-111316-9|page=414}}</ref> | |||
By the sixth century B.C., knowledge of Indian history becomes more focused because of the available Buddhist and Jain sources of a later period. Northern India was populated by a number of small princely states that rose and fell in the sixth century B.C. In this milieu, a phenomenon arose that affected the history of the region for several centuries: ]. Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, the "Enlightened One" (ca. 563-483 B.C.), was born in the Ganges Valley. His teachings were spread in all directions by monks, missionaries, and merchants. The Buddha's teachings proved enormously popular when considered against the more obscure and highly complicated rituals and philosophy of Vedic Hinduism. The original doctrines of the Buddha also constituted a protest against the inequities of the caste system, attracting large numbers of followers. | |||
By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square ] (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script.{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern ], the ] remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-] or other non-] language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation ] and ] to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area. | |||
== Other influences == | |||
In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in ] discovered a stone ] with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old.<ref name="The Hindu_century">{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title= "Discovery of a century" in Tamil Nadu | date=1 May 2006 | url =http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050112670100.htm | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20060615053236/http://www.hindu.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050112670100.htm | url-status =dead | archive-date =15 June 2006 | work=] | access-date = 21 May 2008}}</ref> | |||
At about the same time, the semi-independent kingdom of ], roughly located in northern Pakistan and centered in the region of Peshawar, stood between the expanding kingdoms of the Ganges Valley to the east and the ] of Persia to the west. ] probably came under the influence of Persia during the reign of Cyrus the Great (559-530 B.C.). The Persian Empire fell to Alexander the Great in 330 B.C., and he continued his march eastward through Afghanistan and into India. Alexander defeated Porus, the ]n ruler of Taxila, in 326 B.C. and marched on to the Ravi River before turning back. The return march through Sindh and Balochistan ended with Alexander's death at Babylon in 323 B.C. | |||
<ref name="significance">{{cite news | last=Subramaniam | first=T. S. | title=Significance of Mayiladuthurai find | date=1 May 2006 | url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | work=The Hindu | access-date=23 May 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080430214654/http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm | archive-date=30 April 2008 | url-status=usurped }}</ref> Indian epigraphist ] postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu".<ref name="The Hindu_century" /> Based on this evidence, he went on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of ] origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis. | |||
The area of the late Harappan period consisted of the areas of the ], ], and ] regions of ]. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around {{convert|1500|mi|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite book|title= History of India |first= Herman |last= Kulke |publisher= Routledge |year=2004 |page=4 |isbn= 978-0-415-32920-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&q=india++history}}</ref> | |||
Greek rule did not survive in northwestern India, although a school of art known as Indo-Greek developed and influenced art as far as Central Asia. The region of ] was conquered by Chandragupta (r. ca. 321-ca. 297 B.C.), the founder of the Mauryan Empire, the first universal state of northern India, with its capital at present-day Patna in Bihar. His grandson, Ashoka (r. ca. 274-ca. 236 B.C.), became a Buddhist. Taxila became a leading center of Buddhist learning. Successors to Alexander at times controlled the northwestern of region present-day Pakistan and even Punjab after Maurya power waned in the region. | |||
The northern regions of Pakistan came under the rule of the Sakas, who originated in Central Asia in the second century B.C. They were soon driven eastward by Pahlavas (Parthians related to the Scythians), who in turn were displaced by the Kushans (also known as the Yueh-Chih in Chinese chronicles). | |||
==Symbols similar to Indus script== | |||
The Kushans had earlier moved into territory in the northern part of present-day Afghanistan and had taken control of Bactria. Kanishka, the greatest of the Kushan rulers (r. ca. A.D. 120-60), extended his empire from Patna in the east to Bukhara in the west and from the Pamirs in the north to central India, with the capital at Peshawar (then Purushapura). Kushan territories were eventually overrun by the Huns in the north and taken over by the Guptas in the east and the Sassanians of Persia in the west. | |||
Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC, contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news|last=BBC|first=UK website|title=Earliest writing found|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/334517.stm|work=BBC News|access-date=17 July 2012}}</ref> These primitive symbols are | |||
The age of the imperial Guptas in northern India (fourth to seventh centuries A.D.) is regarded as the classical age of Hindu civilization. Sanskrit literature was of a high standard; extensive knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, and medicine was gained; and artistic expression flowered. Society became more settled and more hierarchical, and rigid social codes emerged that separated castes and occupations. The Guptas maintained loose control over the upper Indus Valley. | |||
placed slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of ], dated c.3100 BC.<ref name=bbc/> These markings have similarities to what later became ] which has not been completely deciphered yet.<ref name=bbc/> | |||
Northern India suffered a sharp decline after the seventh century. | |||
==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
].]] | |||
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=230|caption_align=center | |||
* The earliest ] mentioned on the web is 2725+-185 BCE (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BCE calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BCE. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986-1990: A multidisciplanary approach to Third Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29-59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin. | |||
| align = right | |||
| direction =horizontal | |||
* Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BCE. | |||
| header=Statuettes from Harappa | |||
| image1 = Harappa red jasper male torso.jpg | |||
* ] is another major city of the same period, located in ] province of ]. | |||
| image2 = Harappa 13 grey stone male dancer statuette.jpg | |||
| footer=The controversial Harappa male torso (left). The discoverer, ], claimed a Harappan date, but ] dated the statuette to the ] period.<ref>The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective by Gregory L. Possehl </ref> Another famous statuette from the site is the Harappa grey stone male dancer (right). | |||
* ] is an ancient Metropolitan City. | |||
}} | |||
*The earliest ] mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin. | |||
== References == | |||
*Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC. | |||
*] is another major city of the same period, located in ] province of ]. One of its most well-known structures is the ] of Mohenjo-Daro. | |||
<references /> | |||
==See also== | ==See also== | ||
*] – First European explorer of Harappa | |||
*] | |||
*] | *] | ||
*] | *] | ||
*] | |||
*] | *] | ||
*] | *] | ||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
*] | |||
==References== | |||
{{Reflist|refs= | |||
<ref name=unesco>{{cite web|title=Archeological Site of Harappa|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1878/|work=World Heritage Centre|publisher=]|access-date=19 February 2013}}</ref> | |||
}} | |||
==External links== | ==External links== | ||
{{Commons category|Harappa}} | |||
* | |||
* {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130034321/http://www.harappa.info/ |date=30 January 2020 }} | |||
*""-article by Dr ] | |||
*, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa | |||
{{World Heritage Sites in Pakistan}} | |||
* | |||
{{Indus Valley Civilisation}} | |||
* | |||
{{Neighbourhoods of Sahiwal}} | |||
{{Authority control}} | |||
] | |||
{{coor title dm|30|38|N|72|52|E|region:PK_type:city}} | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | ] | ||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] | |||
] |
Latest revision as of 15:33, 22 January 2025
Archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan
A view of Harappa's Granary and Great Hall | |
Location in Punjab (Pakistan)Show map of Punjab, PakistanLocation in PakistanShow map of PakistanLocation in South AsiaShow map of South Asia | |
Location | Sahiwal District, Punjab, Pakistan |
---|---|
Coordinates | 30°37′44″N 72°51′50″E / 30.62889°N 72.86389°E / 30.62889; 72.86389 |
Type | Settlement |
Area | 150 ha (370 acres) |
History | |
Periods | Harappa 1 to Harappa 5 |
Cultures | Indus Valley Civilisation |
Site notes | |
Condition | Ruined |
Ownership | Public |
Management | Government of the Punjab (Directorate General of Archaeology) |
Public access | Yes |
Website | www |
Harappa (Punjabi pronunciation: [ɦəɽəˈpaː]) is an archaeological site in Punjab, Pakistan, about 24 kilometres (15 miles) west of Sahiwal. The Bronze Age Harappan civilisation, now more often called the Indus Valley Civilisation, is named after the site, which takes its name from a modern village near the former course of the Ravi River, which now runs eight kilometres (five miles) to the north. The core of the Harappan civilisation extended over a large area, from Gujarat in the south, across Sindh and Rajasthan and extending into Punjab and Haryana. Numerous sites have been found outside the core area, including some as far east as Uttar Pradesh and as far west as Sutkagen-dor on the Makran coast of Balochistan, not far from Iran.
The site of the ancient city contains the ruins of a Bronze Age fortified city, which was part of the Harappan civilisation centred in Sindh and the Punjab, and then the Cemetery H culture. The city is believed to have had as many as 23,500 residents and occupied about 150 hectares (370 acres) with clay brick houses at its greatest extent during the Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC – 1900 BC), which is considered large for its time. Per archaeological convention of naming a previously unknown civilisation by its first excavated site, the Indus Valley Civilisation is also called the Harappan Civilisation.
The ancient city of Harappa was heavily damaged under British and French rule, when bricks from the ruins were used as track ballast in the construction of the Lahore–Multan Railway . The current village of Harappa is less than one kilometre (5⁄8 mi) from the ancient site. Although modern Harappa has a legacy railway station from the British Raj period, it is a small crossroads town of 15,000 people today. In 2005, a controversial amusement park scheme at the site was abandoned when builders unearthed many archaeological artefacts during the early stages of building work.
History
The Harappan Civilization has its earliest roots in cultures such as that of Mehrgarh, approximately 6000 BC. The two greatest cities, Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, emerged c. 2600 BC along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. The civilization, with a possible writing system, urban centres, drainage infrastructure and diversified social and economic system, was rediscovered in the 1920s also after excavations at Mohenjo-daro in Sindh near Larkana, and Harappan cities, in west Punjab south of Lahore. A number of other sites stretching from the Himalayan foothills in the east Punjab, India in the west, to Gujarat in the south and east, and to Pakistani Balochistan in the west have also been discovered and studied. Although the archaeological site at Harappa was damaged in 1857 when engineers constructing the Lahore-Multan railroad used brick from the Harappa ruins for track ballast, an abundance of artefacts have nevertheless been found.
Because of the reduced sea-levels, certain regions in the late Harappan period were abandoned . Towards its end, the Harappan civilization lost features such as writing and hydraulic engineering. As a result, the Ganges Valley settlement gained prominence and Ganges' cities developed.
The earliest recognisably Harappan sites date to 3500 BC. This early phase lasts till around 2600 BC. The civilization's mature phase lasted from 2600 BC to 2000 BC. This is when the great cities were at their height. Then, from around 2000 BC, there was a steady disintegration that lasted till 1400 BC – what is usually called Late Harappan. There is no sign that the Harappan cities were laid waste by invaders. The evidence strongly points to natural causes. A number of studies show that the area which is today the Thar Desert was once far wetter and that the climate gradually became drier.
Culture and economy
The Indus Valley civilization was basically an urban culture sustained by surplus agricultural production and commerce, the latter including trade with Elam and Sumer in southern Mesopotamia. Both Mohenjo-daro and Harappa are generally characterised as having "differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers." Although such similarities have given rise to arguments for the existence of a standardised system of urban layout and planning, the similarities are largely due to the presence of a semi-orthogonal type of civic layout, and a comparison of the layouts of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa shows that they are in fact, arranged in a quite dissimilar fashion.
The weights and measures of the Indus Valley Civilisation, on the other hand, were highly standardised, and conform to a set scale of gradations. Distinctive seals were used, among other applications, perhaps for the identification of property and shipment of goods. Although copper and bronze were in use, iron was not yet employed. "Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, was domesticated," as well as "fowl for fighting". Wheel-made pottery—some of it adorned with animal and geometric motifs—has been found in profusion at all the major Indus sites. A centralised administration for each city, though not the whole civilisation, has been inferred from the revealed cultural uniformity; however, it remains uncertain whether authority lay with a commercial oligarchy. Harappans had many trade routes along the Indus River that went as far as the Persian Gulf, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Some of the most valuable things traded were carnelian and lapis lazuli.
What is clear is that Harappan society was not entirely peaceful, with the human skeletal remains demonstrating some of the highest rates of injury (15.5%) found in South Asian prehistory. Examinations of Harappan skeletons have often found wounds that are likely to have been inflicted in battle. Paleopathological analysis demonstrated that leprosy and tuberculosis were present at Harappa, with the highest prevalence of both disease and trauma present in the skeletons from Area G (an ossuary located south-east of the city walls). Furthermore, rates of craniofacial trauma and infection increased through time demonstrating that the civilisation collapsed amid illness and injury. The bioarchaeologists who examined the remains have suggested that the combined evidence for differences in mortuary treatment and epidemiology indicate that some individuals and communities at Harappa were excluded from access to basic resources like health and safety.
Trade
The Harappans had traded with ancient Mesopotamia, especially Elam, among other areas. Cotton textiles and agricultural products were the primary trading objects. The Harappan merchants also had procurement colonies in Mesopotamia as well, which served as trading centres. They also traded extensively with people living in southern India, near modern-day Karnataka, to procure gold and copper from them.
Archaeology
The excavators of the site have proposed the following chronology of Harappa's occupation:
- Ravi Aspect of the Hakra phase, c. 3300 – 2800 BC
- Kot Dijian (Early Harappan) phase, c. 2800 – 2600 BC
- Harappan Phase, c. 2600 – 1900 BC
- Transitional Phase, c. 1900 – 1800 BC
- Late Harappan Phase, c. 1800 – 1300 BC
Period 1 occupation was thought to be around 7 to 10 hectares, but following excavations and findings of pottery in Mound E, along with previously found Mound AB pottery, suggest Ravi/Hakra phase would have been extended, together in both mounds, to 25 hectares.
Period 2, Kot Diji phase, was extended in the same two mounds, AB and E, covering over 27 hectares.
In Period 3, Harappa phase, the settlement reached 150 hectares.
By far the most exquisite and obscure artefacts unearthed to date are the small, square steatite (soapstone) seals engraved with human or animal motifs. A large number of seals have been found at such sites as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. Many bear pictographic inscriptions generally thought to be a form of writing or script. Despite the efforts of philologists from all parts of the world, and despite the use of modern cryptographic analysis, the signs remain undeciphered. It is also unknown if they reflect proto-Dravidian or other non-Vedic language(s). The ascribing of Indus Valley Civilisation iconography and epigraphy to historically known cultures is extremely problematic, in part due to the rather tenuous archaeological evidence for such claims, as well as the projection of modern South Asian political concerns onto the archaeological record of the area.
In February 2006 a school teacher in the village of Sembian-Kandiyur in Tamil Nadu discovered a stone celt (tool) with an inscription estimated to be up to 3,500 years old. Indian epigraphist Iravatham Mahadevan postulated that the four signs were in the Indus script and called the find "the greatest archaeological discovery of a century in Tamil Nadu". Based on this evidence, he went on to suggest that the language used in the Indus Valley was of Dravidian origin. However, the absence of a Bronze Age in South India, contrasted with the knowledge of bronze making techniques in the Indus Valley cultures, calls into question the validity of this hypothesis.
The area of the late Harappan period consisted of the areas of the Daimabad, Maharashtra, and Badakshan regions of Afghanistan. The area covered by this civilisation would have been very large with a distance of around 2,400 kilometres (1,500 mi).
Symbols similar to Indus script
Clay and stone tablets unearthed at Harappa, which were carbon-dated 3300–3200 BC, contain trident-shaped and plant-like markings. "It is a big question as to if we can call what we have found true writing, but we have found symbols that have similarities to what became Indus script" said Dr. Richard Meadow of Harvard University, Director of the Harappa Archeological Research Project. These primitive symbols are placed slightly earlier than the primitive writing of the Sumerians of Mesopotamia, dated c.3100 BC. These markings have similarities to what later became Indus Script which has not been completely deciphered yet.
Notes
Statuettes from HarappaThe controversial Harappa male torso (left). The discoverer, Madho Sarup Vats, claimed a Harappan date, but Marshall dated the statuette to the Gupta period. Another famous statuette from the site is the Harappa grey stone male dancer (right).- The earliest radiocarbon dating mentioned on the web is 2725±185 BC (uncalibrated) or 3338, 3213, 3203 BC calibrated, giving a midpoint of 3251 BC. Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (1991) Urban process in the Indus Tradition: A preliminary report. In Harappa Excavations, 1986–1990: A multidisciplinary approach to Second Millennium urbanism, edited by Richard H. Meadow: 29–59. Monographs in World Archaeology No.3. Prehistory Press, Madison Wisconsin.
- Periods 4 and 5 are not dated at Harappa. The termination of the Harappan tradition at Harappa falls between 1900 and 1500 BC.
- Mohenjo-daro is another major city of the same period, located in Sindh province of Pakistan. One of its most well-known structures is the Great Bath of Mohenjo-Daro.
See also
- Charles Masson – First European explorer of Harappa
- Mohenjo-daro
- Mehrgarh
- Ganeriwala
- Dholavira
- Lothal
- Harappan architecture
- Mandi, Uttar Pradesh
- Sheri Khan Tarakai
- Sokhta Koh
- Kalibangan
- Rakhigarhi
- Taxila
References
- Giosan, L., Clift, P. D., Macklin, M. G., Fuller, D. Q., Constantinescu, S., Durcan, J. A., ... & Syvitski, J. P. (2012). Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilization. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(26), E1688-E1694.
- Dales, George F. (June 1962). "Harappan Outposts on the Makran Coast". Antiquity. 36 (142): 86–92. doi:10.1017/s0003598x00029689. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 164175444.
- Basham, A. L.; Dani, D. H. (Winter 1968–1969). "(Review of) A Short History of Pakistan: Book One: Pre-Muslim Period". Pacific Affairs. 41 (4): 641–643. doi:10.2307/2754608. JSTOR 2754608.
- Fagan, Brian (2003). People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory. Pearson. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-13-111316-9.
- ^ "Archeological Site of Harappa". World Heritage Centre. UNESCO. Retrieved 19 February 2013.
- Tahir, Zulqernain. 26 May 2005. Probe body on Harappa park, Dawn. Retrieved 13 January 2006. Archived 11 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine
- Beck, Roger B. (1999). World History: Patterns of Interaction. Evanston, IL: McDougal Littell. ISBN 978-0-395-87274-1.
- Michel Danino. The Lost River. Penguin India.
- Kenoyer, J.M., 1997, Trade and Technology of the Indus Valley: New insights from sand, clay, stones and were baked at very high temperature. As early as 1826 Harappa, located in west Punjab, attracted the attention of Daya Ram Sahni, who gets credit for preliminary excavations of Harappa.
- ^ Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. Routledge. p. 94. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
- Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. Routledge. p. 101. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
- "Culture change during the Late Harappan period at Harappa: new insights on Vedic Aryan issues", The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Routledge, pp. 33–61, 2 August 2004, doi:10.4324/9780203641880-7, ISBN 978-0-203-64188-0, retrieved 30 March 2022
- Q., Madella, Marco Fuller, Dorian (18 January 2006). Palaeoecology and the Harappan Civilization of South Asia: a reconsideration. Elsevier. OCLC 1103344632.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Library of Congress: Country Studies. 1995. Harappan Culture Archived 2 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 13 January 2006.
- Poultry: Identification, Fabrication, Utilization by Thomas Schneller – Cengage Learning, 28 September 2009 – page 16
- Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. New York: Norton. p. 67. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.
- Robbins Schug, Gwen (2012). "A peaceful realm? Trauma and social differentiation at Harappa" (PDF). International Journal of Paleopathology. 2 (2–3): 136–147. doi:10.1016/j.ijpp.2012.09.012. PMID 29539378. S2CID 3933522.
- Robbins Schug, Gwen; Blevins, K. Elaine; Cox, Brett; Gray, Kelsey; Mushrif-Tripathy, V. (17 December 2013). "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilization". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e84814. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884814R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3866234. PMID 24358372.
- Robbins Schug, Gwen (2013). "Infection, Disease, and Biosocial Processes at the End of the Indus Civilisation". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e84814. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884814R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084814. PMC 3866234. PMID 24358372.
- Mcintosh, Jane (2008). The Ancient Indus Valley New Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. pp. 183–184, 394. ISBN 978-1-57607-907-2.
- Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). "Indus Socio-Economic, Political and Ideological Organization", in ARWA Association, min. 5:48 to 6:41, "Period 1 Ravi/Hakra Phase, area greater than 10 to 25+ hectares, possibly divided into two mounds, one to the north, Mound AB and the other to the southeast, Mound E."
- Kenoyer, J. M., (June 6, 2023). "Indus Socio-Economic, Political and Ideological Organization", in ARWA Association, min. 8:04 to 9:30.
- Fagan, Brian (2003). People of the earth: an introduction to world prehistory. Pearson. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-13-111316-9.
- ^ Subramaniam, T. S. (1 May 2006). ""Discovery of a century" in Tamil Nadu". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 15 June 2006. Retrieved 21 May 2008.
- Subramaniam, T. S. (1 May 2006). "Significance of Mayiladuthurai find". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 30 April 2008. Retrieved 23 May 2008.
- Kulke, Herman (2004). History of India. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0.
- ^ BBC, UK website. "Earliest writing found". BBC News. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
- The Indus Civilization: A Contemporary Perspective by Gregory L. Possehl p.111
External links
- Harappa.com
- Harappa.info Archived 30 January 2020 at the Wayback Machine
- "Harappa Town Planning"-article by Dr S. Srikanta Sastri
- Art of the Bronze Age: Southeastern Iran, Western Central Asia, and the Indus Valley, an exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Harappa
World Heritage Sites in Pakistan | |
---|---|
|
Indus Valley Civilisation | |
---|---|
History and culture | |
Art and architecture | |
Language and script | |
Indus Valley sites in Pakistan | |
Indus Valley sites in India |
|
Indus Valley sites in Afghanistan | |
Related topics |
Neighbourhoods of Sahiwal | ||
---|---|---|
Administrations: Sahiwal Division and Sahiwal District | ||
Tehsils | ||
Cities |
| |
Towns and councils | ||
Villages | ||
Website: Sahiwal District at NRB |
- Harappa
- 4th-millennium BC architecture
- Populated places established in the 4th millennium BC
- Populated places disestablished in the 2nd millennium BC
- 13th-century BC disestablishments
- Archaeological sites in Punjab, Pakistan
- Bronze Age sites in Asia
- Populated places in Sahiwal District
- Indus Valley Civilisation sites
- Former populated places in Pakistan
- Culture of Punjab, Pakistan
- Sahiwal District
- Tourist attractions in Sahiwal
- Ruins in Pakistan
- Lost cities and towns