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Ottoman–Persian Wars
Part of the European wars of religion and French–Habsburg rivalry
Left to right: The Defenestration of Prague (23 May 1618) The death of Gustavus Adolphus at Lützen (16 November 1632) Dutch warships prior to the Battle of the Downs (21 October 1639) The Battle of Rocroi (19 May 1643)
Date 23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648 (30 years, 5 months and 1 day) Location Central Europe Result Peace of Westphalia Territorial changes France annexes the Décapole, and Sundgau Sweden gains Wismar, Wollin, Western Pomerania, and Bremen-Verden Brandenburg-Prussia obtains Eastern Pomerania Old Swiss Confederacy gains independence from the Holy Roman Empire
Belligerents
Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635  Kingdom of Bohemia Sweden Palatinate Savoy Transylvania  Dutch Republic  Denmark–Norway Heilbronn League Hesse-Kassel Brandenburg-Prussia  Saxony	Imperial alliance prior to 1635  Habsburg Monarchy Spanish Empire  Bavaria Catholic League
Post-1635 Peace of Prague  France Sweden  Dutch Republic Hesse-Kassel	Post-1635 Peace of Prague  Holy Roman Empire Spanish Empire  Denmark–Norway
Commanders and leaders
Gustavus Adolphus † Oxenstierna Banér Torstensson Wrangel Alexander Leslie Louis XIII Richelieu Mazarin Grand Condé Turenne Maurice of Orange Frederick Henry Maarten Tromp Frederick V von Mansfeld Jindřich Thurn Christian of Anhalt Christian IV Christian WIlliam John George I Bernard of Saxe-Weimar  Christian of Brunswick Gabriel Bethlen George William	Ferdinand II Ferdinand III Wallenstein X Gallas Archduke Leopold von Hatzfeldt von Holzappel † Piccolomini Philip IV Olivares Córdoba Spinola Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand Maximilian of Bavaria Tilly † Pappenheim † Charles of Lorraine von Mercy † Montecuccoli von Werth
Strength
Maximum actual 100,000–140,000 Swedish 27,000 Danes (1626) 70,000–80,000 French 80,000–90,000 Dutch	Maximum actual 110,000 Imperial 90,000 Spanish 20,500 Bavarians
Casualties and losses
Combat deaths: 110,000 in Swedish service 80,000 in French service 30,000 in Danish service 50,000 other	Combat deaths: 120,000 in Imperial service 30,000 in Bavarian service 30,000 other
Military deaths from disease: 700,000–1,350,000 Total civilian dead: 3,500,000–6,500,000 Total dead: 4,500,000–8,000,000

The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of present-day Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Franco-Spanish War, the Torstenson War, the Dutch-Portuguese War, and the Portuguese Restoration War.

The war was traditionally viewed as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, most contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the contest for European dominance between Habsburg-ruled Spain and Austria, and the French House of Bourbon.

Its outbreak is generally traced to 1618, when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt, his participation expanded the fighting into the Palatinate, whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. Rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden also held territories within the Empire, giving them and other foreign powers an excuse to intervene. The result was to turn an internal dynastic dispute into a broader European conflict.

The first phase from 1618 until 1635 was primarily a civil war between German members of the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635, the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France, supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III, allied with Spain. This concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, whose provisions included greater autonomy within the empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years

See also

• Ottoman–Safavid relations
• Habsburg–Persian alliance
• Franco-Ottoman alliance
• Ottoman–Hotaki War (1726–1727)
• Persian campaign (World War I)
• Russo-Persian Wars
• Russo-Turkish Wars

References

1. Croxton 2013, pp. 225–226. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCroxton2013 (help)
2. ^ Heitz & Rischer 1995, p. 232. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHeitzRischer1995 (help)
3. Parrott 2001, p. 8. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParrott2001 (help)
4. Nicklisch et al. 2017. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017 (help)
5. Wilson 2009, p. 484. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
6. Clodfelter 2008, p. 40. sfn error: no target: CITEREFClodfelter2008 (help)
7. Wilson 2009, p. 387. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
8. Parrott 2001, pp. 164–168. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParrott2001 (help)
9. ^ Van Nimwegen 2014, p. 166. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2014 (help)
10. Wilson 2009, p. 395. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
11. ^ Parker 2004, p. 231. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker2004 (help)
12. ^ Clodfelter 2008, p. 39. sfn error: no target: CITEREFClodfelter2008 (help)
13. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 791. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
14. Parker 1997, p. 173. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker1997 (help)
15. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 790. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
16. Wilson 2009, p. 787. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
17. Outram 2002, p. 248. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOutram2002 (help)
18. Wilson 2009, pp. 4, 787. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
19. Parker 1997, p. 189. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker1997 (help)
20. Sutherland 1992, pp. 589–590. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSutherland1992 (help)

Sources

• Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia, 1587–1629, 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, ISBN 978-1595845672, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
• Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027596891X.

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• Ottoman–Persian Wars
• Iran–Ottoman Empire relations
• Geopolitical rivalry
• Ottoman period in Armenia
• Early Modern history of Georgia (country)
• Military operations involving the Crimean Khanate
• Early Modern history of Iraq
• History of Anatolia
• History of the Caucasus
• History of West Asia
• History of Europe