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Magisterium is a "teaching authority, especially of the Roman Catholic Church". The word is derived from Latin magisterium, which originally meant the office of a president, chief, director, superintendent, etc. (in particular, though rarely, the office of tutor or instructor of youth, tutorship, guardianship) or teaching, instruction, advice.

In the Roman Catholic Church the word "Magisterium" refers to the teaching authority of the church. This authority is understood to be embodied in the episcopacy, which is the aggregation of the current bishops of the church, led by the Bishop of Rome (the Pope), who has authority over the bishops, individually and as a body, as well as over each and every Catholic directly. According to Catholic doctrine, the Magisterium is able to teach or interpret the truths of the Faith, and it does so either non-infallibly or infallibly (see chart below).

"The task of interpreting the Word of God authentically has been entrusted solely to the Magisterium of the Church, that is, to the Pope and to the bishops in communion with him."

Extraordinary (or Solemn) Magisterium

The Catholic Church teaches that Jesus Christ, "the Word made Flesh" (Gospel of John 1:14), is the source of divine revelation. The Catholic Church bases all of its infallible teachings on Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture. The Sacred Magisterium consists of only all the infallible teachings of the Church. "Wherefore, by divine and Catholic faith all those things are to be believed which are contained in the word of God as found in Scripture and tradition, and which are proposed by the Church as matters to be believed as divinely revealed, whether by her solemn judgment or in her ordinary and universal Magisterium." (First Vatican Council, Dei Filius 8.) However, the criteria for the infallibility of these two functions of the sacred magisterium are different. The sacred magisterium consist of both the infallible teachings of the Pope, the ecumenical councils, and the Ordinary and Universal Magisterium. (Despite its name, the "Ordinary and Universal Magisterium" is still part of the Sacred Magisterium.)

The Second Vatican Council states, "For this reason Jesus perfected revelation by fulfilling it through his whole work of making Himself present and manifesting Himself: through His words and deeds, His signs and wonders, but especially through His death and glorious resurrection from the dead and final sending of the Spirit of truth." (Dei Verbum, 4). The content of Christ's divine revelation, as faithfully passed on by the Apostles, is called the Deposit of Faith, and consists of both Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition (as John 21:25 states, "Jesus did many other things as well. If every one of them were written down, I suppose that even the whole world would not have room for the books that would be written.").

The teachings of the Pope are believed by Catholics to be infallible when he is speaking ex cathedra.

The infallible teachings of the ecumenical councils consist of the solemn dogmatic, theological, or moral definitions, as contained in declarations, decrees, doctrines, and condemnations (traditionally expressed in conciliar canons and decrees) of councils consisting of the Pope and the Bishops from all over the Church.

A teaching of ordinary and universal magisterium is a teaching of which all Bishops of the Church (including the Pope) universally agree on, and is also considered infallible.

Ordinary Magisterium

The ordinary magisterium includes non-infallible papal teachings, the teachings of individual bishops and groups of local bishops, and even concilar teachings which are not ratified by a solemn definition, even if these teachings take place within the context of an ecumenical council. (Catholic theologians and ecclesiastics generally agree that some councils made no such solemn judgments.)

The teachings of the ordinary magisterium are non-infallible. Such teachings are generally correct, as they are based on infallible Sacred Tradition, infallible Sacred Scripture, and the infallible teachings of the Sacred Magisterium. But some errors can be found within the ordinary teachings of the magisterium, and therefore, such teachings are reformable and revocable.

All magisterial teaching is derived from Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture (i.e., the Bible). The belief that God reveals his teachings to humanity via infallible Sacred Tradition and Sacred Scripture is one basis for infallibility; another basis is that the Holy Spirit guides the Magisterium. Catholics are obliged to believe all that is taught infallibly by the Magisterium with the assent of faith (fides divina), i.e. with the fullness of their faith. Catholics are, in general, also obliged to believe the non-infallible teachings of the Magisterium, but with a different type or degree of assent, called religious assent (obsequium religiosum).

When the bishops teach on matters of faith and morals in their capacity as bishops, they

“speak in the name of Christ and the faithful are to accept their teaching and adhere to it with a religious assent (obsequium religiosum) of soul. This religious submission of will and mind must be shown in a special way to the authentic teaching authority of the Roman Pontiff, even when he is not speaking ex cathedra. That is, it must be shown in such a way that his supreme teaching authority is acknowledged with reverence, the judgments made by him are sincerely adhered to, according to his manifest mind and will.” (from Lumen Gentium, section 25)

The levels of the Magisterium

Historical Development of the Magisterium

While the Magisterium of the Catholic Church is well-defined today, it has not always been so clear a doctrine. Until the formal pronouncements in the 19th century, the subject of teaching authority in the Church was a matter of disagreement and confusion, and indeed, the concept of papal infallibility still remains controversial in some Catholic circles.

The Early Church

Bishops as Authority

The most basic foundation of the Magisterium, the apostolic succession of bishops and their authority as protectors of the faith, was one of the few points that was rarely debated by the Church Fathers. The doctrine was developed by Ignatius of Antioch (and others) in the face of Gnosticism, expounded by others such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, Ambrose, and Augustine, and by the end of the end of the second century AD was universally accepted by the bishops.

Some of the first problems began to arise, however, with the increasing worldliness of the clergy. Criticism arose against the bishops, and an attempt was made to have all bishops drawn from the ranks of monastic communities, whose men were seen as the holiest possible leaders. However, there had also developed in the Church a Roman sense of government, which insisted upon order at any cost, and this led to the phenomenon of the “imperial bishops,” men who had to be obeyed by virtue of their position, regardless of their personal holiness, and the distinction between “man” and “office.”

However, this understanding was not universally accepted. One of the most famous critics of the episcopal corruption was the influential theologian Origen. Throughout his life, many of Origen’s writings were considered to be questionably orthodox, and he seemed to espouse the idea of a teaching authority based on theological expertise rather than, or at least along with, apostolic succession.

Regional Authority

While the authority of bishops was rarely questioned, the question of authority among the bishops stirred intense debate. From the beginning of the Church, certain regional bishoprics were prominent: Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and later Constantinople. Rome claimed prominence in the first three centuries, which was generally accepted, but the Bishop of Rome had no practical power to impose his will, which led most to recognize first the authority of their bishop and local councils. In addition, debates arose concerning the role of Rome; it was normally conceded that it was the center of unity, but whether this came with the ability to settle disputes about doctrine was much less certain.

Gradually, Rome began to claim more power for itself, intensifying the debates of authority. Pope Damasus I (366-384) was the first pope to justify his authority based on the text of Matthew 16:17-19, and Pope Leo I (440-461) decreed during the Council of Chalcedon (451) that the pope was the successor to Peter and Christ’s gift of authority to Peter was thus applicable for eternity in the person of the pope. This naturally intensified the East-West split, which would not be fully recognized until the Middle Ages.

The authority of Rome was also questioned by the African church during the early years of Christianity, coming to a head in the “Apiarius Affair” early in the fifth century, which ended with the African bishops declaring that anyone who appealed a ruling to Rome would be excommunicated. The African bishops recognized the Bishop of Rome with respect and were willing to submit in certain instances as a gesture of unity, but nonetheless considered themselves an autonomous ruling body.

Other Early Disagreements

Another early disagreement in the Church surrounding the issue of authority manifested itself in Montanism, which began as a movement promoting the charism of prophecy. Montanism claimed, among other things, that prophecies like those found in the Old Testament were continuing in the Church, and that new prophecies had the same authority as apostolic teaching. The Church, however, ruled that these new prophecies were false and not authoritative, and condemned Montanism as a heresy.

The Medieval Period

Perceptions of teaching authority in the Middle Ages are hard to characterize because they were so varied. While there arose a keener understanding and acceptance of papal primacy (at least in the Western Church), there was also an increased emphasis placed on the theologian as well as numerous dissenters from both views.

Papal Primacy and Teaching Authority

Throughout the Middle Ages, support for the primacy of the pope (spiritually and temporally) and his ability to speak authoritatively on matters of doctrine grew significantly. Two popes, Innocent III (1198-1216) and Boniface VIII (1294-1303), were especially influential in advancing the power of the papacy. Innocent asserted that the pope’s power was a right bestowed by God, and developed the idea of the pope not only as a teacher and spiritual leader but also a secular ruler. Boniface, in the papal bull Unam Sanctam asserted that the spiritual world, headed on earth by the pope, has authority over the temporal world, and that all must submit themselves to the authority of the pope to be saved.

In the medieval period, statements of this papal power were common in the works of theologians as well. In the late Middle Ages, Domingo Bañez attributed to the Pope the “definitive power to declare the truths of the faith," and Thomas Cardinal Cajetan, in keeping with the distinction made by St. Thomas Aquinas, drew a line between personal faith manifested in theologians and the authoritative faith presented as a matter of judgment by the pope.

Papal Infallibility

It is importance to note that the acceptance of papal authority did not include an acceptance of the doctrine of papal infallibility, a later development. In fact, there was a certain amount of resistance to this doctrine during the medieval period. In the Decretum of Gratian, a 12th century canon lawyer, the pope is attributed the legal right to pass judgment in theological disputes, but he was certainly not guaranteed freedom from error. The pope’s role was to establish limits within which theologians, who were often better suited for the full expression of truth, could work. Thus, the pope’s authority was as a judge, not an infallible teacher.

Other opponents of the doctrine include Pope John XXII (1316-1334), who rejected the doctrine because he did not want to be bound to the teachings of previous popes, and St. Thomas More, who pronounced that church councils were the only authoritative and inerrant means of settling disputes. The doctrine began to visibly develop during the Reformation, leading to a formal statement of the doctrine by St. Robert Bellarmine in the early 17th century, but it did not come to widespread acceptance until the 19th century and the First Vatican Council.

Theologians

Other concepts of teaching authority gained prominence in the Middle Ages, as well, however, including the concept of the authority of the learned expert, an idea which began with Origen (or even earlier) and still today has proponents. Some allowed for the participation of theologians in the teaching life of the church, but still drew distinctions between the powers of the theologian and the pope or bishop; one example of this view is in the writing of St. Thomas Aquinas, who spoke of the “Magisterium cathedrae pastoralis/pontificalis” (Magisterium of the pastoral or pontifical chair) and the “Magisterium cathedrae magistralis” (Magisterium of a master’s chair). Others held more extreme views, such as Godefroid of Fontaines, who insisted that the theologian had a right to maintain his own opinions in the face of episcopal and even papal rulings.

Either way, the theologian began to play a more prominent role in the teaching life of the church, as “doctors” were called upon more and more to help bishops form doctrinal opinions. Illustrating this, at the Council of Basle in 1439, bishops and other clergy were greatly outnumbered by doctors of theology.

Despite this growth in influence, popes still asserted their power to crack down on those perceived as “rogue” theologians, through councils (for example, in the cases of Peter Abelard and Beranger) and commissions (as with Nicolas of Autrecourt, Ockham, and Eckhart). With the coming of the Reformation in 1517, this assertion of papal power came to its head and the primacy and authority of the papacy over theologians was vigorously re-established. However, the Council of Trent re-introduced the collaboration between theologians and council Fathers, and the next centuries leading up to the First and Second Vatican Councils were generally accepting of a broader role for the learned in the Church, although the popes still kept a close eye on theologians and intervened occasionally.

Council of Constance (1414-1418)

Another significant development in the teaching authority of the Church occurred from 1414 to 1418 with the Council of Constance, which effectively ran the Church during the Great Schism, during which there were three men claiming to be the pope. An early decree of this council, Haec Sancta, challenged the primacy of the pope, saying that councils represent the church, are imbued with their power directly by Christ, and are binding even for the pope in matters of faith. This declaration was later declared void by the Church because the early sessions of the council had not been confirmed by a pope, but it demonstrates that there were still conciliar currents in the church running against the doctrine of papal primacy, likely influenced by the corruption seen in the papacy during this time period.

The Vatican Councils and Their Popes

Pius IX and Vatican I

The groundwork for papal primacy was laid in the medieval period, and in the late Middle Ages, the idea of papal infallibility was introduced, but a definitive statement and explanation of these doctrines did not occur until the 19th century, with Pope Pius IX and the First Vatican Council (1869-1870). Pius IX was the first pope to use the term “Magisterium” in the sense that it is understood today, and the concept of the “ordinary and universal Magisterium” was officially established during Vatican I. In addition, this council defined the doctrine of papal infallibility, the ability of the pope to speak without error “when, acting in his capacity as pastor and teacher of all Christians, he commits his supreme authority in the universal Church on a question of faith or morals.”

Pius XII and Paul VI

Later, Pope Pius XII took the concept of the newly defined Magisterium even farther, stating that the faithful must be obedient to even the ordinary Magisterium of the Pope, and that “there can no longer be any question of free discussion between theologians” once the Pope has spoken on a given issue. Additionally, he proposed the understanding of the theologian as a justifier of the Magisterium, who ought not be concerned with the formulation of new doctrine but with the explanation of what has been set forth by the Church.

Pope Paul VI, who convened the Second Vatican Council, agreed with this view, and in a speech to the International Congress on the Theology of Vatican II, he described the theologian as a sort of middleman between the Church and the faithful, entrusted with the task of explaining to the laity why the Church teaches what she does..

The Postconciliar Church

The debate concerning the Magisterium, papal primacy and infallibility, and the authority to teach in general has not lessened since the official declaration of the doctrines. Instead, the Church has been torn by arguments; at one end there are those with the tendency to regard even technically non-binding papal encyclicals as infallible statements, and at the other are those who refuse to accept in any sense controversial encyclicals such as Humanae Vitae and who consider the dogma of papal infallibility to be itself a fallible pronouncement. The situation is complicated by changing attitudes toward authority in an increasingly democratic world, the new importance placed on academic freedom, and new means of knowledge and communication. In addition, the authority of theologians is being revisited, with theologians pushing past the structures laid out for them by Pius XII and Paul VI and regarding themselves purely as academics, not in the service of any institution.

See also

• Sacred Tradition
• Catechism of the Catholic Church
• Roman Curia

References

1. Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary
2. Lewis and Short
3. Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2nd ed. 1997, pt. 1, sect. 1, ch. 2, art. 2, III
4. Archbishop Michael Sheehan, Apologetics and Catholic Doctrine, revised by Fr. Peter Joseph ISBN 1-901157-14-8, Saint Austin Press, 2001
5. Code of Canon Law, can. 749-754
6. Lumen Gentium n. 25
7. Congar, Yves. "A Brief History of the Forms of the Magisterium and Its Relations with Scholars." Readings in Moral Theology: The Magisterium and Morality. Ed. Charles E. Curran and Richard A. McCormick. New York: Paulist Press, 1982. p. 315.
8. Olsen, Glenn W. "The theologian and the Magisterium: the ancient and medieval background of a contemporary controversy." Communio 7.4 (1980): p. 310.
9. Eno, Robert B. "Authority and Conflict in the Early Church." Eglise et Theologie 7.1 (1976): 49.
10. Eno, Robert B: p. 55.
11. Collins, Paul. "Infallibility, Primacy, Magisterium, and Reception." The Papacy and the People of God. Ed. Gary MacEoin. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998. p. 28.
12. Collins, Paul., p. 29.
13. Eno, Robert B: p. 58.
14. Eno, Robert B: p. 47.
15. Collins, Paul: p. 26.
16. Congar, Yves: p. 321.
17. Olsen, Glenn W: pp. 313-136.
18. Collins, Paul: p. 26.
19. Congar, Yves: pp. 318-322.
20. Collins, Paul: p. 34.
21. Congar, Yves: p. 324
22. Congar, Yves: p. 325.
23. Congar, Yves: p. 327.
24. Congar, Yves: pp. 326-328.

Books

• Boyle, John (1995). Church Teaching Authority: Historical and Theological Studies. University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-00805-1.
• Gaillardetz, Richard (2003). By What Authority?: A Primer on Scripture, the Magisterium, and the Sense of the Faithful. ISBN 0-8146-2872-9.
• Gaillardetz, Richard (1997). Teaching With Authority: A Theology of the Magisterium in the Church. Theology and Life Series, vol. 41. Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-5529-7.
• Gaillardetz, Richard (1992). Witnesses to the Faith: Community, Infallibility, and the Ordinary Magisterium of Bishops. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3350-4.
• Sullivan, Francis (2003). Creative Fidelity: Weighing and Interpreting Documents of the Magisterium. Wipf & Stock Publishers. ISBN 1-59244-208-0.
• Sullivan, Francis (1983). The Magisterium: Teaching Authority in the Catholic Church. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-2577-3 (paper), ISBN 1-59244-060-6 (Wipf & Stock 2002 reprint). {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
• Gerard Mannion, Richard Gaillardetz, Jan Kerkhofs, Kenneth Wilson (eds.), Readings in Church Authority - Gifts and Challenges for Contemporary Catholicism, Ashgate Press, 2003; 572pp

Articles

• The Canonical Safeguarding of the Word of God by Jaime B. Achacoso, J.C.D., Philippine Canonical Forum, Volume II, January-December 2000.
• Tradition and Living Magisterium Article in the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia

External links

• Truth in the Magisterium - Pope John Paul II

• Catholic theology and doctrine
• Christian theology
• Episcopacy in Roman Catholicism