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The Mamluks were mostly Christian slaves converted to Islam, trained in a special school, and then assigned to military and administrative duties. They presided, with short intermissions, over several decades in the history of Ottoman Iraq, from 1747 to 1831. The Mamluk ruling elite, composed principally of officers from Georgia, succeeded in asserting autonomy from their Ottoman overlords, and restored order and some degree of economic prosperity in the region. The Ottomans overthrew the Mamluk regime in 1831 and gradually imposed their direct rule over Iraq which would last until World War I.

Background

Throughout most of the period of Ottoman rule (1533-1918) the territory of present-day Iraq was a battle ground between the rival Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iranians. Economically, Iraq was one of the least developed areas of the Ottoman Empire. The region suffered from frequent inter-clan struggles and major outbreaks of plague and cholera.

The tribal problem was perhaps one of the main reasons why Sultan Ahmed III (1703–30), whose reign was marked by relative political stability and extensive reforms, allowed Hasan Pasha, the pasha of Baghdad of Georgian origin (1704-1723),born to a Christian family in Georgia. He had been sold into slavery at the age of 13 and had risen through the ranks under his predecessors. to build up the first Iraqi Mamluk force. Hasan's son and successor, Ahmed, continued to recruit the Mamluks and promoted them to key administrative and military positions. Both Hasan and Ahmed rendered a valuable service to the Ottoman Porte by curbing the unruly tribes and securing a steady inflow of taxes to the treasury in Istanbul as well as by defending Iraq against yet another military threat from the Safavids of Iran. By the time when Ahmed Pasha died in 1747, his Mamluks had been organized into a powerful, self-perpetuating elite corps of some 2,000 men ("Georgian Guard"). On Ahmed's death, the sultan attempted to prevent these Mamluks from assuming power and sent an outsider as his wali in Baghdad. However, Ahmed’s son-in-law Suleyman Abu Layla, already in charge of Basra, marched on Baghdad in the head of his Georgian guard and ousted the Ottoman administrator, thereby inaugurating 84 years of the Mamluk rule in Iraq.

Mamluk rulers

By 1750, Suleyman Abu Layla had established himself as an undisputed master at Baghdad and had been recognized by the Porte as the first Mamluk pasha of Iraq. The newly established regime embarked on a campaign to gain more autonomy from the Ottoman government and to curb the resistance of the Arab and Kurdish tribes. They managed to counter the Al-Muntafiq threats in the south and brought Basra under their control. They encouraged European trade and allowed the British East India Company to establish an agency in Basra in 1763.

The successes of Mamluk regime, however, still depended on their ability to cooperate with their Ottoman suzerains and religious elite within Iraq. The Porte sometimes employed force to depose the recalcitrant pashas of Baghdad, but the Mamluks were able to retain their hold of the pashalik and even enlarged their domains. They failed, however, to secure a regular system of succession and the gradual formation of rival Mamluk households resulted in factionalism and frequent power struggles. Another major menace to the Mamluk rule came from Iran whose resurgent ruler, Karim Khan, invaded Iraq and installed his brother Sadiq Khan in Basra in 1776 after a protracted and stubborn resistance offered by the Mamluk general Suleyman Aga. The Porte hastened to exploit the crisis and replaced Umar Pasha (1764-76) with a non-Mamluk, who proved incapable of keeping order.

After Karim’s death in 1779, Sadiq withdrew from Basra while Suleyman returned from his exile in Shiraz and acquired the governorship of Baghdad, Basra and Shahrizur in 1780. This Süleyman Pasha is known as Büyük, i.e., the Great, and his rule (1780-1802) was efficient at first, but weakened as he grew older. He imported large numbers of Georgians to strengthen his clan, asserted his supremacy over the fractionalized Mamluk households and restricted the influence of Janissaries. He fostered economy and continued to encourage commerce and diplomacy with Europe, which received a major boost in 1798 when Süleyman Pasa gave permission for a permanent British agent to be appointed in Baghdad. However, his struggle against the Arab tribes was less successful and the troubles culminated in the sack of the Shiite shrine at Kerbala by the Wahhabi in 1801.

Süleyman Pasa was succeeded after a power struggle in 1802 by Ali Pasha, who repelled the Wahhabite raids against Najaf and Al Hillah in 1803 and 1806 but failed to challenge their domination of the desert. After Ali’s assassination in 1807, his nephew Süleyman Pasa the Little took over the government. Inclined to curtail provincial autonomies, Sultan Mahmud II (1808-39) made his first attempt to oust the Mamluks from Baghdad in 1810. Ottoman troops deposed and killed Süleyman, but again failed to maintain control of the country. After yet another bitter internecine feud in 1816, Süleyman’s energetic son-in-law Daud-Pasha ousted his rival Sa’id Pasha (1813-16; son of Süleyman Pasha the Great) and took control of Baghdad. The Ottoman government reluctantly recognized his authority.

Daud-Pasha, who would prove to be the last Mamluk ruler of Iraq, was a son of Ali. He was married with Nilay Sultan, daughter of Süleyman the Great. The son was Abdülkerim, born in 1830. Today's descendants are Timur Can (1978) in Germany alive. Daud-Pasha initiated important modernization programs that included clearing canals, establishing industries, reforming army with the help of European instructors, and founding a printing press. He maintained elaborate pomp and circumstance at his court. Besides the usual troubles with the Arab tribes and internal dissensions with sheikhs, he was involved in more serious fighting with the Kurds and the conflict with Iran over the influence in the Kurdish principality of Baban. The conflict culminated in the Iranian invasion of Iraq and the occupation of Sulaymaniyah in 1818. Later, Daud-Pasha capitalized on the destruction of Janissaries at Istanbul in 1826, and eliminated the Janissaries as an independent local force.

Meanwhile, the existence of the autonomous regime in Iraq, a long-time source of anxiety at Istanbul, became even more threatening to the Porte when Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt began to claim Syria. In 1830, the Sultan decreed Daud Pasha’s dismissal, but the emissary carrying the order was arrested at Baghdad and executed. In 1831, the Ottoman army under Ali Rida Pasha marched from Aleppo into Iraq. Devastated by floods and an epidemic of bubonic plague, Baghdad capitulated after a token resistance. Daud-Pasha, facing opposition within Iraq on the part of local clergy, surrendered to the Ottomans and was treated with favor. He ended his life in 1851 as custodian of the shrine at Medina; the remaining Mamluks were exterminated. The arrival of the Sultan’s new governor in Baghdad in 1831 signaled the beginning of a direct Ottoman rule in Iraq.

See also

• Naji Shawkat, Prime Minister of Iraq from 1932 to 1933, who was the scion of one of the Georgian Mamluk clans.

The 'dynasty of Hasan Pasha' was a Georgian Muslim dynasty in Iraq (1704-1831).

After early as the 17th century,Pasha in Basra and Baghdad from the Ottoman had been temporarily independent, established by 1704, the Ottomans, under Ahmed III. appointed as governor Hasan Pasha (1704-1723) the power of the Mamluk in Bagdad.Hasan was born into a Christian family from Georgia, and was with about 13 years into slavery sold.As Janissaries he got duch special services in high Ranks up. The pasha of Baghdad in the aftermath gained considerable autonomy, but had to continue to recognize the suzerainty of the Ottomans. Under Hasan's son, Ahmad Pasha (1723-1747) was defeated in 1733 an attack by the Persian Nadir Shah in Baghdad. After the death of Ahmad Pasha, the Ottomans did try to regain control of Baghdad to win, but had 1749 Suleiman Pasha, the son in law of Ahmad (accept 1749-1762) as governor. Under him the province of Basra to Baghdad was united.

Under Büyük Suleiman Pasha (1780-1802), the dynasty reached its climax when pacified the country and a substantial building program was initiated. 1801 was also an attack by the Wahhabis on the Iraq will be successfully resisted, although these, the destruction of Shiite shrines Najaf and Kerbala succeeded.Daud Pasha should be the last Mamluk ruler. The continuing modernization policy of Suleiman the Great, he was) still in repeated conflicts with the various forces in the troubled region, ie the Arabian tribes, the priesthood, the Kurds and the Persians (1818 conquest of Sulaymaniyah. 1830 was adopted in Istanbul to break the final decision, the annoying Mamlukenherrschaft in Iraq and to subjugate the province once again of direct rule of the Sultan. After a messenger had been executed with the dismissal document Daud in Baghdad, took an Ottoman army under Ali Rida Pasha of Aleppo to Baghdad. The defenders, weakened by flooding and disease, soon surrendered. Daud was rested, and spent his life as a religious guards in Medina, where he died 1851st Iraq, however, was since the creation of a governor of the sultan in 1831 again firmly in the hands of Istanbul. 1831, Iraq was occupied by Ottoman troops, and again placed under the central government after a plague epidemic, the rule of the dynasty had weakened considerably. In Baghdad, had survived from a population of 80,000 only 27,000 people.

Rulers

• Hasan Pasha (1704-1723)
• Ahmad Pasha (1723-1747) son of Hassan
• Suleiman Pasha (1749-1762) son in law of Ahmad Pasha
• Umar Pasha (1762 - 1776) Ahmad Pasha's son
• Büyük Suleyman Pasha (1780-1802) Umar Pasha's son
• Memlûk Ali Pasha (1802 - 1807) Umar Pasha's son
• Küçük Suleyman Pasha took the Little (1807 - 1813) Büyük Suleiman Pasha's son
• Saeed Pasha (1813 - 1816) Büyük Suleiman Pasha's son
• Daud Pasha (1817-1831) Memlûk Ali Pasha's son, Suleyman Pasha Büyük Son in law and nephew

Marriages and offspring of Daud Pasha

His fourth wife was HH Nilay Kadın Efendi:

• His Royal Highness Prince Abdul Karim Paşazade (Sarayı Palace Baghdad, Iraq, Baghdad (1830 - 1904 Haskovo, Bulgaria) First wife: HH Mariyah Kadın Efendi,had a son. His second wife, HH Neslihan Kadın Efendi, a daughter.His third wife: HH Menekşe a daughter.

• • His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Mahmud Kamaleddin Efendi, (1874 - 1927) . First wife: HH Ipek Kadın Efendi, and had a son.

• • • His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Şaban Efendi (1909 - 1981) married to his cousin, her Royal Highness Princess Nemzade Hatice Hanımsultan Kadın Efendi (1913 - 2000).

Listed:

• • Her Royal Highness Princess Fehime Sultan (Haskovo, Bulgaria, (1887 - 1958), married HE Damat Mehmed Ali Pasha Karakoç Beyefendi descendant Resid Mehmed Pasha (also known as Greek Kütahı: Μεχμέτ Ρεσίτ πασάς Κιουταχής) (1780 - 1839) General and an Ottoman Grand Vizier in the first half of the 19th century, played an important role in the Greek War of Independence, and had a daughter:

• • • Her Royal Highness Princess Nemzade Hatice Hanımsultan Kadın Efendi (1913- 2000) married to your cousin, His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Şaban Efendi:

• • • • His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Mustafa Efendi (1935 - 1999), only female offspring.

• • • • Her Royal Highness Princess Kıymet Sultan, female offspring. She lives in Istanbul, Turkey)

• • • • His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Sefer Efendi (1940 - 1942)

• • • • His Royal Highness Prince Paşazade Sebahattin Efendi (Babaeski, (1945 - 1998)Göppingen, Baden-Wurttemberg, buried in Babaeski), which remained in Germany and founded his family, married in Simbach am Inn, Bayern, on 18 December 1948, at HH Meryem Gül Hanim Efendi, born Rosemary Linhardt (18 December 1948):

• • • • • HIH Princ Paşazade Timur Can Efendi (b. Schwabisch Gmund, Baden-Wurttemberg, 24 May 1978). On his ninth birthday, he was ceremoniously circumcised in Istanbul, he lives in Germany.

List of candidates since 1831

Below is a list of contenders to the throne following the abolition of the Mamluk Pasha status since 1831:

• Daud Pasha (1831 - 1851)
• Abdulmalik (1851 - 1904)
• Mahmud Kamaleddin (1904 - 1927)
• Mamlûk Şaban (1927 - 1981)
• Mamlûk Mustafa (1981 - 1999)
• Timur Can (since the death of his uncle, Mustafa 1999 --

References

1. Litvak, Meir (2002), Shi'i Scholars of Nineteenth-Century Iraq: The 'Ulama' of Najaf and Karbala, pp. 16-17. Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0521892961.
2. ^ Kissling, H.J. (1969), The Last Great Muslim Empires, pp. 82-85. Brill, ISBN 9004021043.
3. ^ "Iraq". (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
4. ^ "Iraq". (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October 15, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
5. Ghareeb, Edmund A. (2004), Historical Dictionary of Iraq, p. 220. Scarecrow Press, ISBN 0810843307.

Further reading

• Nieuwenhuis, Tom (1982), Politics and Society in Early Modern Iraq: Mamluk Pashas, Tribal Shayks and Local Rule between 1802 and 1831. Springer, ISBN 9024725763.

• History of Iraq
• History of the Ottoman Empire
• History of Georgia (country)