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			{{Taxobox \| color = gold
	{{npov}}

	{{Taxobox \| color = pink
	\| name = Human		\| name = Human
			\|
	\| status = {{StatusSecure}}
	\| image = PPlaquecloseup.png		\| image = PPlaquecloseup.png
	\| image_width = 200px		\| image_width = 200px
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	\| subdivision = '']''   (extinct)<br /> '''''Homo sapiens sapiens'''''		\| subdivision = '']''   (extinct)<br /> '''''Homo sapiens sapiens'''''
	}}		}}
	{{dablink\|This article is about modern humans. For other human species, see '']''. For other uses, see ].}}

	'''Human beings''' are classified as the ] '''''Homo sapiens''''' (] for "wise man"): a ]al ] of the superfamily ], together with the other ]s. However, humans have an erect ] carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, and a highly developed ] capable of abstract ]ing, ], ], and ].		'''Human beings''' are classified as the ] '''''Homo sapiens''''' (] for "wise man"): a ]al ] of the superfamily ], together with the other ]s. However, humans have an erect ] carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, and a highly developed ] capable of abstract ]ing, ], ], and ].
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	*] attempts to fathom the depths of all these perspectives from a logical standpoint;		*] attempts to fathom the depths of all these perspectives from a logical standpoint;
	*], ] and ] are often used in expressing these concepts and ].		*], ] and ] are often used in expressing these concepts and ].

	==Terminology==
	] woman, circa 1907.]]

	In general, the word "people" is a collective noun used to define a specific group of individual ]s. However, when used to refer to a group of humans possessing a common ], cultural or national unitary characteristic or identity, "people" is a singular noun, and as such takes an "s" in the plural; (examples: "the English-speaking peoples of the world", "the indigenous peoples of Brazil").

	Juvenile males are called ]s, adult males ], juvenile females ]s, and adult females ]. Humans are commonly referred to as ]s or people, and collectively as Man (capital M), mankind, humankind, humanity, or the human race. Until the 20th century, "human" was only used adjectivally ("pertaining to mankind"). As an adjective, "human" is used neutrally (as in "human race"), but "human" and especially "humane" may also emphasize positive aspects of ], and can be synonymous with "benevolent" (versus "inhumane"; cf. ]).

	A distinction is maintained in ] and ] between the notions "human being", or "man", and "person". The former refers to the species, while the latter refers to a ] (see, for example, ]'s ''Essay concerning Human Understanding'' II 27 and ]'s ''Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals'').

	==Biology==
	{{main\|Human biology}}

	===Anatomy and physiology===
	{{main articles\|], ], and ]}}
	].]]

	Human body types vary substantially, with some of this variation being caused by environmental and historical factors. Although body size is largely determined by ]s, it is also significantly influenced by ] and ]. The average height of a North American adult female is 162 ] (5 feet 4 inches), and the average weight is 62 ]s (137 ]s). Human males are typically larger than females: the average height and weight of a North American adult male is 175 centimetres (5 feet 9 inches) and 78 kilograms (172 pounds).

	Although humans appear relatively hairless compared to that of other primates, with notable hair growth occurring chiefly on the top of the head, underarms and pubic area, the average human has a more hair on its body than the average ]. The main distinction is that human hairs are shorter, finer, and less coloured than the average chimpanzee's, thus making them harder to see.

	The colour of human hair and skin is determined by the presence of pigments called ]s. Human skin colour can range from very dark brown to very pale pink, while human hair ranges from ] to ] to ]. Most researchers believe that skin darkening was an adaptation that evolved as a defence against ] ]: melanin is an effective sunblock. The skin colour of contemporary humans is geographically stratified, and in general correlates with the level of ultraviolet radiation. Human skin and hair colour is controlled in part by the genes ] and ]. For example, the red hair and pale skin of some Europeans is the result of ]s in Mc1r. Human skin has a capacity to darken (]) in response to exposure to ultraviolet radiation; this is also controlled in part by Mc1r.

	Humans are capable of fully ]al locomotion, thus leaving the arms available for manipulating objects using their ]s, aided especially by opposable ]s. Because human physiology has not fully adapted to bipedalism, the pelvic region and spinal column tend to become worn, creating locomotion difficulties in old age.

	The need for regular intake of ] and ] is prominently reflected in human culture, and has led to the development of ]. Failure to obtain food leads to ] and eventually ], while failure to obtain water leads to ] and ]. Both starvation and dehydration cause ] if not alleviated -- generally, most humans can survive for over two months without food, but at most between ten to fourteen days without water. In modern times, ] amongst some human populations has increased to almost ] proportions, leading to health complications and increased ] in some ], and is becoming problematic elsewhere.

	The average ] requirement is between seven and eight hours a day for an adult and nine to ten hours for a child (elderly people usually sleep for six to seven hours). Negative effects result from restriction of sleep. For instance a sustained restriction of adult sleep to four hours per day has been shown to correlate with changes in physiology and mental state, including fatigue, aggression, and bodily discomfort. It is common in ] societies for people to get less sleep than they need, leading to a state of ].

	===Life cycle===
	The human ] is similar to that of other ]l ]s, with an ] generally being fertilised by ] via ], although ] methods are also used. The fertilised egg is called a ]. The zygote divides inside the ] to become an ] which over a period of thirty-eight weeks becomes the ]. At birth, the fully grown fetus is expelled from the female's body and breathes independently for the first time. At this point, most modern cultures recognise the baby as a person entitled to the full protection of the ], though some jurisdictions extend ] to human fetuses while they remain in the uterus.

	Compared with that of other species, human ] is relatively complicated. Painful labours lasting twenty-four hours or more are not uncommon, and may result in ] to the child or the death of the mother, although the chances of a successful labour increased significantly during the twentieth century in wealthier countries. ] remains a more dangerous ordeal in remote, underdeveloped regions of the world.

	Human children are born after a nine-month ] period, typically weighing 3–4 kilograms (6–9 pounds) and measuring 50–60 centimetres (20–24 inches) in length in developed countries. Helpless at birth, they continue to grow for some years, typically reaching ] at twelve to fifteen years of age. Boys continue growing for some time after this, reaching their maximum height around the age of eighteen. These values vary too, depending on genes and environment.

	The human lifespan can be split into a number of stages: ], ], ], ], ] and ], although the lengths of these stages, especially the later ones, are not fixed.

	There are striking differences in ] around the world. The developed world is quickly getting older, with the median age around 40 years (highest in ] at 45.1 years), while in the ], the median age is 15–20 years (the lowest in ] at 14.8 years). Life expectancy at birth is 77.2 years in the U.S. as of 2001. The expected life span at birth in ] is 84.29 years for a female and 78.96 years for a male, while in ], due largely to ], it is 30.99 years for a male and 30.53 years for a female. One in five ]s, but one in twenty ]s, is 60 years or older, according to ''The World Factbook''.

	The number of ]s in the world was estimated by the ] at 210,000 in 2002. The ] that humans have achieved thus far is thought to be over 120 years. Worldwide, there are 81 men aged 60 or over for every 100 women of the same age, and among the oldest, there are 53 men for every 100 women.

	===Genetics===
	{{main\|Genetics of humans}}
	Humans are a ] species. Each ] ] has two sets of 23 ]s, each set received from one parent. There are 22 pairs of ]s and one pair of ]s. At present estimate, humans have approximately 20,000–25,000 ]s and share 96% of their ] with their closest living evolutionary relatives, the two species of ]s. Like other ]s, humans have an ], so that ]s have the sex chromosomes XX and ]s have XY. The X chromosome is larger and carries many genes not on the Y chromosome, which means that ] diseases associated with X-linked genes affect men more often than women. For example, genes that control the clotting of ] reside on the X chromosome. Women have a blood-clotting gene on each X chromosome so that one normal blood-clotting gene can compensate for a flaw in the gene on the other X chromosome. But men are ] for the blood-clotting gene, since there is no gene on the Y chromosome to control blood clotting. As a result, men will suffer from ] more often than women.

	===Race and ethnicity===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}

	Humans often categorise themselves and others in terms of ] or ], although the ] is disputed. The most widely used human racial categories are based on either visible ]s (especially ] and ]), or by a process of self-identification. ] and ], ], and other factors are also sometimes considered. Self identification with an ethnic group is based on ], as well as presumed advantage. Race and ethnicity can lead to variant treatment and impact ], giving rise to the theory of ].

	An ] is a ] or ] whose members are readily distinguishable by outsiders based on traits originating from a common ], ]al, ], regional or ] source. Members of an ethnic group are often presumed to be culturally or ] similar, although this is not in fact necessarily the case.

	Although most humans recognise that variances occur within a species, it is often a point of dispute as to what these differences entail, their importance, and whether discrimination based on race (]) is acceptable. ], ], ] and ] are just a few of the many bases for such practices.

	]'s ''The Origin of Races'' (1962)]]

	Some societies have placed a great deal of emphasis on race, others have not. Two extremes include ], and the ].<br clear="right" />

	===Habitat===
	The view most widely accepted by the anthropological community is that the human species originated in the African savanna between 100 and 200 thousand years ago, had colonised the rest of the ] and ] by 40,000 years ago, and finally colonised the Americas by 10,000 years ago. Homo sapiens displaced groups such as ], ] and ] through more successful reproduction and competition for resources. (See ], ], and ].) Technology has allowed humans to colonise all of the ] and adapt to all climates. Within the last few decades, humans have explored ], the ] depths, and ], although long-term habitation of these environments is not yet possible. Humans, with a population of over six billion, are one of the most numerous of the large ]s.

	Most humans (61%) live in ]. The vast majority of the remainder live in the ] (14%), ] (13%) and ] (12%), with 5% in ]. (See ] and ].)
	] ] (The ] is at the centre of the map and the numbers are ] before present).]]

	The original human lifestyle was ], which was adapted to the savanna. Other human lifestyles are ]ism (often linked to animal herding) and permanent settlements made possible by the development of agriculture. Humans have a great capacity for altering their ] by various methods, such as ], ], ], ], ], and ] goods.

	Permanent human settlements are dependent on proximity to ] and, depending on the lifestyle, other natural resources such as fertile land for growing ] and grazing ], or seasonally by populations of ]. With the advent of large-scale trade and transport infrastructure, proximity to these resources has become unnecessary, and in many places these factors are no longer a driving force behind growth and decline of population.

	Human habitation within ]s in hostile environments (], ]) is expensive, typically limited in duration, and restricted to scientific, military, or industrial expeditions. Life in space has been very sporadic, with a maximum of thirteen humans in space at any given time. Between 1969 and 1972, two humans at a time spent brief intervals on the ]. ], no other ] has been visited by human beings, although there has been a continuous human presence in space since the launch of the initial crew to inhabit the ] on ], ].

	===Food and drink===

	Humans are ] animals who can consume both plant and animal products. Evidence shows that early ] employed a '']'' methodology as their primary means of food collection. This involved combining stationary plant and fungal food sources (such as ]s, ], ]s, and ]) with ] which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed. Additionally, it is believed that humans have used ] to prepare food prior to eating since the time of their divergence from ], possibly even earlier.

	At least ten thousand years ago, humans developed ], which has ]. This has led to a variety of important historical consequences, such as increased ], the development of ], and, due to increased population density, the wider spread of ]s. The types of food consumed, and the way in which they are prepared has varied widely by time, location, and culture.

	The last century or so has produced enormous improvements in food production, preservation, storage and shipping. Today almost every locale in the world has access to not only its traditional cuisine, but also to many other world cuisines.

	===Population===
	{{main\|Demography\|World population}}
	From 1800 to 2000, the human population increased from one to six ]. In 2004, around 2.5 billion out of 6.3 billion people lived in ]s, and this is expected to rise throughout the 21st century. Problems for humans living in ] include various forms of ], ], and ], especially in inner city and ]an slums.

	===Evolution===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}
	The study of ] encompasses many scientific disciplines, but most notably ] and ]. The term "human", in the context of human evolution, refers to the genus '']'', but studies of human evolution usually include other ]s and ]s, such as the ].

	Humans are defined as hominids of the ] ''Homo sapiens'', of which the only extant ] is ''Homo sapiens sapiens'' (Latin for "very wise man"); '']'' (roughly translated as "elderly wise man") is the extinct subspecies. Modern humans are usually considered the only surviving species in the genus ''Homo'', although some argue that the two species of chimpanzees should be reclassified from '']'' (Common Chimpanzee) and '']'' (Bonobo/Pygmy Chimpanzee) to ''Homo troglodytes'' and ''Homo paniscus'' respectively, given that they share a recent ancestor with man.

	Full genome sequencing resulted in these conclusions: "After 6 years of separate evolution, the differences between chimp and human are just 10 times greater than those between two unrelated people and 10 times less than those between rats and mice."

	It has been estimated that the human ] diverged from that of chimpanzees about five million years ago, and from gorillas about eight million years ago. However, in 2001 a hominid skull approximately seven million years old, classified as '']'', was discovered in ] and may indicate an earlier divergence.

	Two prominent scientific theories of the origins of contemporary humans exist. They concern the relationship between modern humans and other hominids:

	*The ] or "]" hypothesis proposes that modern humans evolved in Africa and later replaced hominids in other parts of the world.

	*The ] proposes that modern humans evolved at least in part from independent hominid populations.

	] ] and ] of the ] proposed that the variation in human ] is minute compared to that of other species; and that during the Late Pleistocene, the population was reduced to a small number of breeding pairs (GE 10,000), resulting in a very small residual gene pool. Various reasons for this possible bottleneck have been postulated, the most popular is called the ].

	] is characterised by a number of important ] trends:
	* expansion of the brain cavity and ] itself, which is typically 1,400 cm³ in volume, over twice that of a chimpanzee or gorilla. The pattern of human postnatal brain growth differs from that of other apes (]), allowing for an extended period of ] in juvenile humans. ] argue that a reorganisation of the structure of the brain is more important than cranial expansion itself;
	* ] reduction;
	* ];
	* descent of the ] and ], making speech possible.

	How these trends are related and what their role is in the evolution of complex social organisation and culture are matters of ongoing debate.

	===Intelligence===
	{{main\|Intelligence (trait)}}
	]'s ].]]

	Human beings are considered more intelligent than other animals. While other animals are capable of creating structures (mostly as a result of ]) and using simple tools, human technology is more complex, constantly evolving and improving with time. Even the most ancient human tools and structures are far more advanced than any structure or tool created by another animal.

	The human ability think abstractly may be unparalleled in the animal kingdom. Human beings are one of six species to pass the ] — which tests whether an animal recognises its reflection as an image of itself — along with ]s, ]s, ]s, ]s and pigeons. Human beings under the age of 2 usually fail the test.

	==Culture==
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}

	] is defined here as a set of distinctive material, ], ], and ] features of a social group, including ], ], ]s, ], ]s, ]s, and ]s.

	Culture consists of at least three elements: values, social norms, and ]. A culture's values define what it holds to be important. Norms are expectations of how people ought to behave. Artifacts — things, or material culture — derive from the culture's values and norms together with its understanding of the way the world functions.


	===Origin Beliefs===

	{{main articles\| ] and ]}}
	Every culture has its characteristic ]. Most believe in some form of ], which is the belief that humans, the ] and the ] were created by ]s or ]. The event itself may be seen either as creation out of nothing ('']''), or in Platonic philosophy the emergence of order from preexisting chaos, overseen by a ]. Many who hold "creation" beliefs consider such belief to be a part of religious ], and hence incompatible with, or otherwise unaffected by ] views, while others maintain that the scientific data is compatible with creationism. Proponents of ] may claim that understood scientific mechanisms are simply ''aspects'' of supreme creation. Science-oriented believers consider the ] account of ] as simply a ].

	==Emotion and sexuality==
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}

	]'s "]"]]

	Human ] has a significant influence on, or can even be said to control, human behaviour. Emotional experiences perceived as pleasant, like ], admiration, or ], contrast with those perceived as unpleasant, like ], ], or ]. There is often a distinction seen between refined emotions, which are socially learned, and survival oriented emotions, which are thought to be innate.

	Human exploration of emotions as separate from other neurological phenomena is worth note, particularly in those cultures where emotion is considered separate from physiological state. In some cultural medical theories, to provide an example, emotion is considered so synonymous with certain forms of physical health that no difference is thought to exist. The Stoics believed excessive emotion was harmful, while some ] teachers (in particular, the poet and astronomer ]) felt certain extreme emotions could yield a conceptual perfection, what is often translated as ].

	In modern ] thought, certain refined emotions are considered to be a complex neural trait of many domesticated and a few non-domesticated ]s, developed commonly in reaction to superior survival mechanisms and intelligent interaction with each other and the environment; as such, refined emotion is not in all cases as discrete and separate from natural neural function as was once assumed. Still, when humans function in civilised tandem, it has been noted that uninhibited acting on extreme emotion can lead to social ] and ].

	Human ], besides ensuring ], has important social functions, creating ], bonds and hierarchies among individuals, and that may be directed to spiritual transcendence, and/or to the enjoyment of activity involving sexual gratification. ], ], is experienced as a bodily urge, often accompanied by strong emotions, both positive (such as ] or ]) and negative (such as ]).

	As with other human self-descriptions, humans propose that it is high intelligence and complex societies of humans that have produced the most complex sexual behaviors of any animal, including a great many behaviors that are not directly connected with reproduction.

	Human sexual choices are usually made in reference to cultural ], which vary widely. Restrictions are largely determined by religious beliefs. Most ]s, starting with the pioneers ] and ], believe (based upon the human species close relatives' sexual habits such as the apes, and historical records particularly the widespread ancient practices of ]) that the majority of homo sapiens are attracted to males and females, being inherently ].

	===Language===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}
	], ], ], ], ] and ]]]
	Values, norms and technology are dependent on the capacity for humans to share ideas. The faculty of ] is a defining feature of humanity, possibly predating ] separation of the modern population. (See ].) ] is central to the ] between humans. Language is central to the sense of identity that unites ]s and ].

	The invention of ] some ], allowing the preservation of speech, was a major step in cultural evolution. Language, especially written language, was sometimes thought to have supernatural status or powers -- hence the term ], or "sacred carvings".

	The science of ] describes the structure of language and the relationship between languages. There are estimated to be some 6,000 different languages, including sign languages, used today.

	===Music===
	{{main\|music}}

	] is a natural ] phenomenon operating in the three worlds of ], ], and ], and under the three distinct and interrelated organisation structures of ], ], and ].

	], ] and performing music are all ] forms. Listening to music is perhaps the most common form of ], while learning and understanding it are popular ]s. There are a wide variety of ]s and ]s.

	===Government, politics and the state===
	{{main articles\|], ] and ]}}

	A ] is an organized ] community occupying a definite ], having an organized ], and possessing internal and external ]. Recognition of the state's claim to independence by other states, enabling it to enter into international agreements, is often important to the establishment of its statehood. The "state" can also be defined in terms of domestic conditions, specifically, as conceptualized by ], "a state is a human community that (successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory."

	] can be defined as the ] means of creating and enforcing ]s; typically via a ] ].

	] is the process by which decisions are made within groups. Although the term is generally applied to behavior within ]s, politics is also observed in all human group interactions, including ], ], and ] institutions. Many different political systems exist, as do many different ways of understanding them, and many definitions overlap. Common examples include ], ], ] and ].

	All of these issues have a direct relationship with ].

	===Trade and economics===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}

	] Market, ].]]
	] is the voluntary exchange of ], ]s, or both, and a form of ]. A mechanism that allows trade is called a ]. The original form of trade was ], the direct exchange of goods and services. Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as ]. As a result, '''buying''' can be separated from '''selling''', or ]. The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade.

	Trade exists for many reasons. Due to specialisation and ], most people concentrate on a small aspect of ] or ], trading their labour for products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have an absolute or ] in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of ]. As such, trade between locations benefits both locations.

	Economics is a ] that studies the ], ], ] and ] of goods and services.

	Economics, which focuses on measurable variables, is broadly divided into two main branches: ''']''', which deals with individual agents, such as households and businesses, and ''']''', which considers the economy as a whole, in which case it considers ] and ] for ], ] and ]. Aspects receiving particular attention in economics are ], production, distribution, trade, and ]. Economic logic is increasingly applied to any problem that involves choice under scarcity or determining economic ]. Mainstream economics focuses on how prices reflect ], and uses equations to predict consequences of decisions.

	===War===
	{{main\|War}}
	] on August 9, 1945, effectively ending ]. The bombs over Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki immediately killed over 120,000 people.]]
	War is a state of widespread ] between ]s, ]s, or relatively large groups of people, which is characterised by the use of lethal ] between ]s or upon ]s.

	A common perception of war is a series of ]s between at least two opposing sides involving a dispute over ], ], ], ] or other issues. A war said to ] an ] country is sometimes characterised as a "]", while a war between internal elements of a state is a ].

	There have been a wide variety of ] ]s throughout the ], ranging from ] to ] to ] and ]. Techniques have nearly always included ], the usage of ], ], ], and ]. ] has always played a key role in determining victyory and defeat. In ], soldiers and ]s are used to control the land, ] the seas, and ] the skies.

	Througout history there has been a constant strugle between ] and ], ] and the ]s designed to breach it. Modern examples include the ], and the ]s for which they are designed to destroy.

	Many see war as destructive in nature, and a negative correlation has been shown between trade and war.

	===Artifacts, science, and technology===

	{{main articles\|], ] and ]}}
	] for the first time and ].]]
	Human cultures are both characterized and differentiated by the objects that they make and use. ] attempts to tell the story of past or lost cultures in part by close examination of the ] they produced. Early humans left ], ] and ] that are particular to various regions and times.

	Improvements in technology are passed from one culture to another. For instance, the ] of crops arose in several different locations, but quickly spread to be an almost ubiquitous feature of human life. Similarly, advances in ], ] and ] are quickly disseminated.

	Such techniques can be passed on by ]. The development of ], itself a type of artifact, made it possible to pass information from generation to generation and from region to region with greater accuracy.

	Together, these developments made possible the commencement of ] and ], with their inherently complex social arrangements. Eventually this led to the institutionalisation of the development of new technology, and the associated understanding of the way the world functions. This ] now forms a central part of human culture.

	In recent times, ] and ] have come to play a central role in shaping what is now known as ], that is, the understanding of the universe through scientific observation and experiment. This discipline, which focuses on the universe as it exists on the largest scales and at the earliest times, begins by arguing for the ], a sort of cosmic explosion from which the universe itself is said to have erupted ~13.7 ± 0.2 ] (10<sup>9</sup>) years ago. After its violent beginnings and until its very ], scientists then propose that the entire history of the universe has been an orderly progression governed by ].

	===Body image===
	{{main\|body image}}

	] in ], ]]]The ] of the human body is central to ] and ]. In every human culture, people adorn their bodies with ], ], ], and ]. ]s and hair colour also have important cultural implications. The perception of an individual as physically ] or ] can have profound implications for their lives. This is particularly true of women, whose external ] is highly valued in most, if not all, human societies. ]s believe this to be an important factor in the development of personality and ] in particular ].

	There is a relatively low ] between human males and females in comparison with other mammals.

	==Mind==
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}
	]
	] is a state of ], said to possess qualities such as, ], ], ], and the ability to ] the relationship between ] and one's ].

	The way in which the world is experienced is the subject of much debate and research in ], ], ] ], ], and ].

	Humans, often mentioned with other species, are variously said to possess consciousness, ], and a ], the fruition of which are senses and perceptions. Each human has a ] view of ], the passage of ], and ].

	There are many debates about the extent to which the mind constructs or experiences the outer world, and regarding the definitions and validity of many of the terms used above.

	Cognitive scientist ], for example, argues that there is no such thing as a narrative centre called mind, but that instead there is simply a collection of sensory inputs and outputs: different kinds of software running in parallel (Dennett, 1991) <!-- format citation properly, please -->.

	{{clear}}
	===Psychology and human ethology===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}

	Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.

	Psychology does not necessarily refer to the ] or ] and can be framed purely in terms of ] or ] theories of the mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain function is being included in psychological theory and practice, particularly in areas such as ], ], and ].

	The nature of ] is another core interest in psychology. ] studies ], the ] underlying behavior. It uses ] as a framework for understanding the mind. ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] are all well researched areas. Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as ], whose adherents argue for an ] model of mental function, informed by ] and ]. Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widely applied and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of both research and applied psychology.

	Largely focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, ] seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or ].

	] is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how we make sense of social situations.

	The behaviour and mental processes of ]s (human and non-human) can be described through ], ], and ] as well.

	] is an ] that investigates how humans and human ] interact with their ], ] and the human ].
	<div style="clear: both"></div>

	===Philosophy===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}
	] and ] in detail from ] ]]]
	] is a discipline or field of study involving the investigation, analysis, and development of ideas at a general, abstract, or fundamental level. It is the discipline searching for a general understanding of values and reality by chiefly speculative rather than observational means comprising as its core ], ] or ], ], and ] which includes the branches of ] and ]. The term covers a very wide range of approaches, and is also used to refer to a ], to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions argued for by a particular philosopher or school of philosophy.

	] is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of "first principles" and "being" (]). Problems that were not originally considered metaphysical have been added to metaphysics. Other problems that were considered metaphysical problems for centuries are now typically relegated to their own separate subheadings in philosophy, such as ], ], ], ], and ]. In rare cases subjects of metaphysical research have been found to be entirely physical and natural.

	The ] is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the ], particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as ], ], ], ], ] and ]. Other species of animals share some of these mental capacities, and it is also used in relation to ] beings, as in the expression "the mind of ]." The term is used here only in relation to humans.

	There are many ], the most common relating to the nature of being, and ones way of being, or purpose.

	] in ] proposed ], a popular argument for ] (the ] view that all is of one essential essence, ] or ]).

	Another type of monism is ] or ], which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental can be ] to the physical. ] and ], on the contrary, assert the existence of the mind and deny, or at the least deny the importance of, an external reality that exists independently of the mind.

	] proposed that both mind and matter exist, and that the one cannot be reduced to the other. This represents the ] form of ]. ] is the ] that incorporates a form of ] that distinguishes ] from ]s.

	] proposed a ] classification of a number of different ] and ] views. ] is the Hindu philosophy incorporating pluralism.

	], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] and ] are also ]s of note in the history of human thought.

	Many ]s and ] traditions hold that humans have both a body and a ], usually proposing that the soul can in some way survive the death of the body. Although the soul sometimes is equated with the mind, this is not always the case.

	As a finer distinction between religion and philosophy, ] is distinguished from religion in its more sophisticated construction and reliance on intellectual understanding rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation.

	In between the doctrines of religion and science, stands the ] perspective of ]. This ancient field of study seeks to draw ]al conclusions about the nature of the universe, humanity, god and/or their connections based on the extension of some set of presumed facts borrowed from religion and/or observation.

	What might be called the ''core'' metaphysical problems would be the ones which have ''always'' been considered metaphysical. What most of such problems have in common is that they are the problems of ], the science of ] or ] as well as the ] thereof—trying to find out what ] and what ] exist. Ontology has strong implications for the conceptions of ].

	===Motivation===
	{{main articles\|], ], and ]}}

	] is the driving force of ] behind all ]s of any ].

	Motivation is based on ], specifically, on the search for ] (positive emotional experiences), and the avoidance of ]; positive and negative are defined by the individual brain state, not by social norms: a person may be driven to ] or ] because their ] is conditioned to create a positive response to these actions. Motivation is important because it is involved in the performance of all learned responses.

	Within psychology, conflict avoidance and the ] are seen to be primary motivators. Within economics motivation is often seen to be based on ] ]s, ] incentives, or ] incentives. Religions generally posit ]ly or ]ic influences.

	For many ] is the central motivation in life. The ] had ]:

	* '']'' : Romantic love
	* '']'' : Friendship, Love (but especially ]).
	* '']'' : Divine, unconditioned love. Many religious persons will refer to the love that they feel towards, or receive from ] as ''divine love'' or Agape.
	* '']'' : Natural familial affection.

	Happiness or being happy is a condition which humans can have. The definition of happiness is one of the greatest ] topics, at least since the time of Socrates, and is especially central to ], being the starting point of Aristotle's ethical works. Some people might define it as the best condition which a human can have - a condition of mental and physical health. Others may define it as ] from want and distress; ] of the ] ] of things; assurance of one's place in the ] or ], ], and so forth. ] conceived of ], a society governed by pursuit of happiness.

	:The happy life is thought to be one of excellence; now an excellent life requires exertion and does not consist of amusement. If Eudaimonia, or happiness, is an activity in accordance with excellence, it's reasonable that it should be in accordance with the highest excellence, and will be that of the best thing in us."
	::], "]"

	===Self-reflection and humanism===
	{{main articles\|] and ]}}
	]'' by ])]]

	], when asked what was difficult, answered in a well-known ]: "To Know Thyself" {{polytonic\|γνῶθι σεαυτόν}} (also attributed to ], and inscribed on the ] at ]).

	Humans often consider themselves to be the dominant species on ], and the most advanced in intelligence and ability to manage their environment. This belief is especially strong in modern ]. Alongside such claims of dominance we often find radical ] because of the frailty and brevity of human ]. In the Hebrew Bible, for example, dominion of man is promised in ] 1:28, but the author of ] bewails the vanity of all human effort.

	The ] philosopher ] made the famous claim that "Man is the measure of all things; of what is, that it is; of what is not, that it is not." ] describes man as the "communal animal" ({{polytonic\|ζῷον πολιτικόν}}), i.e. emphasising society-building as a central trait of human nature, and "animal with sapience" ({{polytonic\|ζῷον λόγον ἔχων}}, ''animal rationale''), a term that also inspired the species' taxonomy, ''Homo sapiens''. This philosophy is today called "]".

	] as a philosophy defines a socio-political doctrine the bounds of which are not constrained by those of locally developed cultures, but which seeks to include all of humanity and all issues common to human beings. Because spiritual beliefs of a community often manifests as religious doctrine, the history of which is as factious as it is unitive, ] grew as an answer to the need for a common philosophy that transcended the cultural boundaries of local moral codes and religions. Many humanists are religious, however, and see humanism as simply a mature expression of a common truth present in most religions. Humanists affirm the possibility of an objective truth and accept that human perception of that truth is imperfect. The most basic tenets of humanism are that humans matter and can solve human problems, and that ], ], ], ], and freedom in the arts are worthy pursuits or goals for all peoples. Modern humanism depends on reason and ] and rejects the ].

	From a scientific viewpoint, ''H. sapiens'' certainly is among the most generalised species on ], and few single species occupy as many diverse environments as humans. Various attempts have been made to identify a single behavioural characteristic that distinguishes humans from all other animals, e.g. the ability to make and use tools, the ability to alter the environment, language use, and the development of complex social structures. Some anthropologists think that these readily observable characteristics (tool-making and language) are based on less easily observable mental processes that might be unique among humans: the ability to think ], in the abstract or ]. Others, that human capacity for symbolic thought is a development from the capacity to manipulate tools or the development of ]. It is difficult however to arrive at a set of attributes that includes all humans, and humans only. The wish to find unique human characteristics could be more a matter of ] than of ] in the end.

	==Spirit==
	{{main articles\|], ], and ]}}
	] in Hinduism.]]

	Humans apply different approaches in an attempt to answer fundamental questions about topics such as the nature of the ] (]), its creation (]) and destruction (]), and our place in it — who we are, why we are here, what happens after life, and more. Broadly speaking, these questions can be addressed and beliefs formed from a number of approaches and perspectives, such as ], ], ] (particularly ] within ]), ], and ]. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive. For example, an expert scientist can be highly religious, have a philosophy of life, and follow any number of esoteric or mystical practices.

	Four major approaches to forming beliefs about the nature of the universe include ], scientific or ], ] and ].

	The earliest form of cosmology appears in the ]s of many religions as they seek to explain the existence and nature of the world. In many cases, views about the creation (]) and destruction (]) of the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of ] for understanding a person's role in the universe and its relationship to ] or ] divine beings.

	]—sometimes used interchangeably with “]” or “]”—is commonly defined as belief concerning the ], ], or ], and the ]s, practices, values, institutions and rituals associated with such belief. In the course of its ], it has taken on many forms that vary by culture and individual perspective.

	]]]

	There are a number of perspectives regarding the fundamental nature and substance of humans. These are by no means mutually exclusive, and this list is by no means exhaustive.

	*] holds that humans are physical beings without any supernatural or spiritual component. Materialism holds to ] and rejects ].
	*] believes that a single ], who is either the only one in existence, or who incorporates or excels all lesser deities, created humanity. Humans are thus bound by filial and moral duty, and cared for by paternal providence. In all the ] (], ], and ]), humans are lord or steward over the earth and all its other creatures. The ] and ] hold that humankind was created as a spiritually and physically perfect entity, but through the ]s of self-idolatry and disobedience lost its perfection.
	*] holds that human beings, as part of the world, are a part of God, who is identified with the world (and vice versa). (] is similar, but holds that the world is God, but that God is more than the world.) ], ], ], and other forms of ] have related beliefs.
	*] is the ] view that all things are of one essential ], ] or ]. Monistic theism, a variant of both monism and Monotheism, views God as both ] and ]. Both are dominant themes in ] and ], that hold humans are special in that they can conceptualise God and strive to achieve him, but their soul is akin to a divine spark just as an animal's is.

	]]]
	*] may be rendered as ], ], ], ], ], ], ], or ]. Its ] vary widely depending on the context. Tao is generally translated into ] as "The Way".
	*In ] religions, a whole ] of gods holds sway. Polytheistic deites often have individual interests or portfolios, and are arranged in a hierarchy of their own— for example, ] is the ] of thunder as well as king of the gods. Humans are mainly characterised by their inferiority to the gods, sometimes reflected in a hierarchical society ruled by dynasties that claim divine descent.
	*] is the belief that objects and ideas including other animal species, tools, and natural phenomena have or are expressions of living ]s. Rituals in animistic cultures are often performed by ]s or ]s, who are usually seen as possessing spiritual powers greater than or external to the normal human experience.
	*] refers to “hidden” knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to ], which is public. It is used especially for ] practices.
	*] (meaning "that which is concealed") is the pursuit of achieving communion with, or conscious awareness of, ], the ], ], or ] through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight); the belief in the existence of realities beyond perceptual or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience; or the belief that such experience is an important source of knowledge.

	== See also ==
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]
	* ]

	==References==
	*, Minnesota State University Mankato, retrieved April 4, 2005
	*, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, December 8, 2004, retrieved April 2, 2005
	*, United Nations press release, February 28, 2002, retrieved April 2, 2005
	*, U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, retrieved April 2, 2005
	*, All-Psych online, retrieved April 2, 2005
	* by Rhawn Joseph, Brainmind.com, retrieved April 3, 2005
	* by Amy Stafford, Minnesota State University Mankato, retrieved April 4, 2005
	*, by Kevin Duerinck, retrieved April 5, 2005
	* (pdf) by Karen Shaw, Montana State University-Billings, retrieved April 19, 2005
	* by R.J. Britten, California Institute of Technology, October 4, 2002
	* Boyd, Robert, and Joan B. Silk. 2003. ''How Humans Evolved.'' New York: Norton & Company. ISBN 0393978540.
	* Descartes, René. ''Discourse on Method and Meditations on First Philosophy''. (''Meditations'' first published 1641), Hackett Publishing Company, 1999, ISBN 0872204200
	*Dennett, Daniel. ''Consciousness Explained''. Little Brown & Co, 1991, ISBN 0316180653
	* Harding, Rosalind M., Eugene Healy, Amanda J. Ray, Nichola S. Ellis, Niamh Flanagan, Carol Todd, Craig Dixon, Antti Sajantila, Ian J. Jackson, Mark A. Birch-Machin, and Jonathan L. Rees. 2000. ''Evidence for variable selective pressures at MC1R''. American Journal of Human Genetics 66: 1351-1361.
	*Pascal, Blaise. 1669. ''Pensées''. Penguin Books, 1995; ISBN 0140446451
	* Rogers, Alan R., David Iltis, and Stephen Wooding. 2004. ''Genetic variation at the MC1R locus and the time since loss of human body hair'', Current Anthropology 45 (1): 105-108.
	* Saint Augustine. ''Augustine: Earlier Writings'', Westminster John Knox Press, 1979, ISBN 066424162X
	*Templeton, Alan. ''Nature'' 416 (2002): 45 - 51.
	*Vinayak Eswaran, Henry Harpending and Alan R. Rogers, ''Genomics refutes an exclusively African origin of humans'', Journal of Human Evolution, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available online 6 May 2005.

	==Further reading==
	{{Sisterlinks\|Human}}
	{{wikispecies\|Homo sapiens}}
	* by C. David Kreger.
	* ''Tree of Life'' web project
	* by Nicholas Wade, ''New York Times'', ] ].
	*, ''The Secret Life of the Brain'', Public Broadcasting Service, retrieved ] ]
	* by Philip L. Walker and Edward H. Hagen, Dept of Anthropology, University of California, Santa Barbara, retrieved ] ]
	* Dobzhansky, Theodosius. 1963. ''Anthropology and the natural sciences-The problem of human evolution'', ''Current Anthropology'' '''4''' (2): 138-148.
	* Jablonski, N.G. & Chaplin, G. 2000. ''The evolution of human skin coloration'' 'Journal of Human Evolution 39: 57-106. (pdf)
	*Robin, Ashley. 1991. ''Biological Perspectives on Human Pigmentation''' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
	* Sagan, Carl. 1978. ''The Dragons of Eden'', A Balantine Book, ISBN 0345346297
	* Preserving core values of Humanity and passing them on to the next generations

	{{Human_Evolution}}

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Revision as of 18:30, 15 February 2006

Human
File:PPlaquecloseup.png
Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Primates
Superfamily:	Hominoidea
Family:	Hominidae
Subfamily:	Homininae
Tribe:	Hominini
Genus:	Homo
Species:	H. sapiens
Binomial name
*Homo sapiens* Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
Homo sapiens idaltu (extinct) Homo sapiens sapiens

Human beings are classified as the species Homo sapiens (Latin for "wise man"): a bipedal primate of the superfamily Hominoidea, together with the other apes. However, humans have an erect body carriage that frees their upper limbs for manipulating objects, and a highly developed brain capable of abstract reasoning, language, emotion, and introspection.

Like all primates, humans are inherently social; however the memetic ability of humans to learn via instruction rather than by imitation, and hence to share ideas, creates a developmental niche that they alone occupy. Thus, they create complex social structures composed of co-operating and competing groups ranging from nations down to families. Humans are currently the only animals on earth who build fires or clothe themselves. This trait of trying to understand and manipulate the world has led to the development of technology and science. Social norms, Beliefs, myths, rituals and values have each played a role in forming humanity's culture.

Human curiosity and observation have led to a variety of explanations for consciousness and the relationship between mind and body:

Psychology attempts to study behaviour from a scientific point of view;
Spiritual perspectives hold that destiny and purpose transcend the biological body;
Religious perspectives emphasise a soul, qi or atman as the essence of being, and are often characterised by the belief in and worship of God, gods or spirits.
Philosophy attempts to fathom the depths of all these perspectives from a logical standpoint;
Art, music and literature are often used in expressing these concepts and feelings.