| Revision as of 13:12, 31 January 2014 editHistoryofIran (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers97,970 editsm →Ghurid-Ghaznavid struggles← Previous edit | Revision as of 23:03, 31 January 2014 edit undoHistoryofIran (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers97,970 edits Copied some information from Military history of Ray, Iran, and translated from the Catalan Misplaced Pages, adding both templates on the talk page right now.Next edit → | ||
| Line 1: | Line 1: | ||
| {{Refimprove|date=April 2010}} | |||
| {{Infobox monarch | {{Infobox monarch | ||
| |name=Mu'izz al-Din | |name=Mu'izz al-Din | ||
| Line 5: | Line 4: | ||
| |image=Shahabuddin Suri.jpg | |image=Shahabuddin Suri.jpg | ||
| |caption=Mu'izz al-Din | |caption=Mu'izz al-Din | ||
| |reign=1173-1202 (with his brother ]); <br>(1202-1206 as sole ruler) | |||
| |reign=1202–1206 | |||
| |coronation= | |coronation= | ||
| |othertitles= | |othertitles= | ||
| |predecessor=] | |predecessor=] | ||
| |successor=] | |successor=Ghor: ]<br>India: ] | ||
| |wife= | |wife= | ||
| |royal house=] | |royal house=] | ||
| Line 22: | Line 21: | ||
| |religion=]<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> | |religion=]<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| '''Mu'izz al-Din''' ({{lang-fa|معزالدوله الدین}}), born '''Shihab al-Din''' (1149 – March 15, 1206), was ] of the ] |
'''Mu'izz al-Din''' ({{lang-fa|معزالدوله الدین}}), born '''Shihab al-Din''' (1149 – March 15, 1206), was ] of the ] along with his brother ] from 1173 to 1202, and as the supreme ruler of the Ghurid Empire from 1202 to 1206. Mu'izz al-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the ], and is credited with laying the foundation of Islamic occupation in India that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. | ||
| Mu'izz al-Din took the city of ] in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor ] at the hands of ] and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghurids'', C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, ()</ref> In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyas in his contest with the ] for the lordship of ] in ]. In 1175 Mu'izz captured ] from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took ] in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of ] in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near ] in modern-day Pakistan.<ref>''MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN'', T.W. Haig, '''Encyclopaedia of Islam''', Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.</ref> | Mu'izz al-Din took the city of ] in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor ] at the hands of ] and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghurids'', C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, ()</ref> In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyas in his contest with the ] for the lordship of ] in ]. In 1175 Mu'izz captured ] from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took ] in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of ] in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near ] in modern-day Pakistan.<ref>''MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN'', T.W. Haig, '''Encyclopaedia of Islam''', Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.</ref> | ||
| A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining |
A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghuri leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the ] in about 1215. Though the Ghurids' empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid states remained in power until the arrival of ], Mu'izz's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. ], a former slave (]) of Mu'izz, was the first ] of Delhi. | ||
| ==Background== | |||
| The Ghuristan region remained primarily ] and ] till 12th century{{fact|date=November 2013}}. It was then Islamised by the Ghaznavids and later gave rise to the Ghurids{{fact|date=November 2013}}. | |||
| {{quote|The rise to power of the ] at Ghur, a small isolated area located in the mountain vastness between the Ghaznavid Empire and the Seljuks, was an unusual and unexpected development. The area was so remote that till the 11th century, it had remained a ] enclave surrounded by Muslim principalities. It was converted to Islam in the early part of the 12th century after ] raided it, and left teachers to instruct the Ghurids in the precepts of Islam{{fact|date=November 2013}}. Even then it is believed that paganism, i.e. a variety of ] persisted in the area till the end of the century.<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526)'', Part 1, (Har-Anand Publications, 1997), 22.</ref>}} | |||
| == Early life == | == Early life == | ||
| Mu'izz was born in 1149 in the ] region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, ], was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> | Mu'izz was born in 1149 in the ] region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, ], was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> Mu'izz also had a younger brother named ]. During their early life, Mu'izz and Ghiyas were imprisoned by their uncle ], but were later released by the latter's son ].<ref>''History of Civilizations of Central Asia'', C.E. Bosworth, M.S. Asimov, p. 186.</ref> When Sayf died in 1163, the Ghurid nobles supported Ghiyas, and helped him ascend the throne. Ghiyas shortly gave Mu'izz control over Istiyan and Kajuran. However, the throne was challenged by several Ghurid chiefs; Mu'izz aided Ghiyas in defeating and killing a rival Ghurid chief named Abu'l Abbas. | ||
| == Early campaigns == | |||
| ==The Ghori Empire== | |||
| The Ghor region laid on the western boundary of the ], which, in the early 12th century, covered an area stretching from what is now central Afghanistan to the ] in what is now Pakistan, with summer capital at Ghazni and winter capital at Lahore. | |||
| Ghiyas was then challenged by his uncle Fakhr al-Din Masud, who claimed the throne for himself, and had allied with Tadj al-Din Yildiz, the ] governor of ], and ].<ref name="Bosworth112"/> However, the coalition was defeated by Ghiyas and Mu'izz at Ragh-i Zar. The brothers managed to kill the Seljuq governor during the battle, and then conquered ], ], Gharchistan, and ]. Ghiyas, however, spared Fakhr al-Din and restored him as the ruler of ]. Mu'izz, after returning from a expedition from Sistan, was shortly awarded with ] by his brother. In 1173, the two brothers invaded ], and defeated the ] who had captured the city from the ]. Mu'izz was then appointed as the ruler of Ghazni.<ref name="Bosworth112"/><ref name="India, The Page 54"/> | |||
| Beginning in the mid-12th century, Ghor expressed its independence from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1149, the Ghaznavid ruler Bahram Shāh poisoned a local Ghūrid leader, Quṭb ud-Dīn, who had taken refuge in the city of Ghazna after a family quarrel. In revenge, the Ghūrid chief ''Ala-ud-Din Husain Shah'' sacked and burned the city of Ghazna and put the city into fire for seven days and seven nights. It earned him the title of ''Jahānsuz'', meaning "the world burner".<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghaznavids'', Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, ()</ref> The Ghaznavids retook the city with ] help, but lost it to ] ]s.<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids"/> The Ghurids reconquered Ghazna from the Oghuz Turks and in 1173, Mu'izz became governor of the Ghazna province while his brother, ], became the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire. | |||
| In 1175, the two brothers conquered ] from it's Seljuq governor, Baha al-Din Toghril, and also managed to conquer Pushang. The ruler of ], Taj al-Din Harb ibn Muhammad, shortly acknowledged the sovereignty of the Ghurids, and so did the ] dominating ].<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghaznavids'', Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, ()</ref> | |||
| == Ghurid-Ghaznavid struggles == | |||
| ] had attacked Ghor and the King ], an ancestor of Mu'izz, who committed suicide with poison after being taken prisoner. Various sources including Ferishta and Siraj attest to these events. {{bquote|In the following year AH 401 (AD 1010), Mahmood led his army towards ].<ref name="ReferenceB">Ferishta -Translation John Briggs page 28 vol 1</ref>}} | |||
| According to Minhaj us Siraj, Amir Suri was captured by ], taken prisoner along with his son, and taken to Ghazni, where Amir Suri died.<ref>The History of Inda as told by its own Historians by Eliot and Dowson, Volume 2 page 286</ref>{{bquote|Soor, being made prisoner was brought to the king, but having taken poison, which he always kept under his ring, he died in a few hours; his country was annexed to the dominions of Ghizny.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}} | |||
| {{bquote|A little over a hundred years after Mahmud, one of his successors to the throne of ] fell into a blood feud with the ruler of Ghor, southeast of ]. In reprisal Ghazni was sacked by the prince of Ghor a fellow Muslim in 1150, and burned for seven days and nights. All the magnificent Mahmudi palaces and halls were destroyed and plunder, devastation and, and slaughter were continuous. It might be a historian reporting one of Mahmud's own murderous Indian raids. The Ghurid victor earned the title of ''Jahansoze'', the world burner. The bells ring again: the perpetrations of the northern foreigners were not essentially anti-Hindu. They could be quite merciless with Muslim rivals as well, for that was a part of their way of life. Ghazni now fell to a Turkman tribe which was in its turn ousted by the nephew of ''Jahansuz'' in 1173. The latter gave it to his brother later to be known as Mu'izz.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}} | |||
| During the same period, the ] ], who was expelled from ] by his brother ], took refuge in ] and requested military aid from Ghiyas. Ghiyas, however, did not help the latter. Sultan Shah managed to get help from the ], and began plundering the northern Ghurid domains. | |||
| {{bquote|Mu'izz launched expeditions into India, first capturing Multan from a fellow Muslim chief in 1175–76. Three years later he invaded Gujarat and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. Another three years later, and Mu'izz was back to take Peshawar and Sialkot in 1181. Now in alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendant of Mahmud of Ghazni, and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}} | |||
| ⚫ | == Invasion of India == | ||
| Mu'izz is credited with the decimation of the Ghaznavids, his ancestral enemies. | |||
| After having helped his brother in expanding the western frontiers of the Ghurid Empire, he began to focus on India. He shortly invaded India, first capturing Multan from a fellow the ] in 1175–76. He then shortly captured ]. Three years later he invaded ] and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. However, Mu'izz was able to take ] and Sialkot. In 1186, Mu'izz, along with Ghiyas, ended the Ghaznavid dynasty after having captured ] and executed the Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau-Malik.<ref name="Bosworth112">''The Iranian World'', C.E. Bosworth, '''The Cambridge History of Iran''', Vol. 5, ed. J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, (Cambridge University Press, 1968), 161-170.</ref><ref></ref><ref name="India, The Page 54">Rediscovery Of India, The: A New Subcontinent By Ansar Hussain Khan, Ansar Hussain Published by Orient Longman Limited Page 54</ref> | |||
| === Invasion of Gujarat and the neighboring regions === | |||
| ⚫ | == |
||
| ⚫ | Mu'izz's campaign against the Muslim rulers of ] in 1175 had ended in victory.<ref>Andre Wink, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol. 2, 244. {{Subscription required |via=]}}</ref> He turned south, and led his army from Multan to Uch and then across the desert towards the ] capital of ] (modern Patan). In 1178, Muizz suffered a defeat at the battle of Kayadara (]), during his first campaign against an Indian ruler in India.<ref>Andre Wink, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol. 2, (Brill, 2002), 143. {{Subscription required |via=]}}</ref> | ||
| ⚫ | Gujarat was ruled by the young Indian ruler Bhimdev Solanki II (ruled 1178–1241), although the age of the Raja meant that the army was commanded by his mother Naikidevi. Mu'izz's army had suffered greatly during the march across the desert, and Naikidevi inflicted a major defeat on him at the village of Kayadara (near to Mount Abu, about forty miles to the north-east of Anhilwara).<ref>Andre Wink, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol. 2, 143. {{Subscription required |via=]}}</ref> The invading army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Multan.<ref>Andre Wink, ''Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World'', Vol. 2, 143. {{Subscription required |via=]}}</ref> | ||
| Mu'izz shortly returned to ], and along with the the rulers of ] and ], aided his brother Ghiyas in defeating the forces of Sultan Shah at ] in 1190. He also annexed most of the latter's territories in ]. | |||
| ⚫ | === |
||
| ⚫ | |||
| ⚫ | Gujarat was ruled by the young Indian ruler Bhimdev Solanki II (ruled 1178–1241), although the age of the Raja meant that the army was commanded by his mother Naikidevi. |
||
| ⚫ | === First Battle of Tarain === | ||
| An army led by Qutb al-din Aibak, Muhammad of Ghor's deputy in India, invaded in c.1195–97 and plundered Anahilapataka.<ref>Sailendra Nath Sen, ''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'', (New Age International, 1999), 327.</ref> | |||
| He captured Lahore in 1186 and constructed the fortress of ]{{fact|date=November 2013}}. | |||
| === Defeat in the First Battle of Tarain, 1191 === | |||
| ] pointing towards the direction of Mu'izz's Tomb]] | ] pointing towards the direction of Mu'izz's Tomb]] | ||
| {{Main|First Battle of Tarain}} | {{Main|First Battle of Tarain}} | ||
| In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards Hindustan through the ] in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, ] in present-day ] on the northwestern frontier of ]'s kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress,<ref>Cambridge History (Page 40)</ref> he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of ], 14 miles from ] in present-day ]. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.</ref> | In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards Hindustan through the ] in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, ] in present-day ] on the northwestern frontier of ]'s kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress,<ref>Cambridge History (Page 40)</ref> he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of ], 14 miles from ] in present-day ]. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.</ref> | ||
| === |
=== Second Battle of Tarain === | ||
| {{Main|Second Battle of Tarain}} | {{Main|Second Battle of Tarain}} | ||
| Line 73: | Line 59: | ||
| Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, 263. </ref> | Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, 263. </ref> | ||
| === Further campaigns === | |||
| == Consolidation of the Ghurid Empire == | |||
| When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over ]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sharma, Gopi Nath|year=1970|title=Rajasthan Studies|location=Agra, India|publisher=Lakshmi Narain Agarwal|page=201|oclc=137196}}</ref> and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India.<ref name="Abbasi">{{Cite book|author=Abbasi, M. Yusuf|chapter=The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution|editor=Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi|year=1990|title=Pakistan Resolution Revisited|publisher=National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research|location=Islamabad, Pakistan|pages=8–9|isbn=978-969-415-024-6}}</ref> Rajput kingdoms like ], ], Kohram and ] were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the ], a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Mu'izz in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan){{fact|date=November 2013}}. Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern ] and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_sgAAAAMAAJ&q=prithviraj+gola&dq=prithviraj+gola |title=The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids. | When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over ]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sharma, Gopi Nath|year=1970|title=Rajasthan Studies|location=Agra, India|publisher=Lakshmi Narain Agarwal|page=201|oclc=137196}}</ref> and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India.<ref name="Abbasi">{{Cite book|author=Abbasi, M. Yusuf|chapter=The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution|editor=Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi|year=1990|title=Pakistan Resolution Revisited|publisher=National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research|location=Islamabad, Pakistan|pages=8–9|isbn=978-969-415-024-6}}</ref> Rajput kingdoms like ], ], Kohram and ] were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the ], a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Mu'izz in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan){{fact|date=November 2013}}. Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern ] and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_sgAAAAMAAJ&q=prithviraj+gola&dq=prithviraj+gola |title=The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids. | ||
| ⚫ | Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under ] generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as ]. Aibak ransacked ] temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of ]. An army led by Qutb al-din Aibak, Mu'izz's deputy in India, invaded in ca. 1195–97 and plundered Anahilapataka.<ref>Sailendra Nath Sen, ''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'', (New Age International, 1999), 327.</ref> | ||
| Mu'izz, having settled the affairs of the province of Lahore, conferred the government of Lahore on Ali Karmakh<ref name="ReferenceA">Siraj, Minhaj, ''Tahqaat-e-Nasri''; Qasim, ''Tarkh-e-Farishta''; Ahmed Yaha Sirshnidi, Tarkh-e-Mubrak Shahi, Lahore 398</ref> who was then the Governor of Multan. In 1206, Mu'izz appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his ''Naib us Sultanat'' in India<ref name="ReferenceA"/> at a grand ''darbar'' (court reception) at Lahore, which was attended by a large majority of the nobles and dignitaries of his kingdom. It was at this occasion that Mu'izz bestowed upon Qutb-ud-din the title of ''Aibak'', meaning "Axis of the Faith".<ref>http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1458-3.pdf</ref> | |||
| == War with the Khwarezmians and supreme leader of the Ghurids== | |||
| ⚫ | Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under ] generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as ]. Aibak ransacked ] temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of ]. |
||
| In 1200, Tekish died, and was succeeded by ] (who took the honorific name 'Ala' al-Din). Among the first to hear of this were Ghiyas and Mu'izz al-Din. Within weeks the two brother had moved their armies westwards into Khorasan. Once they had captured ], Mu'izz al-Din was sent on an expedition towards ], but he let his troops get out of control and got little further than ], earning criticism from Ghiyas which led to the only reported quarrel between the brothers.<ref>Ahmad Hasan Dani et al. , Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Pub. (1999) ISBN 81-208-1409-6, p182</ref><ref></ref> | |||
| Ghiyas died at ] in 1202 after months of illness. Mu'izz, who had quickly returned to ] from ], obtained the support of Ghurid nobles, and crowned him as Sultan of the Ghurid Empire at ]. Just after his ascension, Muhammad II invaded his domains, and besieged ]. Mu'izz managed to repel him from Herat and then pursued him to ], besieging ], their capital. Muhammad desperately requested aid from the ], who sent a army to aid Muhammad. Mu'izz, because of the pressure from the Kara-Khitans, was forced to relieve the siege and retreat. However, on his way to his domains in ], he was defeated at Andkhud in 1204.<ref>''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle'', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 269.</ref><ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, ''A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century'', (Dorling Kindersley Pvt., 2011), 53-54.</ref> Mu'izz, however managed to reach Ghur, and prepared a counter-attack against the Khwarmezians and Kara-Khitans. A revolt shortly broke out in ] and the surrounding regions, which forced Mu'izz to make order in the region before mounting a counter-attack against his enemies. | |||
| == Final days and death == | == Final days and death == | ||
| In 1206, Mu'izz |
In 1206, Mu'izz, having settled the affairs in India,<ref name="Biran">Michel Biran, ''The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History'', (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 70.</ref> left all the affairs in India in hands of his slave ]. | ||
| On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near ] (which is near the city of Jhelum in the ] province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Mu'izz's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local ] and others claiming he was assassinated by ] or even Ismailis. | On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near ] (which is near the city of Jhelum in the ] province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Mu'izz's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local ] and others claiming he was assassinated by ] or even Ismailis. | ||
| Line 91: | Line 81: | ||
| Some also claim that Mu'izz was assassinated by a radical ] Muslim sect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396618/Muizz-al-Din-Muhammad-ibn-Sam |title=Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> | Some also claim that Mu'izz was assassinated by a radical ] Muslim sect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396618/Muizz-al-Din-Muhammad-ibn-Sam |title=Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> | ||
| In Hindu Folklore, the death of |
In Hindu Folklore, the death of Mu'izz was caused by Prithviraj <ref>''Prithviraj, a valorous hero par excellence, has been depicted in the lofty style which has been a source of inspiration to and influence on the North-Indian people.'' Krishnadatt Paliwal (1988) "Epic (Hindi)" ''In'' Datta, Amaresh (1988) ''The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature: Volume Two: Devraj to Jyoti'', Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, India, , ISBN 81-260-1194-7</ref> but which is not borne out by historical documents.<ref name="Luṇiyā">''Whatever may be their arguments, one cannot deny that the Prithviraj Raso remains a great piece of Hindi literature.'' Luṇiyā, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978) ''Life and Culture in Medieval India'' Kamal Prakashan, Indore, India, page 293, {{OCLC|641457716}}</ref><ref name="Kaviraj">Kaviraj Syamaldas (1886) "The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the epic called the Prithviraj Rasa and commonly ascribed to Chand Bardai" Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 55, pt.1,</ref><ref>] (April 1906) "Review of Das, Syamsundar ''Annual Report on the search for Hindi Manuscripts'' (four volumes for the years 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903)" ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' 1906(4): pp. 497–503, </ref> This is described in the article ]. Even today Afghans vent their anger by stabbing on the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan, as according to them, Prithviraj had killed Mu'izz.<ref>"http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-8-2005_pg4_20"</ref><ref>"http://hindu.com/2000/09/26/stories/14262186.htm"</ref> ], a member of ] community, visited Afghanistan to trace the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan. He dug Chauhan's "grave" and collected sand from it. This incident created sensation in Indian news and public media – as he said he did it to get back India's pride & respect.<ref></ref><ref></ref> | ||
| As per his wishes, Mu'izz was buried where he fell, in Damik. | As per his wishes, Mu'izz was buried where he fell, in Damik. | ||
| Line 109: | Line 99: | ||
| == Legacy == | == Legacy == | ||
| Mu'izz is revered by many ] as a Muslim hero who defeated the Hindu King Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Terain. Some Pakistani Muslims claim descent from Mu'izz and his Mamluk army. Pakistani military named three of its ] ], ] and ], in the memory of Mu'izz.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sep 3, 2005 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2005-09-03 |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> | |||
| == Coins == | |||
| <gallery> | |||
| File:001muhammad bin sam1.jpg|Copper coin | |||
| File:005muhammad bin sam5.jpg|Bull and horseman type copper coin | |||
| </gallery> | |||
| == {{anchor|Historial contemporaries}}Historical contemporaries == | |||
| {{commons category|Tomb of Muhammad of Ghor}} | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| * ] | |||
| == References == | == References == | ||
| Line 149: | Line 126: | ||
| {{s-hou|]||||}} | {{s-hou|]||||}} | ||
| {{s-bef|before=]}} | {{s-bef|before=]}} | ||
| {{s-ttl|title=] of the ]|years= |
{{s-ttl|title=] of the ]|years=1173–1206}} | ||
| {{s-aft|after=]}} | {{s-aft|after=]}} | ||
| {{end}} | {{end}} | ||
| {{Ghurid dynasty}} | {{Ghurid dynasty}} | ||
| Line 162: | Line 139: | ||
| | PLACE OF DEATH = Damik, ], ] | | PLACE OF DEATH = Damik, ], ] | ||
| }} | }} | ||
| {{DEFAULTSORT: |
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mu'izz al-Din}} | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| ] | ] | ||
Revision as of 23:03, 31 January 2014
Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate| Mu'izz al-Din | |
|---|---|
| Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate | |
 Mu'izz al-Din | |
| Reign | 1173-1202 (with his brother Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori); (1202-1206 as sole ruler) |
| Predecessor | Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori |
| Successor | Ghor: Ghiyath al-Din Mahmud India: Qutbuddin Aibak |
| Born | 1149 Ghor, present-day Afghanistan |
| Died | March 15, 1206 Damiak, Jhelum District, present-day Pakistan |
| Burial | Damik, Jhelum District, present-day Pakistan |
| House | Ghurid dynasty |
| Father | Baha al-Din Sam I |
| Religion | Sunni Islam |
Mu'izz al-Din (Template:Lang-fa), born Shihab al-Din (1149 – March 15, 1206), was Sultan of the Ghurid Empire along with his brother Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori from 1173 to 1202, and as the supreme ruler of the Ghurid Empire from 1202 to 1206. Mu'izz al-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the Ghurid dynasty, and is credited with laying the foundation of Islamic occupation in India that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.
Mu'izz al-Din took the city of Ghazni in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor Muhammad ibn Suri at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India. In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyas in his contest with the Khwarezmid Empire for the lordship of Khorasan in Western Asia. In 1175 Mu'izz captured Multan from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took Uch in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals. After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near Jhelum in modern-day Pakistan.
A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghuri leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the Ghurid Sultanate in about 1215. Though the Ghurids' empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid states remained in power until the arrival of Timurids, Mu'izz's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave (Mamluk) of Mu'izz, was the first Sultan of Delhi.
Early life
Mu'izz was born in 1149 in the Ghor region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, Baha al-Din Sam I, was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time. Mu'izz also had a younger brother named Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori. During their early life, Mu'izz and Ghiyas were imprisoned by their uncle Ala al-Din Husayn, but were later released by the latter's son Sayf al-Din Muhammad. When Sayf died in 1163, the Ghurid nobles supported Ghiyas, and helped him ascend the throne. Ghiyas shortly gave Mu'izz control over Istiyan and Kajuran. However, the throne was challenged by several Ghurid chiefs; Mu'izz aided Ghiyas in defeating and killing a rival Ghurid chief named Abu'l Abbas.
Early campaigns
Ghiyas was then challenged by his uncle Fakhr al-Din Masud, who claimed the throne for himself, and had allied with Tadj al-Din Yildiz, the Seljuq governor of Herat, and Balkh. However, the coalition was defeated by Ghiyas and Mu'izz at Ragh-i Zar. The brothers managed to kill the Seljuq governor during the battle, and then conquered Zamindawar, Badghis, Gharchistan, and Guzgan. Ghiyas, however, spared Fakhr al-Din and restored him as the ruler of Bamiyan. Mu'izz, after returning from a expedition from Sistan, was shortly awarded with Kandahar by his brother. In 1173, the two brothers invaded Ghazni, and defeated the Oghuz Turks who had captured the city from the Ghaznavids. Mu'izz was then appointed as the ruler of Ghazni.
In 1175, the two brothers conquered Herat from it's Seljuq governor, Baha al-Din Toghril, and also managed to conquer Pushang. The ruler of Sistan, Taj al-Din Harb ibn Muhammad, shortly acknowledged the sovereignty of the Ghurids, and so did the Oghuz Turks dominating Kirman.
During the same period, the Khwarazmian Sultan Shah, who was expelled from Khwarezm by his brother Tekish, took refuge in Ghor and requested military aid from Ghiyas. Ghiyas, however, did not help the latter. Sultan Shah managed to get help from the Kara-Khitan Khanate, and began plundering the northern Ghurid domains.
Invasion of India
After having helped his brother in expanding the western frontiers of the Ghurid Empire, he began to focus on India. He shortly invaded India, first capturing Multan from a fellow the Qarmatians in 1175–76. He then shortly captured Uch. Three years later he invaded Gujarat and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. However, Mu'izz was able to take Peshawar and Sialkot. In 1186, Mu'izz, along with Ghiyas, ended the Ghaznavid dynasty after having captured Lahore and executed the Ghaznavid ruler Khusrau-Malik.
Invasion of Gujarat and the neighboring regions
Mu'izz's campaign against the Muslim rulers of Multan in 1175 had ended in victory. He turned south, and led his army from Multan to Uch and then across the desert towards the Gujarat capital of Anhilwara (modern Patan). In 1178, Muizz suffered a defeat at the battle of Kayadara (Gujarat), during his first campaign against an Indian ruler in India. Gujarat was ruled by the young Indian ruler Bhimdev Solanki II (ruled 1178–1241), although the age of the Raja meant that the army was commanded by his mother Naikidevi. Mu'izz's army had suffered greatly during the march across the desert, and Naikidevi inflicted a major defeat on him at the village of Kayadara (near to Mount Abu, about forty miles to the north-east of Anhilwara). The invading army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Multan.
Mu'izz shortly returned to Ghor, and along with the the rulers of Bamiyan and Sistan, aided his brother Ghiyas in defeating the forces of Sultan Shah at Merv in 1190. He also annexed most of the latter's territories in Khorasan.
First Battle of Tarain
In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards Hindustan through the Khyber Pass in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, Bathinda in present-day Punjab state on the northwestern frontier of Prithvīrāj Chauhān's kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress, he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of Tarain, 14 miles from Thanesar in present-day Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.
Second Battle of Tarain
Main article: Second Battle of TarainOn his return to Ghazni, Mu'izz made preparations to avenge the defeat. According to Firishta, the Rajput army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry, most likely a gross exaggeration. Minhaj-i-Siraj, stated Mu'izz brought 120,000 fully armored men to battle.
Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.
Further campaigns
When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over Ajmer and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India. Rajput kingdoms like Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the Battle of Chandwar, a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Mu'izz in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan). Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern Rajasthan and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids.
Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under Turkic generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal. Aibak ransacked Ayodhya temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of Delhi. An army led by Qutb al-din Aibak, Mu'izz's deputy in India, invaded in ca. 1195–97 and plundered Anahilapataka.
War with the Khwarezmians and supreme leader of the Ghurids
In 1200, Tekish died, and was succeeded by Muhammad Khan (who took the honorific name 'Ala' al-Din). Among the first to hear of this were Ghiyas and Mu'izz al-Din. Within weeks the two brother had moved their armies westwards into Khorasan. Once they had captured Nishapur, Mu'izz al-Din was sent on an expedition towards Ray, but he let his troops get out of control and got little further than Gurgan, earning criticism from Ghiyas which led to the only reported quarrel between the brothers.
Ghiyas died at Herat in 1202 after months of illness. Mu'izz, who had quickly returned to Ghor from India, obtained the support of Ghurid nobles, and crowned him as Sultan of the Ghurid Empire at Firuzkuh. Just after his ascension, Muhammad II invaded his domains, and besieged Herat. Mu'izz managed to repel him from Herat and then pursued him to Khwarezm, besieging Gurganj, their capital. Muhammad desperately requested aid from the Kara-Khitan Khanate, who sent a army to aid Muhammad. Mu'izz, because of the pressure from the Kara-Khitans, was forced to relieve the siege and retreat. However, on his way to his domains in Ghur, he was defeated at Andkhud in 1204. Mu'izz, however managed to reach Ghur, and prepared a counter-attack against the Khwarmezians and Kara-Khitans. A revolt shortly broke out in Punjab and the surrounding regions, which forced Mu'izz to make order in the region before mounting a counter-attack against his enemies.
Final days and death
In 1206, Mu'izz, having settled the affairs in India, left all the affairs in India in hands of his slave Qutb-ud-din Aibak.
On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near Sohawa (which is near the city of Jhelum in the Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Mu'izz's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local Gakhars and others claiming he was assassinated by Khokhars or even Ismailis.
Hasan Nizami and Ferishta record the killing of Mu'izz at the hands of the Gakhars. However, Ferishta may have confused the Ghakars with the Khokhars. Other historians have also blamed Mu'izz's assassination to a band of Hindu Jat Khokhars.
All the historians before the time of Ferishta agree that the Khokhars, not the Gakhars, killed Mu'izz.
Some also claim that Mu'izz was assassinated by a radical Ismaili Muslim sect.
In Hindu Folklore, the death of Mu'izz was caused by Prithviraj but which is not borne out by historical documents. This is described in the article Prithviraj Raso. Even today Afghans vent their anger by stabbing on the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan, as according to them, Prithviraj had killed Mu'izz. Sher Singh Rana, a member of Rajput community, visited Afghanistan to trace the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan. He dug Chauhan's "grave" and collected sand from it. This incident created sensation in Indian news and public media – as he said he did it to get back India's pride & respect.
As per his wishes, Mu'izz was buried where he fell, in Damik.
Succession
Mu'izz had no offspring, but he treated his Turkic slaves as his sons, who were trained both as soldiers and administrators and provided with the best possible education. Many of his competent and loyal slaves rose to positions of importance in Mu'izz's army and government.
When a courtier lamented that the Sultan had no male heirs, Mu'izz retorted:
"Other monarchs may have one son, or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the Khuṭbah (Friday sermon) throughout these territories."
Mu'izz's prediction proved true. After his assassination, his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. Most notably:
- Qutb-ud-din Aibak became ruler of Delhi in 1206, establishing the Sultanate of Delhi, which marked the start of the Slave dynasty.
- Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha became ruler of Multan in 1210.
- Tajuddin Yildoz became ruler of Ghazni.
- Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji became ruler in parts of Bengal.
Legacy
Mu'izz is revered by many Pakistanis as a Muslim hero who defeated the Hindu King Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Terain. Some Pakistani Muslims claim descent from Mu'izz and his Mamluk army. Pakistani military named three of its medium-range ballistic missile Ghauri-I, Ghauri-II and Ghauri-III, in the memory of Mu'izz.
References
- ^ Encyclopedia Iranica, Ghurids, C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, (LINK)
- MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN, T.W. Haig, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.
- History of Civilizations of Central Asia, C.E. Bosworth, M.S. Asimov, p. 186.
- ^ The Iranian World, C.E. Bosworth, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 5, ed. J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, (Cambridge University Press, 1968), 161-170.
- ^ Rediscovery Of India, The: A New Subcontinent By Ansar Hussain Khan, Ansar Hussain Published by Orient Longman Limited Page 54
- Encyclopedia Iranica, Ghaznavids, Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, (LINK)
- Ghaznavids, C.E. Bosworth, Encyclopedia Iranica
- Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 244. – via Questia (subscription required)
- Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, (Brill, 2002), 143. – via Questia (subscription required)
- Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 143. – via Questia (subscription required)
- Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 143. – via Questia (subscription required)
- Cambridge History (Page 40)
- A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.
- Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526), 25.
- Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526), 25.
- A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. I, 263.
- Sharma, Gopi Nath (1970). Rajasthan Studies. Agra, India: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. p. 201. OCLC 137196.
- Abbasi, M. Yusuf (1990). "The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution". In Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi (ed.). Pakistan Resolution Revisited. Islamabad, Pakistan: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-969-415-024-6.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link) - The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-07-11.
- Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, (New Age International, 1999), 327.
- Ahmad Hasan Dani et al. History of civilizations of Central Asia, vol. IV, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass Pub. (1999) ISBN 81-208-1409-6, p182
- Enc. Islam, article: Muhammad, Mu'izz al-Din
- A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle, Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 269.
- Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt., 2011), 53-54.
- Michel Biran, The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History, (Cambridge University Press, 2005), 70.
- A Glossary Of The Tribes And Castes Of The Punjab And North-West Frontier By H.A. Rose Page 275
- "Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
- Prithviraj, a valorous hero par excellence, has been depicted in the lofty style which has been a source of inspiration to and influence on the North-Indian people. Krishnadatt Paliwal (1988) "Epic (Hindi)" In Datta, Amaresh (1988) The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature: Volume Two: Devraj to Jyoti, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, India, page 1178, ISBN 81-260-1194-7
- Whatever may be their arguments, one cannot deny that the Prithviraj Raso remains a great piece of Hindi literature. Luṇiyā, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978) Life and Culture in Medieval India Kamal Prakashan, Indore, India, page 293, OCLC 641457716
- Kaviraj Syamaldas (1886) "The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the epic called the Prithviraj Rasa and commonly ascribed to Chand Bardai" Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 55, pt.1,
- Hoernle, A. F. R. (April 1906) "Review of Das, Syamsundar Annual Report on the search for Hindi Manuscripts (four volumes for the years 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903)" The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1906(4): pp. 497–503, page 500
- "http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-8-2005_pg4_20"
- "http://hindu.com/2000/09/26/stories/14262186.htm"
- Leander Paes Ashmit Patel & Ritupurna Sengupta Part Of Film 'The End Of Bandit Queen'
- The Hindu : National : Phoolan murder accused held again
- Sep 3, 2005 (2005-09-03). "Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan". Atimes.com. Retrieved 2012-07-11.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
Sources
- C. Edmund, Bosworth (2001). "GHURIDS". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Online Edition. Retrieved 5 January 2014.
- Frye, R.N. (1975). "The Ghaznavids and Ghūrids". In Frye, R.N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5: The Iranian world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 157–165. ISBN 0-521-20093-8.
Further reading
- John Keay (May 2001). India: A history. Grove Press; 1 Grove Pr edition. ISBN 0-8021-3797-0.
- A History of India By August Friedrich Rudolf Hoernle, Herbert Alick Stark
- The history of India from the earliest ages By James Talboys Wheeler
- Outline of Indian history By Sri Ram Sharma
- Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 – This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
- Briggs, John (Translator): The History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India. (Translation of the Mughal-Era Tārikh-i Farishtah. Available online at the Packard Humanities Institute.)
| Muhammad of Ghor Ghurid dynasty | ||
| Preceded byGhiyas ad-Din Ghori | Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate 1173–1206 |
Succeeded byGhiyath al-Din Mahmud |
| Ghurid dynasty | ||
|---|---|---|
| In Ghur (before 879–1215) |
|  |
| In Ghazni (1151-1152 and 1173–1215) | ||
| In Bamiyan (1152–1215) | ||
| Minor domains |
| |