Misplaced Pages

German language: Difference between revisions

Article snapshot taken from[REDACTED] with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.
Browse history interactively← Previous editNext edit →Content deleted Content addedVisualWikitext
Revision as of 08:39, 13 October 2004 view sourceJ. 'mach' wust (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users10,149 edits →Writing system← Previous edit Revision as of 09:51, 13 October 2004 view source J. 'mach' wust (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users10,149 edits →DialectsNext edit →
Line 44: Line 44:


===Dialects=== ===Dialects===
The term "German" is used for several dialects of Germany and surrounding countries ]. The term "German" is used for the dialects of Germany, Austria, German Switzerland and some areas in the surrounding countries, as well as for several colonies founded by German speaking people (e.g. ]. Their variation is considerable. Only the neighbouring dialects are mutually understandable. Many dialects aren't understandable for someone who knows standard German.


The dialects of Germany are typically divided into ] and ]. The dialects of Germany are typically divided into ] and ].

The Low German dialects, or ] as they are sometimes known more precisely, are more closely related to ] languages like ] than to the High German dialects, and from a linguist's perspective are not part of the German language proper. The Low German dialects, or ] as they are sometimes known more precisely, are more closely related to ] languages like ] than to the High German dialects, and from a linguist's perspective are not part of the German language proper.

The High German dialects are divided into ] and ]; Standard German is based on Middle German, while ] and ] dialects are Upper German.

The High German dialects spoken by Germanic communities in the former Soviet union and ]s have several unique features, and are usually considered the separate language ]. The High German dialects spoken by Germanic communities in the former Soviet union and ]s have several unique features, and are usually considered the separate language ].
There are also distinctive dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in North America, including ], ], and ].


The modern dialects of German proper are divided into ] and ]; Standard German is based on Middle German, while ] and ] dialects are Upper German. The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from (e.g. ] resembles dialects of the ], <!-- where did the speakers of ] come from? --> or ] resembles dialects of ]).
A moderately complete listing of these dialects may be found at ].


<!-- <!--

Revision as of 09:51, 13 October 2004

error: ISO 639 code is required (help)

German (called Deutsch in German in which germanisch refers to prechristian times), is a member of the western group of Germanic languages and one of the world's major languages. It is the language with the most native speakers in the European Union. It is spoken primarily in Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, the major part of Switzerland, Luxembourg, the Südtirol (South Tyrol) region of Italy, the East Cantons of Belgium, parts of Romania, Alsace (Elsass) and part of the Lorraine region of France. Additionally, several former colonial possessions of these countries, such as Namibia, have sizable German-speaking populations, and there are German-speaking minorities in several eastern European countries, including Russia, Hungary and Slovenia, and in North America as well as some Latin American countries, like Argentina and in Brazil, mainly in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná, and Espírito Santo.

The Amish and some Mennonites also speak a dialect of German. Approximately 120 million people, or a quarter of all Europeans, speak German. German is the third most popular foreign language taught worldwide, and the second most popular in Europe (after English), the USA and East Asia (Japan). It is one of the official languages of the European Union.

History

The dialects subject to the second Germanic sound shift during medieval times are regarded as part of the modern German language.

As a consequence of the colonization patterns, the Völkerwanderung (pronounced: ), the routes for trade and communication (chiefly the rivers), and of physical isolation (high mountains and deep forests) very different regional dialects developed. These dialects, sometimes mutually unintelligible, were used across the Holy Roman Empire.

As Germany was divided into many different states, the only force working for a unification or standardization of German during a period of several hundred years was when writers would try to write in a way that could be understood in the largest possible area.

When Martin Luther translated the Bible (the New Testament in 1521 and the Old Testament in 1534) he based his translation mainly on this already developed language, which was the most widely understood language at this time. In the beginning, copies of the Bible had a long list for each region, which translated words unknown in the region into the regional dialect. Roman Catholics rejected Luther's translation in the beginning and tried to create their own Catholic standard (Gemeines Deutsch). It took until the middle of the 18th century to create a standard that was widely accepted, thus ending the period of Early New High German.

German used to be the language of commerce and government in the Habsburg Empire, which encompassed a large area of Central and Eastern Europe. Until the mid-nineteenth century it was essentially the language of townspeople throughout most of the Empire. It indicated that the speaker was a merchant, an urbanite, not their nationality. Some cities, such as Prague and Budapest, were gradually Germanized in the years after their incorporation into the Habsburg domain. Others, such as Bratislava (Pressburg), were originally settled during the Habsburg period and were primarily German at that time. A few cities such as Milano remained primarily non-German. However, most cities were primarily German during this time, such as Prague, Budapest, Bratislava, Zagreb, and Ljubljana, though they were surrounded by territory that spoke other languages.

Until about 1800, Standard German was almost only a written language. In this time, people in urban northern Germany, who spoke dialects very different from Standard German, learnt it almost like a foreign language and tried to pronounce it as close to the spelling as possible. Later, this spoken form spread southward.

Media and written works are almost all produced in this variety of High German (usually called Standard German in English or Hochdeutsch in German), which is understood in all areas of German languages (except by pre-school children in areas which speak only dialect - but in this age of TV, even they now usually learn to understand Standard German before school age).

The first dictionary of the Brothers Grimm, the 16 parts of which were issued between 1852 and 1960, remains the most comprehensive guide to the words of the German language. In 1860, grammatical and orthographical rules first appeared in the Duden Handbook. In 1901, this was declared the standard definition of the German language. Official revisions of some of these rules were not issued until 1998, when the Rechtschreibreform (spelling reform) was officially promulgated by governmental representatives of all German-speaking countries. Though the Rechtschreibreform resolves quite a few inconsistencies and complex rules in German writing, public acceptance has been limited. Although the government has officially declared the old spellings "old-fashioned" and has ordered schools and government offices to stop using them, many people and a number of major German language periodicals have rejected the new forms outright. Many German speakers (especially students) are confused by the spelling rules, and there has been some public debate as to whether the new system should be cancelled altogether. See Rechtschreibreform.

Classification

German is a member of the West branch of the Germanic family of languages, which in turn is part of the Indo-European language family.

Official status

German is the only official language in Germany, Liechtenstein, and Austria; it shares official status in Belgium (with French and Dutch), Italy (with Italian and French), Switzerland (with French, Italian and Romansh), Luxembourg (with French and Luxembourgish), and Denmark (with Danish). It is one of the 20 official languages of the European Union.

It is also a minority language in Canada, France, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Poland, Romania, Togo, Cameroon, the USA, Namibia, Brazil, Paraguay, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia, the Netherlands, Slovenia, Ukraine, Croatia, Moldavia, Australia, Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania.

German was once the lingua franca of central, eastern and northern Europe. Increasing influence from the English language has affected German recently. However, German remains one of the most popular foreign languages taught worldwide, and is more popular than French as a foreign language in Europe. 38% of all European citizens say they can converse in German (native speakers not counted).

Dialects

The term "German" is used for the dialects of Germany, Austria, German Switzerland and some areas in the surrounding countries, as well as for several colonies founded by German speaking people (e.g. in North America. Their variation is considerable. Only the neighbouring dialects are mutually understandable. Many dialects aren't understandable for someone who knows standard German.

The dialects of Germany are typically divided into Low German and High German.

The Low German dialects, or Low Saxon as they are sometimes known more precisely, are more closely related to Lower Franconian languages like Dutch than to the High German dialects, and from a linguist's perspective are not part of the German language proper.

The High German dialects are divided into Middle German and Upper German; Standard German is based on Middle German, while Austrian and Swiss German dialects are Upper German.

The High German dialects spoken by Germanic communities in the former Soviet union and Ashkenazi Jews have several unique features, and are usually considered the separate language Yiddish.

The dialects of German which are or were primarily spoken in colonies founded by German speaking people resemble the dialects of the regions the founders came from (e.g. Pennsylvania German resembles dialects of the Palatinate, or Hutterite German resembles dialects of Carinthia).


Grammar

Main article: German grammar

German is an inflected language. In contrast to Latin, the inflection affects not only the word ending but also its stem, making declension and conjugation slightly more difficult.

Noun inflection

German nouns inflect into:

  • one of three declension classes
  • one of three genders: masculine, feminine, or neuter. Word endings indicate some grammatical genders; others are arbitrary and must be memorized.
  • two numbers: singular and plural
  • four cases: nominative, genitive, dative, and accusative case. The genitive case is no longer used much in informal speech.

A notable (but not unique) feature of the German language is the ability to construct composite words of theoretically unlimited complexity by combining component parts in an extremely literal fashion. For example: "Donaudampfschifffahrtskapitänsdienstmütze" (meaning "The cap that the captain of a steamboat on the Danube river wears while he is on duty"). Many new inventions are given such compound names in German instead of inventing an entirely new word, e.g. "refrigerator" is Kühlschrank (literally, 'cooling cabinet'); "monitor" or "display screen" is Bildschirm (literally, 'picture screen'); "television" is Fernseher (literally, 'far-seer'). Older inventions and concepts, of course, can also use the same pattern: "Santa Claus" is Weihnachtsmann, (literally 'Christmas Man', or more literally, 'Holy Night Man'); "gloves" are Handschuhe (literally, 'hand shoes'). Many believe that this makes the German language particularly suited for expressing new concepts being developed in philosophy for which there are not already extant words; philosophers writing in German can simply combine existing words, and arrive at an entirely new word that is easily understandable by the reader.

Verb Inflection

  • one of two conjugation classes, weak and strong (like English). There are about 200 irregular verbs.
  • three persons: 1st, 2nd, 3rd.
  • two numbers: singular and plural
  • three moods: Indicative, Conditional, Imperative
  • two genera verbi: active and passive; the passive being composed and dividable into static and dynamic.
  • 2 non-composed tenses (Present, Preterite) and 6 composed tenses (Perfect, Plusquamperfect, Future I, Future II, Futurum Preterite I, Futurum Preterite II)
  • no distinction between aspects (in English, perfect and progressive)

There are also a lot of ways to expand the meaning of a base verb through several prefixes.

The word order is much more flexible than in English. The word order can be changed for subtle changes of a sentence's meaning.

Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, although there are significant minorities of words derived from Latin, French, and most recently English.


Writing system

German is written using the Latin alphabet. In addition to the 26 standard letters, German has three vowels with Umlaut, namely ä, ö and ü, as well as a special symbol for "ss", which is only used after long vowels or diphthongs (and not used at all in Switzerland): ß.

Until mid 20th century, German was often printed in Gothic black letters (Fraktur, or Schwabacher) and written in corresponding handwriting (e.g. Sütterlin). These variants of the Latin alphabet are very different from the serif or sans serif typefaces used today, and are difficult for the untrained to read.

Orthography

Main article: German pronunciation.

Examples

See also

Names of the German language in other languages

Because of the turbulent history of both Germany and the German language, the names that other peoples have chosen to use to refer to it varies more than for most other languages.

In general, the names for the German language can be arranged in five groups according to their origin:

1. From the proto-Germanic word for "people", "folk": 2. From the name of the Germanic people: 3. From the name of the Saxonian tribe:
4. From the Old Slavic word for "mute": 5. From the name of the Alemannian tribe:

Note: Romanian language used to use in the past the Slavonic term "nemţeşte", but "germană" is now widely used. Hungarian "német" is also a Slavonic loan-word. The Arabic name for Austria, "an-namsa" (النمسا), is derived from the Slavonic term.

External links

Phrase and word translations

Reference

tokipona:toki Tosi

Categories:
German language: Difference between revisions Add topic