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These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known as ''outremer'', from the ] ''outre-mer'' ("overseas" in English).<ref>{{OED|Outremer}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=50–51}}</ref> These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known as ''outremer'', from the ] ''outre-mer'' ("overseas" in English).<ref>{{OED|Outremer}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp=50–51}}</ref>


]
⚫ Largely based in the ports of Acre and Tyre; Italian, ] and Spanish communes provided a significant characteristic of Crusader social stratification and political organisation. Separate from the Frankish nobles or burgesses, the communes were autonomous political entities closely linked to their countries of origin. This gave the inhabitants the ability to monopolise foreign trade and almost all banking and shipping in the Crusader states. Every opportunity to extend trade privileges was taken. One such example was the case of the Venetian ] receiving one third of Tyre, its territories and exemption from all taxes after participating in the successful 1124 siege of the city. However, despite all efforts the two ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the primary centres of commerce in the region. <ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp=85-87}}</ref> Instead, the communes competed with the Crown and each other to maintain economic advantage. Power derived from the support of the communards' native cities rather than their number, which never reached more than several hundred. Through this, by the middle of the 13th-century, the rulers of the communes were barely required to recognise the authority of the crusaders and divided Acre into a number of fortified miniature republics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp=87-93}}</ref>
After the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem and victory at Ascalon the majority of the Crusaders considered their personal pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. Godfrey found himself left with only 300 knights and 2,000 infantry to defend the territory won in the Eastern Mediterranean. Of the crusader princes, only Tancred remained with the aim of establishing his own lordship.<ref name="Asbridge 2012 106"/> At this point the Franks held Jerusalem and two great Syrian cities – Antioch and Edessa – but not the surrounding country. Jerusalem remained economically sterile despite the advantages of being the centre of administration of church and state and benefiting from streams of pilgrims.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|p= 87}}</ref> Modern research based on historical geography techniques indicate that the spatial distribution of Muslims and indigenous Christians was more sharply delineated than previously thought. Palestinian Christians lived around Jerusalem and in an arc stretching from Jericho and the Jordan to Hebron in the South. Central Areas appear to be Muslim from the point of the destruction of the ]n communities in the 6th-century. These communities are now thought to be of nearly equal size, perhaps even in a 50:50 proportion.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|p=131}}</ref> The Frankish population of the Kingdom of Jerusalem became concentrated in three major cities. By the thirteenth century the population of Tyre probably exceeded 60,000, then came Acre and the capital itself was the smallest of the three numbering between 20,000 to 30,000.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|p=82}}</ref> At the zenith of the Crusader Kingdoms, the total Latin population of the region reached around 250,000 with the kingdom amounting to about 120,000 and the total combined numbers in Tripoli, Antioch and Edessa being broadly similar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|p=396}}</ref>

The ] supported the seizure of land and property by impecunious Crusaders from the autochthonous population, enabling poor men to become rich and part of a noble class. Although some historians, like Jotischky, question the model once proposed, in which the primary motivation was understood in sociological and economic rather than spiritual terms.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|pp=37–38}}</ref> The Franks did not distinguish on grounds of religion; the basic division in society was between Frank and non-Frank, rather than between Christian and Muslim. The new Frankish ruling class did not expel the native population, but adopted strict segregation and at no point attempted to integrate it by way of religious conversion. In this way the Crusaders created a colonial noble class that perpetuated itself through an incessant flow of religious pilgrims and settlers keen to take economic advantage.<ref name="Prawer 2001 60–63">{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp= 60–63}}</ref>

Records preserved from ] indicate that the military force of the kingdom was based on a feudal host of about 647 to 675 knights in 1170. Each feudatory would also provide his own armed retainers. This force would be augmented by mercenary ''serjants'' and John records 5,025 of these. In times of emergency the King could also call upon a general muster of the population. The historian Joshua Prawer estimates that the military orders could match the fighting strength of the king’s army meaning that the total military strength of the kingdom was can be estimated at 1,200 knights and 10,000 ''serjants''. This meant that conquest was possible, but ephemeral because of a lack of the numbers to maintain military domination. This demograhic lack of numbers was also a problem defensively as putting an army into the field required the draining of evry Crusader castle and city of every able bodied fighting man. In the case of a defeat such as Hittin there remained no one to resist the invaders. Muslim armies were in-cohesive and seldom campaigned beyond a period between sowing and harvest. As a result the Crusaders adopted tactics, that when faced with a superior invading Muslim force, in which they would avoid direct confrontation instead retreating to strongholds and waiting for the Muslim army to disperse. It took generations before the Muslims recognised that the destruction of walled cities and castles would end Crusader rule. This strategic change forced the Crusaders into their ultimately unsuccessful strategy of destroying Egypt in order to gain enough time to improve the Kingdoms demographic weakness <ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp=327–33}}</ref>

] are indicated with a red cross {{color|red|☩}}: ], ], ], ]. The ] was a Crusader state under Armenian (]) rule. The remnant of the ] is visible in the west; the (nascent) ] and ] are shown in green. |alt=Map of the states of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135]]
The key differentiator in status and economic position in the Crusader States was between urban and rural dwellers. There was no Frankish peasant class, this was a role fulfilled by the native peoples. The Franks imposed their own feudal culture on agricultural production which made little difference in the conditions of the rural population. However, the poll tax on non-Muslims was reversed enabling the feudal Lords to raise punitive levels of revenue from the indigenous peoples, whether Muslim, Jewish or Christian. Very few Muslims lived in urban areas except those in servitude, although indigenous Christians could gain legal status and acquire wealth through commerce and industry in towns.<ref>{{Harvnb|Jotischky|2004|pp=128–29}}</ref>

The territorial gains followed distinct ethnic and linguistic entities. The Principality of Antioch, founded in 1098 and ruled by Bohemond, became Norman in character and custom. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, followed the traditions of northern France. The County of Tripoli, founded in 1104 (although the city of Tripoli itself remained in Muslim control until 1109) by Raymond de Saint-Gilles became Provençal. The County of Edessa, founded in 1098, differed in that although it was ruled by the French Bouillons and Courteneys its largely ] and ] native nobility was preserved.<ref name="Prawer 2001 60–63"/><ref>{{Harvnb|Asbridge|2012|pp= 147–50}}</ref> These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known by historians as ''Outremer'', from the ] ''outre-mer'' ("overseas" in English).<ref>{{OED|Outremer}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Riley-Smith|2005|pp= 50–51}}</ref>

⚫ Largely based in the ports of Acre and Tyre, Italian, ] and Spanish communes provided a significant characteristic of Crusader social stratification and political organisation. Separate from the Frankish nobles or burgesses, the communes were autonomous political entities closely linked to their countries of origin. This gave the inhabitants the ability to monopolise foreign trade and almost all banking and shipping in the Crusader states. Every opportunity to extend trade privileges was taken. One example saw the Venetians receiving one third of Tyre, its territories and exemption from all taxes, after Venice participated in the successful ] of the city. However, despite all efforts, the two ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the primary centres of commerce in the region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp= 85–87}}</ref> Instead, the communes competed with the ] and each other to maintain economic advantage. Power derived from the support of the communards' native cities rather than their number, which never reached more than several hundred. Thus by the middle of the 13th century, the rulers of the communes were barely required to recognise the authority of the crusaders and divided Acre into a number of fortified miniature republics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Prawer|2001|pp=87–93}}</ref>


The ] had its origins before the Crusades, but was granted the status of a kingdom by ], and later became fully westernized by the (French) ] dynasty. The ] had its origins before the Crusades, but was granted the status of a kingdom by ], and later became fully westernized by the (French) ] dynasty.

Revision as of 15:06, 7 June 2019

"Outremer" redirects here. For the modern French overseas territories, see Overseas France. For the album by Garage A Trois, see Outre Mer.
The Near East in 1135, with the Crusader states marked with red crosses

The Crusader states were a number of mostly 12th- and 13th-century feudal Christian states created by Western European crusaders in Asia Minor, Greece and the Holy Land, and during the Northern Crusades in the eastern Baltic area. The name also refers to other territorial gains (often small and short-lived) made by medieval Christendom against Muslim and pagan adversaries.

The Crusader states in the Levant, collectively known as Outremer, were the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Principality of Antioch, the County of Tripoli and the County of Edessa (in addition to the Kingdom of Cyprus). The people of the Crusader states were generally referred to as "Latins", a common demonym among the followers of the Latin Church as opposed to followers of Eastern Christianity.

Background

Main articles: Spread of Islam and Crusades

Beginning in the 7th century, Muslim rulers began expanding their territories into Christian Roman/Byzantine lands, conquering Egypt and the Levant, and gradually taking over all of North Africa, much of Southwest Asia, and most of the Iberian Peninsula. The Eastern Romans, or Byzantines, partially recovered lost territory on numerous occasions but gradually lost all but Anatolia and parts of Thrace and the Balkans. In the West, the Roman Catholic kingdoms of northern Iberia launched campaigns known as the Reconquista to reconquer the peninsula from the Arabized Berbers known as Moors (who called it al-Andalus). The conquered Iberian principalities are not customarily called Crusader states, except for the Kingdom of Valencia, despite fitting the criteria.

Malcolm Barber, a British scholar of medieval history, indicates that in the Crusader state of the Kingdom of Jerusalem the Holy Sepulchre was added to in the 7th century and rebuilt in 1022, "after a previous collapse". "In 691–2 Caliph Abd al Malik had built a great dome over the rock here, a place sacred to all three great religions".

In 1071, the Byzantine army was defeated by the Muslim Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Manzikert, resulting in the loss of most of Asia Minor. The situation was a serious threat to the future of the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire. The Emperor sent a plea to the Pope in Rome to send military aid to restore the lost territories to Christian rule. The result was a series of western European military campaigns into the eastern Mediterranean, known as the Crusades. Unfortunately for the Byzantines, the crusaders had no allegiance to the Byzantine Emperor and established their own states in the conquered regions, including the heart of the Byzantine Empire.

First Crusade

Asia Minor and the Crusader states, c. 1140
13th century depiction of the reconstruction of the temple of Jerusalem from the Old French translation of Guillaume de Tyr's Histoire d'Outremer.

After the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem and victory at Ascalon the majority of the Crusaders considered their pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. Godfrey of Bouillon was left with only 300 knights and 2,000 infantry to defend the territory won in the Eastern Mediterranean. Only Tancred of the crusader princes remained with the aim of establishing his own lordship. At this point the Franks held only Jerusalem, Antioch and Edessa but not the surrounding country. Jerusalem remained economically sterile despite the advantages of being the centre of administration of church and state and benefiting from streams of pilgrims.

Consolidation in the first half of the 12th-century established four Crusader states:

These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known as outremer, from the French outre-mer ("overseas" in English).

Multi-coloured map of Latin and Byzantine Empires
Map of the Latin and Byzantine Empires in 1205. Green marks the dated acquisitions of Venice, Pink the Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire while shades of Purple indicate the Latin Empire and its' vassal states

After the First Crusade's capture of Jerusalem and victory at Ascalon the majority of the Crusaders considered their personal pilgrimage complete and returned to Europe. Godfrey found himself left with only 300 knights and 2,000 infantry to defend the territory won in the Eastern Mediterranean. Of the crusader princes, only Tancred remained with the aim of establishing his own lordship. At this point the Franks held Jerusalem and two great Syrian cities – Antioch and Edessa – but not the surrounding country. Jerusalem remained economically sterile despite the advantages of being the centre of administration of church and state and benefiting from streams of pilgrims. Modern research based on historical geography techniques indicate that the spatial distribution of Muslims and indigenous Christians was more sharply delineated than previously thought. Palestinian Christians lived around Jerusalem and in an arc stretching from Jericho and the Jordan to Hebron in the South. Central Areas appear to be Muslim from the point of the destruction of the Samarian communities in the 6th-century. These communities are now thought to be of nearly equal size, perhaps even in a 50:50 proportion. The Frankish population of the Kingdom of Jerusalem became concentrated in three major cities. By the thirteenth century the population of Tyre probably exceeded 60,000, then came Acre and the capital itself was the smallest of the three numbering between 20,000 to 30,000. At the zenith of the Crusader Kingdoms, the total Latin population of the region reached around 250,000 with the kingdom amounting to about 120,000 and the total combined numbers in Tripoli, Antioch and Edessa being broadly similar.

The "Law of Conquest" supported the seizure of land and property by impecunious Crusaders from the autochthonous population, enabling poor men to become rich and part of a noble class. Although some historians, like Jotischky, question the model once proposed, in which the primary motivation was understood in sociological and economic rather than spiritual terms. The Franks did not distinguish on grounds of religion; the basic division in society was between Frank and non-Frank, rather than between Christian and Muslim. The new Frankish ruling class did not expel the native population, but adopted strict segregation and at no point attempted to integrate it by way of religious conversion. In this way the Crusaders created a colonial noble class that perpetuated itself through an incessant flow of religious pilgrims and settlers keen to take economic advantage.

Records preserved from John of Ibelin (jurist) indicate that the military force of the kingdom was based on a feudal host of about 647 to 675 knights in 1170. Each feudatory would also provide his own armed retainers. This force would be augmented by mercenary serjants and John records 5,025 of these. In times of emergency the King could also call upon a general muster of the population. The historian Joshua Prawer estimates that the military orders could match the fighting strength of the king’s army meaning that the total military strength of the kingdom was can be estimated at 1,200 knights and 10,000 serjants. This meant that conquest was possible, but ephemeral because of a lack of the numbers to maintain military domination. This demograhic lack of numbers was also a problem defensively as putting an army into the field required the draining of evry Crusader castle and city of every able bodied fighting man. In the case of a defeat such as Hittin there remained no one to resist the invaders. Muslim armies were in-cohesive and seldom campaigned beyond a period between sowing and harvest. As a result the Crusaders adopted tactics, that when faced with a superior invading Muslim force, in which they would avoid direct confrontation instead retreating to strongholds and waiting for the Muslim army to disperse. It took generations before the Muslims recognised that the destruction of walled cities and castles would end Crusader rule. This strategic change forced the Crusaders into their ultimately unsuccessful strategy of destroying Egypt in order to gain enough time to improve the Kingdoms demographic weakness

Map of the states of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135
Map of the Eastern Mediterranean in 1135. The Frankish Crusader states are indicated with a red cross ☩: Kingdom of Jerusalem, County of Tripoli, Principality of Antioch, County of Edessa. The Principality of Armenian Cilicia was a Crusader state under Armenian (Rubenid) rule. The remnant of the Byzantine Empire is visible in the west; the (nascent) Seljuq Empire and Fatimid Egypt are shown in green.

The key differentiator in status and economic position in the Crusader States was between urban and rural dwellers. There was no Frankish peasant class, this was a role fulfilled by the native peoples. The Franks imposed their own feudal culture on agricultural production which made little difference in the conditions of the rural population. However, the poll tax on non-Muslims was reversed enabling the feudal Lords to raise punitive levels of revenue from the indigenous peoples, whether Muslim, Jewish or Christian. Very few Muslims lived in urban areas except those in servitude, although indigenous Christians could gain legal status and acquire wealth through commerce and industry in towns.

The territorial gains followed distinct ethnic and linguistic entities. The Principality of Antioch, founded in 1098 and ruled by Bohemond, became Norman in character and custom. The Kingdom of Jerusalem, founded in 1099, followed the traditions of northern France. The County of Tripoli, founded in 1104 (although the city of Tripoli itself remained in Muslim control until 1109) by Raymond de Saint-Gilles became Provençal. The County of Edessa, founded in 1098, differed in that although it was ruled by the French Bouillons and Courteneys its largely Armenian and Jacobite native nobility was preserved. These states were the first examples of "Europe overseas". They are generally known by historians as Outremer, from the French outre-mer ("overseas" in English).

Largely based in the ports of Acre and Tyre, Italian, Provençal and Spanish communes provided a significant characteristic of Crusader social stratification and political organisation. Separate from the Frankish nobles or burgesses, the communes were autonomous political entities closely linked to their countries of origin. This gave the inhabitants the ability to monopolise foreign trade and almost all banking and shipping in the Crusader states. Every opportunity to extend trade privileges was taken. One example saw the Venetians receiving one third of Tyre, its territories and exemption from all taxes, after Venice participated in the successful 1124 siege of the city. However, despite all efforts, the two ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the primary centres of commerce in the region. Instead, the communes competed with the Crown and each other to maintain economic advantage. Power derived from the support of the communards' native cities rather than their number, which never reached more than several hundred. Thus by the middle of the 13th century, the rulers of the communes were barely required to recognise the authority of the crusaders and divided Acre into a number of fortified miniature republics.

The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia had its origins before the Crusades, but was granted the status of a kingdom by Pope Innocent III, and later became fully westernized by the (French) Lusignan dynasty.

Kingdom of Cyprus

During the Third Crusade, the Crusaders founded the Kingdom of Cyprus. Richard I of England conquered Cyprus on his way to the Holy Land. He subsequently sold the island to the Knights Templar who were unable to maintain their hold because of a lack of resources and a rapacious attitude towards the local population which led to a series of popular uprisings. The Templars promptly returned the island to Richard who resold it to the displaced King of Jerusalem Guy of Lusignan in 1192. Guy went on to found a dynasty that lasted until 1489, when the widow of James II The Bastard, Queen Catherine Cornaro, a native of Venice, abdicated her throne in favour of the Republic of Venice, which annexed the island. For much of its history under the Lusignan Kings, Cyprus was a prosperous Medieval Kingdom, a commercial and trading hub of Western Christendom in the Middle East. The Kingdom's decline began when it became embroiled in the dispute between the Italian Merchant Republics of Genoa and Venice. Indeed, the Kingdom's decline can be traced to a disastrous war with Genoa in 1373–74 which ended with the Genoese occupying the principal port City of Famagusta. Eventually with the help of Venice, the Kingdom recovered Famagusta but by then it was too late and in any event, the Venetians had their own designs on the island. Venetian rule over Cyprus lasted for just over 80 years until 1571, when the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim II Sarkhosh invaded and captured the entire island. The battle for Cyprus between Venice and the Ottoman Empire was immortalized by William Shakespeare in his play Othello, most of which is set in the port city of Famagusta on the eastern shores of the island.

Fourth Crusade

Further information on these states: Frankokratia
The Latin Empire, its vassals and the Greek successor states, c. 1204

After the Fourth Crusade, the territories of the Byzantine Empire were divided into several states, beginning the so-called "Francocracy" (Template:Lang-el) period:

Later history

Several islands, most notably Crete (1204–1669), Euboea (Negroponte, until 1470), and the Ionian Islands (until 1797) came under the rule of Venice.

These states faced the attacks of the Byzantine Greek successor states of Nicaea and Epirus, as well as Bulgaria. Thessalonica and the Latin Empire were reconquered by the Byzantine Greeks by 1261. Descendants of the Crusaders continued to rule in Athens and the Peloponnesus (Morea) until the 15th century when the area was conquered by the Ottoman Empire.

  • The military order of the Knights Hospitaller of Saint John established itself on Rhodes (and several other Aegean islands; see below) in 1310, with regular influx of new blood, until the Ottomans finally drove them out (to Malta) in 1522.
    • The island of Kastellorizo (like Rhodes a part of the Aegean Dodecanese island group) was taken by the Knights of St. John Hospitaller of Jerusalem in 1309; the Egyptians occupied it from 1440 until 1450; then the Kingdom of Naples ruled till Ottoman conquest in 1512; Venetian rule began in 1659 (as Castellorosso); all these states, excluding the Egyptians, were Catholic; Ottoman rule was reestablished in 1660, although Greeks controlled the island during the Greek War of Independence from 1828–33.
    • Other neighbouring territories temporarily under the order were: the cities of Smyrna (now İzmir; 1344–1402), Attaleia (now Antalya; 1361–1373 and Halicarnassos (now Bodrum;1402–1522), all three in Anatolia; the Greek Isthmus city of Corinth (1397–1404)), the city of Salona (ancient Amphissa; 1407–1410) and the islands of Ikaria (1424–1521) and Kos (1215–1522), all now in Greece.

Numismatics and sigillography

Further information: Knights Templar Seal

The emblem used on the seals of the rulers of Jerusalem during the 12th century was a simplified depiction of the city itself, showing the tower of David between the Dome of the Rock and the Holy Sepulchre, surrounded by the city walls. The coins minted in Jerusalem during the 12th century show patriarchal crosses with various modifications. Coins minted under Henry I (r. 1192–1197) show a cross with four dots in the four quarters, but the Jerusalem cross proper appears only on a coin minted under John II (r. 1284/5).

The crescent in pellet symbol is used in Crusader coins of the 12th century, in some cases duplicated in the four corners of a cross, as a variant of the cross-and-crosslets ("Jerusalem cross"). Many Crusader seals and coins show a crescent and a star (or blazing Sun) on either side of the ruler's head (as in the tradition of Sassanid coins), e.g. Bohemond III of Antioch, Richard I of England, Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse. At the same time, the star in crescent is found on the obverse of Crusader coins, e.g. in coins of the County of Tripoli minted under Raymond II or III c. 1140s–1160s show an "eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent".

Northern Crusades

The Northern Crusader states c. 1410

In the Baltic region, the indigenous tribes in the Middle Ages at first staunchly refused Christianity. In 1193, Pope Celestine III urged Christians to have a crusade against the heathens which included the Old Prussians, the Lithuanians and other tribes inhabiting Estonia, Latvia and East Prussia. This period of warfare is called the Northern Crusades.

In the aftermath of Northern Crusades William of Modena as Papal legate solved the disputes between the crusaders in Livonia and Prussia.

In literature

  • In the Chanson de Roland, "Outremer" is used as the name of a fictional Muslim country. It is identified as one of the many countries participating in the general mobilization of the Muslim world against Christianity at the climax of the plot.
  • Robert E. Howard: Hawks of Outremer, West Kingston, Rhode Island: Donald M. Grant, 1979.
  • Sharon Kay Penman : "Lionheart", G.P. Putnam's Sons, New York 2011. Marian Wood Books/Putnam, London 2011. ISBN 978-0-399-15785-1. In "Lionheart", the protagonists are introduced sailing to Outremer. The novel revolves around Richard the Lionheart's Crusades in the Holy Land.

See also

Notes

  1. Template:Lang-fr, meaning "overseas"; during the Renaissance, the term was later often equated to the area of the Levant and it remains synonymous for the Holy Land.

References

  1. Richard Kerridge (29 October 2015). A/AS Level History for AQA The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204 Student Book. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-107-58725-0.
  2. Johnson, Paul (1979). Civilizations of the Holy Land. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 202. Of the enormous literature which the crusades inspired in Europe, only one poem of any importance was actually written in the Holy Land, or Outremer as the Latins called it: the so-called Chanson des Chetifs, produced at Antioch a little before 1149. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  3. Barber, Malcolm. “The Crusader States” (Yale University Press. 2012) ISBN 978-0-300-11312-9. Page xiii
  4. "Distinguishing the terms: Latins and Romans". Orbis Latinus.
  5. See for example The Crusader Kingdom of Valencia: Reconstruction on a Thirteenth-Century Frontier, R.I. Burns, SJ, Harvard, 1967 (available online)
  6. Barber, Malcolm. “The Crusader States” (Yale University Press, 2012) ISBN 978-0-300-11312-9. Page 110
  7. Asbridge 2012, p. 106
  8. Prawer 2001, p. 87
  9. Asbridge 2012, pp. 147–50
  10. "Outremer". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  11. Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 50–51
  12. Cite error: The named reference Asbridge 2012 106 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  13. Prawer 2001, p. 87
  14. Jotischky 2004, p. 131 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJotischky2004 (help)
  15. Prawer 2001, p. 82
  16. Prawer 2001, p. 396
  17. Jotischky 2004, pp. 37–38 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJotischky2004 (help)
  18. ^ Prawer 2001, pp. 60–63
  19. Prawer 2001, pp. 327–33
  20. Jotischky 2004, pp. 128–29 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJotischky2004 (help)
  21. Asbridge 2012, pp. 147–50
  22. "Outremer". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  23. Riley-Smith 2005, pp. 50–51
  24. Prawer 2001, pp. 85–87
  25. Prawer 2001, pp. 87–93
  26. Edbury P.W., The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191 - 1374, Cambridge University Press (1991)
  27. Edbury P.W., The Kingdom of Cyprus and the Crusades 1191 - 1374, Cambridge University Press (1991)
  28. Hubert de Vries, Jerusalem (hubert-herald.nl). The design is also found on coins minted under his successor, the last king of Jerusalem, Henry II (forumancientcoins.com)
  29. In the 12th century found on pennies William the Lion (r. 1174–1195). William Till, An Essay on the Roman Denarius and English Silver Penny (1838), p. 73. E.g. "Rev: short cross with crescent and pellets in angles and +RAVLD legend for the moneyer Raul Derling at Berwick or Roxburgh mint" (timelineauctions.com). Seaby SE5025 "Rev. L ON ROC, short cross with crescents & pellets in quarters" (wildwinds.com).
  30. Bohemond III of Antioch (r. 1163–1201) "Obv. Helmeted head of king in chain-maille armor, crescent and star to sides" (ancientresource.com)
  31. "Billon denier, struck c. late 1140s-1164. + RAVNDVS COMS, cross pattée, pellet in 1st and 2nd quarters / CIVIRIPOLIS, eight-rayed star with pellets above crescent. ref: CCS 6-8; Metcalf 509 (ancientresource.com).
  32. Richard is depicted as seated between a crescent and a "Sun full radiant" in his second Great Seal of 1198. English heraldic tradition of the early modern period associates the star and crescent design with Richard, with his victory over Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus in 1192, and with the arms of Portsmouth (Francis Wise A Letter to Dr Mead Concerning Some Antiquities in Berkshire, 1738, p. 18). Heraldic tradition also attributes a star-and-crescent badge to Richard (Charles Fox-Davies, A Complete Guide to Heraldry, 1909, p. 468).
  33. Found in the 19th century at the site of the Biais commandery, in Saint-Père-en-Retz, Loire-Atlantique, France, now in the Musée Dobré in Nantes, inv. no. 303. Philippe Josserand, "Les Templiers en Bretagne au Moyen Âge : mythes et réalités", Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de l’Ouest 119.4 (2012), 7–33 (p.24).
  34. High medieval rural settlement in Scandinavia; The Cambridge History of Scandinavia By Knut Helle; p. 269 ISBN 0-521-47299-7

Bibliography

Primary sources

  • Burns, Robert Ignatius. Diplomatarium of the Crusader Kingdom of Valencia: Documents 1-500: Foundations of crusader Valencia, revolt and recovery, 1257-1263. Vol. 2. (Princeton University Press, 2007)

External links

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