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| ==Origins== | ==Origins== | ||
| The first king in this dynasty was ], possibly a contemporary of ] (c. 335/350-375 CE). The kingdom which he established with much effort, grew in the periphery of the ], adopted the north Indian political model, and its kings took on names and titles of the Gupta kings and queens. |
The first king in this dynasty was ], possibly a contemporary of ] (c. 335/350-375 CE). The kingdom which he established with much effort, grew in the periphery of the ], adopted the north Indian political model, and its kings took on names and titles of the Gupta kings and queens.Nothing much is known directly about the initial kings till the sixth king, Mahendravarman, who established a rock temple and assumed the title of ''Maharajadhiraja'' (king-of-kings) in the last quarter of the fifth century. The last king ] claimed he was a descendant of ], ] and ],<ref>"The mythical ancestors of (the Varman) line of rulers were Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta."{{harv|Sharma|1978|p=0.29}}</ref><ref>{{harv|Sircar|1990|p=95}}</ref> though it is a considered to be a fabrication.<ref>"Since the Epico-Pauranic myths associated Pragjyotisha with Naraka and his descendants, it was quite natural for the kings of ancient Assam to fabricate the story of descent from Naraka's family."{{harv|Sircar|1990|p=96}}</ref> The use of Naraka/Bhagadatta lineage to establish sovereignty continued under the ] and the ] dynasties, a practice which is in keeping with the trend in the post-Gupta period in India. | ||
| Foreign records are conflicting, with ] claiming him (Bhaskaravarmana) to be a ]<ref>"The present king belongs to the old line (''tso yari'') of Narayana-deva. He is of the Brahman caste. His name is Bhaskaravarman, and his title Kumara (Keu-mo-lo)."{{harv|Beal|1884|p=196}}</ref>, while he told ''She-Kia-Fang-Che'' "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (<nowiki>''</nowiki>Han-ti<nowiki>''</nowiki>) flying through the air".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Acharyya|first=N. N.|title=Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28"|publisher=1985|year=Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti|pages=112|quote=At the time of Hiuan-tsang's visit King Bhaskaravarman, was "a descendant of the God Narayana" ; he was "of the caste of the Brahman, as," and had the title of " Kumara." "Since the possession of the kingdom by his family up to his time, the succession of princes covers a space of a thousand generations" (Mem.II,77.) The evidence of his contemporary Bana (Harsacarita, chap. VII) confirms almost all these details. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman (Nidhanpur plates,Ep.Ind.,XII,65), which takes back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta, the famous adversary of the by a long list of ancestors. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether. When the envoy of the T'ang dynasty, Li Yi-piao, paid him a visit during the course of his mission (643-646) the king in a private conversation told him: "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (''Han-ti'') flying through the air" (''She-kia fang tche'', ed. Tok. XXXV, 1, 94b, ''col. ult. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu and a Sanskrit translation of the Tao-to-king.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Barpujari|first=H. K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam - From the Pre-historic Times to the Twelfth Century A.D.|publisher=Publication Board, Assam|year=1990|pages=202}}</ref> Some modern scholars have opined that the Varman dynasty is probably of Aryan descent,<ref>{{cite book |author=Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti |title=Readings in the history & culture of Assam |page=179 |year=1984}} "The Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam was overthrown by Salastambha, a man of Mleccha or non-Aryan (Mongolian) origin."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Niśipada Caudhurī |title=Historical archaeology of central Assam |page=83 |year=1985}} "K.N. Dutta seems to be right in concluding that the Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam, was overthrown by Salastambha, (Mongoloid) origin, who then made himself the king of Kamarupa."</ref> while others claim non-Aryan origins.<ref>"Hiuen Ts’ang by mistake described Bhaskara-varman as a Brahman, but he was just a neo-Kshatriya, a member of a Hinduised mleccha or non-Hindu Indo-Mongoloid family which had been accepted within the fold of Hindu orthodoxy."{{harv|Chatterji|1951|pp=90-91}}</ref> <ref>"Virtually all of Assam's kings, from the fourth-century Varmans down to the eighteenth-century Ahoms, came from non-Aryan tribes that were only gradually Sanskritised."{{harv|Urban|2011|p=234}}</ref> | Foreign records are conflicting, with ] claiming him (Bhaskaravarmana) to be a ]<ref>"The present king belongs to the old line (''tso yari'') of Narayana-deva. He is of the Brahman caste. His name is Bhaskaravarman, and his title Kumara (Keu-mo-lo)."{{harv|Beal|1884|p=196}}</ref>, while he told ''She-Kia-Fang-Che'' "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (<nowiki>''</nowiki>Han-ti<nowiki>''</nowiki>) flying through the air".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Acharyya|first=N. N.|title=Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28"|publisher=1985|year=Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti|pages=112|quote=At the time of Hiuan-tsang's visit King Bhaskaravarman, was "a descendant of the God Narayana" ; he was "of the caste of the Brahman, as," and had the title of " Kumara." "Since the possession of the kingdom by his family up to his time, the succession of princes covers a space of a thousand generations" (Mem.II,77.) The evidence of his contemporary Bana (Harsacarita, chap. VII) confirms almost all these details. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman (Nidhanpur plates,Ep.Ind.,XII,65), which takes back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta, the famous adversary of the by a long list of ancestors. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether. When the envoy of the T'ang dynasty, Li Yi-piao, paid him a visit during the course of his mission (643-646) the king in a private conversation told him: "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (''Han-ti'') flying through the air" (''She-kia fang tche'', ed. Tok. XXXV, 1, 94b, ''col. ult. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu and a Sanskrit translation of the Tao-to-king.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Barpujari|first=H. K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam - From the Pre-historic Times to the Twelfth Century A.D.|publisher=Publication Board, Assam|year=1990|pages=202}}</ref> Some modern scholars have opined that the Varman dynasty is probably of Aryan descent,<ref>{{cite book |author=Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti |title=Readings in the history & culture of Assam |page=179 |year=1984}} "The Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam was overthrown by Salastambha, a man of Mleccha or non-Aryan (Mongolian) origin."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Niśipada Caudhurī |title=Historical archaeology of central Assam |page=83 |year=1985}} "K.N. Dutta seems to be right in concluding that the Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam, was overthrown by Salastambha, (Mongoloid) origin, who then made himself the king of Kamarupa."</ref> while others claim non-Aryan origins.<ref>"Hiuen Ts’ang by mistake described Bhaskara-varman as a Brahman, but he was just a neo-Kshatriya, a member of a Hinduised mleccha or non-Hindu Indo-Mongoloid family which had been accepted within the fold of Hindu orthodoxy."{{harv|Chatterji|1951|pp=90-91}}</ref> <ref>"Virtually all of Assam's kings, from the fourth-century Varmans down to the eighteenth-century Ahoms, came from non-Aryan tribes that were only gradually Sanskritised."{{harv|Urban|2011|p=234}}</ref> | ||
| Line 68: | Line 68: | ||
| ==Politics and diplomacy== | ==Politics and diplomacy== | ||
| ] | ] | ||
| The Varman's modeled themselves after the Gupta's and named themselves after the Gupta kings and queens. | |||
| The Varman's modeled themselves after the Gupta's and named themselves after the Gupta kings and queens.<ref>"the early kings of Kamariipa freely implemented the political model of north India, particularly following that of the Guptas, rather suggests their relative autonomy in the periphery. They adopted the imperial title of the Gupta, and the name of a Gupta king and queen, and performed a horse sacrifice...The resemblance between the names of Pushyavarman's son, Samudravarman, and daughter-in-law, DattadevI, on the one hand and those of Gupta emperor Samudragupta and his queen Dattadevl on the other may not be accidental. It was probably a conscious adoption."{{harv|Shin|2018|p=30}}</ref> | |||
| ==Cultural environment== | ==Cultural environment== | ||
| Line 123: | Line 123: | ||
| *{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC}} | *{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra Nath|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization |publisher=New Age International|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC}} | ||
| * {{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Mukunda Madhava|title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam|publisher=Gauhati University, Assam|year=1978}} | * {{cite book|last=Sharma|first=Mukunda Madhava|title=Inscriptions of Ancient Assam|publisher=Gauhati University, Assam|year=1978}} | ||
| * {{cite journal|last1=Shin|first1=Jae-Eun|year=2010|title=Changlng Dynasties, Enduring Genealogy: A Critical Study on the Political Legitimation in Early Medieval Kamarupa|journal=Journal of Ancient Indian History|volume=XXVII}} | |||
| * {{Citation| last = Shin| first = Jae-Eun| contribution = Region Formed and Imagined: Reconsidering temporal, spatial and social context of Kamarupa| year = 2018| title = Modern Practices in North East India: History, Culture, Representation| editor-last = Dzüvichü| editor-first = Lipokmar |editor2-last=Baruah |editor2-first=Manjeet |pages = 23–55| place = London & New York| publisher = Routledge}} | |||
| * {{Citation| last = Sircar| first = D C| contribution = Political History| year = 1990| title = The Comprehensive History of Assam| editor-last = Barpujari| editor-first = H K| volume = I| pages = 94–171| place = Guwahati| publisher = Publication Board, Assam}} | * {{Citation| last = Sircar| first = D C| contribution = Political History| year = 1990| title = The Comprehensive History of Assam| editor-last = Barpujari| editor-first = H K| volume = I| pages = 94–171| place = Guwahati| publisher = Publication Board, Assam}} | ||
| * {{cite journal|last1=Urban|first1=Hugh B.|year=2011|title=The Womb of Tantra: Goddesses, Tribals, and Kings in Assam|journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=4|issue=3|pages=231–247 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hir034 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270529066}} | * {{cite journal|last1=Urban|first1=Hugh B.|year=2011|title=The Womb of Tantra: Goddesses, Tribals, and Kings in Assam|journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=4|issue=3|pages=231–247 |doi=10.1093/jhs/hir034 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270529066}} | ||
Revision as of 16:44, 24 July 2021
Ruling dynasty of Kamarupa kingdom in ancient India between 350 CE - 655 CE For the Khmer dynasty of the same name, see List of kings of Cambodia.
| Kamarupa KingdomVarman dynasty | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 350 CE–655 CE | |||||||||
 The 7th and 8th century extent of Kamarupa kingdom. located on the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, what is today modern-day Assam, Bengal and Bhutan. Kamarupa at its height covered the entire Brahmaputra Valley, North Bengal, Bhutan and northern part of Bangladesh, and at times portions of West Bengal and Bihar. | |||||||||
| Capital | Pragjyotishpura | ||||||||
| Official languages | Sanskrit, Kamarupi Prakrit | ||||||||
| Religion | Hinduism | ||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||
| Maharajadhiraja | |||||||||
| • c. 350 - c. 374 | Pushyavarman | ||||||||
| • c. 518 – c. 542 | Bhutivarman | ||||||||
| • c. 600 – c. 650 | Bhaskaravarman | ||||||||
| Historical era | Classical India | ||||||||
| • Established | 350 CE | ||||||||
| • Disestablished | 655 CE | ||||||||
| |||||||||
| Part of a series on the |
| History of Assam |
|---|
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| Contemporary |
| Sources |
| Categories |
The Varman dynasty (350-650) was the first historical dynasty of the Kamarupa kingdom. It was established by Pushyavarman, a contemporary of Samudragupta. The earlier Varmans were subordinates of the Gupta Empire, but as the power of the Guptas waned, Mahendravarman (470-494) performed two horse sacrifices and the status of Kamarupa as independent state remained umimpaired. According to the Allahabad Prasasti, the ruler of Kamarupa was a frontier ruler (Pratyanta-nrpatis) of the great Gupta emperor.
As per the Apsad Inscription of Adityasen, Susthivarman was defeated by Mahasengupta on the bank of Lauhitya.
The first of the three Kamarupa dynasties, the Varmans were followed by the Mlechchha and then the Pala dynasties.
Capital
The capital was moved at least once, the last time by Sthitavarman (566-590) with the older city not named but presumed to be Pragjyotishpura, located at the south-eastern slope of the Narakasur hill near Dispur. The new capital was possibly some location in Guwahati.
Origins
The first king in this dynasty was Pushyavarman, possibly a contemporary of Samudragupta (c. 335/350-375 CE). The kingdom which he established with much effort, grew in the periphery of the Gupta Empire, adopted the north Indian political model, and its kings took on names and titles of the Gupta kings and queens.Nothing much is known directly about the initial kings till the sixth king, Mahendravarman, who established a rock temple and assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja (king-of-kings) in the last quarter of the fifth century. The last king Bhaskaravarman claimed he was a descendant of Narakasur, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta, though it is a considered to be a fabrication. The use of Naraka/Bhagadatta lineage to establish sovereignty continued under the Mlechchha and the Pala dynasties, a practice which is in keeping with the trend in the post-Gupta period in India.
Foreign records are conflicting, with Xuanzang claiming him (Bhaskaravarmana) to be a Brahmana, while he told She-Kia-Fang-Che "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (''Han-ti'') flying through the air". Some modern scholars have opined that the Varman dynasty is probably of Aryan descent, while others claim non-Aryan origins.
Politics and diplomacy
,_Kamarupa_-_Panel_on_Plinth.jpg)
The Varman's modeled themselves after the Gupta's and named themselves after the Gupta kings and queens.
Cultural environment
People were simple and honest with small stature and dark yellow complexion who speak a language that was a little different from Mid-India. Their nature was very impetuous and wild with retentive memories. People were sincere in study who adore and sacrificed to the Devas, and they didn't worship Buddha and no monument related to Buddha was built. Some Buddha disciples said their prayers secretly. There was hundreds of deva temples, and different sects. Bhaskaravarman, role model for the people, was fond of learning. Intellectuals from distant places visited his country. Bhaskaravarman wasn't a Buddhist but he respected sramaņas of learning.
The dynasty
The dynastic line, as given in the Dubi and Nidhanpur copperplate inscriptions:
| Reign | Name | succession | Queen | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 350-374 | Pushyavarman | (unknown) | |
| 2 | 374-398 | Samudravarman | son of Pushyavarman | Dattadevi |
| 3 | 398-422 | Balavarman | son of Samudravarman | Ratnavati |
| 4 | 422-446 | Kalyanavarman | son of Balavarman | Gandharavati |
| 5 | 446-470 | Ganapativarman | son of Kalyanavarman | Yajnavati |
| 6 | 470-494 | Mahendravarman | son of Ganapativarman | Suvrata |
| 7 | 494-518 | Narayanavarman | son of Mahendravarman | Devavati |
| 8 | 518-542 | Bhutivarman | son of Narayanavarman | Vijnayavati |
| 9 | 542-566 | Chandramukhavarman | son of Bhutivarman | Bhogavati |
| 10 | 566-590 | Sthitavarman | son of Chandramukhavarman | Nayanadevi |
| 11 | 590-595 | Susthitavarman | son of Sthitavarman | Syamadevi |
| 12 | 595-600 | Supratisthitavarman | son of Susthitavarman | (Bachelor) |
| 13 | 600-650 | Bhaskaravarman | brother of Supratisthitavarman | (Bachelor) |
| 14 | 650-655 | Unknown | (unknown) | (unknown) |
References
- (Dutta 2008, p. 281) harv error: no target: CITEREFDutta2008 (help), reproduced from (Acharya 1968) harv error: no target: CITEREFAcharya1968 (help).
- (Sircar 1990, pp. 63–68)
- "Three thousand years after these mythical ancestors (Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta) there occurred Pushyavarman as the first historical king, after whom we have an uninterrupted line of rulers up to Bhaskarvarman."(Sharma 1978, p. xxix)
- "According to him (D C Sircar) Narayanavarma, the father of Bhutivarman, was the first Kamarupa king to perform horse-sacrifices and thus for the first time since the days of Pusyavarman freedom from the Gupta political supremacy was declared by Narayanavarma. But a careful study or even a casual perusal of the seal attached to the Dubi C.P. and of the nalanda seals should show that it is Sri Mahendra, the father of Narayanavarma himself, who is described as the performer of two horse-sacrifices."(Sharma 1978, p. 8)
- "There is no conclusive proof that the Guptas conquered Kāmarupa."(Ray 1931, p. 238)
- "The status of Kamarupa remained unimpaired as the grandson of Bhutivarman also performed two Asvamedha sacrifices."(Sen 1999, p. 303)
- "In the Allahabad prasasti of Harişeņa the ruler of Kāmarūpa is included in the list of tributary Pratyanta-nrpatis of the great Gupta emperor."(Ray 1931, p. 238)
- Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1986). Vakataka - Gupta Age Circa 200-550 A.D. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 142. ISBN 9788120800267.
- "Again the Apsad Inscription of Adityasen refer to his grandfather Mahasengupta's defeat of Susthivarmand on the bank of Lauhitya. Susthivarman was the King of Kamarupa."(Mukherji & Maity 1967, p. 7)
- "The older city is not given by name...(it) might have been Pragjyotisha."(Sharma 1978, pp. 30–31)
- "This verse refers to the act of abandoning the old capital city and building of a new metropolis on the bank of the holy river. The holy river seems to be none other than the Brahmaputra and the site of the city must have been located in the present Gauhati region."(Sharma 1978, p. 30)
- "The mythical ancestors of (the Varman) line of rulers were Naraka, Bhagadatta and Vajradatta."(Sharma 1978, p. 0.29)
- (Sircar 1990, p. 95)
- "Since the Epico-Pauranic myths associated Pragjyotisha with Naraka and his descendants, it was quite natural for the kings of ancient Assam to fabricate the story of descent from Naraka's family."(Sircar 1990, p. 96)
- "The present king belongs to the old line (tso yari) of Narayana-deva. He is of the Brahman caste. His name is Bhaskaravarman, and his title Kumara (Keu-mo-lo)."(Beal 1884, p. 196)
- Acharyya, N. N. (Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti). Studies On The Graeco - Roman And Chinese Sources Of The History Of Ancient Assam in "Journal of the Assam Research Society - Volume 28". 1985. p. 112.
At the time of Hiuan-tsang's visit King Bhaskaravarman, was "a descendant of the God Narayana" ; he was "of the caste of the Brahman, as," and had the title of " Kumara." "Since the possession of the kingdom by his family up to his time, the succession of princes covers a space of a thousand generations" (Mem.II,77.) The evidence of his contemporary Bana (Harsacarita, chap. VII) confirms almost all these details. Finally we possess since a few years ago an inscription of King Bhaskaravarman (Nidhanpur plates,Ep.Ind.,XII,65), which takes back the genealogy up to King Bhagadatta, the famous adversary of the by a long list of ancestors. However, when he had business with others than Indians, the same prince boasted of another origin altogether. When the envoy of the T'ang dynasty, Li Yi-piao, paid him a visit during the course of his mission (643-646) the king in a private conversation told him: "the royal family has handed down its power for 4,000 years. The first was a holy spirit which came from China (Han-ti) flying through the air" (She-kia fang tche, ed. Tok. XXXV, 1, 94b, col. ult. As though he would show sympathy for China, he asked the envoy to get him a portrait of Lao-tseu and a Sanskrit translation of the Tao-to-king.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|year=(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - Barpujari, H. K. (1990). The Comprehensive History of Assam - From the Pre-historic Times to the Twelfth Century A.D. Publication Board, Assam. p. 202.
- Kāmarūpa Anusandhāna Samiti (1984). Readings in the history & culture of Assam. p. 179. "The Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam was overthrown by Salastambha, a man of Mleccha or non-Aryan (Mongolian) origin."
- Niśipada Caudhurī (1985). Historical archaeology of central Assam. p. 83. "K.N. Dutta seems to be right in concluding that the Varman dynasty, which was probably the first Indo-Aryan dynasty in Assam, was overthrown by Salastambha, (Mongoloid) origin, who then made himself the king of Kamarupa."
- "Hiuen Ts’ang by mistake described Bhaskara-varman as a Brahman, but he was just a neo-Kshatriya, a member of a Hinduised mleccha or non-Hindu Indo-Mongoloid family which had been accepted within the fold of Hindu orthodoxy."(Chatterji 1951, pp. 90–91)
- "Virtually all of Assam's kings, from the fourth-century Varmans down to the eighteenth-century Ahoms, came from non-Aryan tribes that were only gradually Sanskritised."(Urban 2011, p. 234)
- "The manners of the people simple and honest. The men are of small stature, and their complexion a dark yellow. Their language differs a little from that of Mid-India. Their nature is very impetuous and wild; their memories are retentive, and they are earnest in study. They adore and sacrifice to the Dêvas, and have no faith in Buddha; hence from the time when Buddha appeared in the world even down to the present time there never as yet has been built one sanghårdma as a place for the priests to assemble. Such disciples as there are, are of pure faith, say their prayers (repeat the name of Buddha) secretly, and that is all. There are as many as 100 Dêva temples, and different sectaries to the number of several myriads. The king is fond of learning, and the people are so likewise in imitation of him. Men of high talent from distant regions aspiring after office visit his dominions as strangers. Though he has no faith in Buddha, yet he much respects Sramaņas of learning."(Beal 1884, p. 196)
- "Though there exists no direct evidence, there are indirect evidence of a king who ruled for a short period after Bhaskaravarman, but was ousted by Salasthamba."(Sharma 1978, pp. xxxi–xxxii).
Bibliography
- Beal, Samuel (1884). Si-Yu-Ki. Buddhist Records of the Western World, Translated from the Chinese of Hsüan-tsang (A.D. 629). Vol. II. London: Trubner & Co. Retrieved 17 February 2013.
- Chatterji, Suniti Kumar (1951). Kirata-jana-krti. Calcutta: The Asiatic Society.
- Chattopadhyaya, S (1990), "Social Life", in Barpujari, H K (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. I, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 195–232
- Choudhury, P. C. (1966). The History of the Civilisation of the People of Assam to the Twelfth Century AD. Gauhati: Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies of Assam.
- Lahiri, Nayanjot (1991), Pre-Ahom Assam: Studies in the Inscriptions of Assam between the Fifth and the Thirteenth Centuries AD, Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers
- Mukherji, Ramaranjan; Maity, Sachindra Kumar (1967). Corpus Of Bengal Inscriptions Bearing On History And Civilization Of Bengal. Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay.
- Ray, H.C. (1931). Dynastic History Of Northern India Vol. 1. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.
- Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 9788122411980.
- Sharma, Mukunda Madhava (1978). Inscriptions of Ancient Assam. Gauhati University, Assam.
- Sircar, D C (1990), "Political History", in Barpujari, H K (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. I, Guwahati: Publication Board, Assam, pp. 94–171
- Urban, Hugh B. (2011). "The Womb of Tantra: Goddesses, Tribals, and Kings in Assam". The Journal of Hindu Studies. 4 (3): 231–247. doi:10.1093/jhs/hir034.
- Xuan-zhuang (1996). Bian-ji (ed.). The Great Tang Dynasty Record of the Western Regions. Vol. 51. Translated by Li Rongxi. BDK America. ISBN 1-886439-02-8. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 27 June 2019.