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	{{Short description|Ancient Korean kingdom (c.37 BC–AD 668)}}		{{Short description|Ancient Korean kingdom (c.37 BC–AD 668)}}
	{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
	{{Infobox country		{{Infobox country
	| native_name = {{native phrase|ko|高句麗}} (])<br>{{native phrase|ko|고구려}} (])<hr />{{native phrase|ko|高麗}} (])<br>{{native phrase|ko|고려}} (])<br>{{small|''Goryeo''}}<hr />		| native_name = {{native phrase|ko|高句麗}} (])<br>{{native phrase|ko|고구려}} (])<hr />{{native phrase|ko|高麗}} (])<br>{{native phrase|ko|고려}} (])<br>{{small|''Goryeo''}}<hr />
	{{lang|ko-Hant|句麗}} (])<br>{{small|]: (구려)}}<br>{{small|]: (ɡuɾ.jʌ̹)}}<br>{{small|]: ''Kwulye'' (]: Guryeo)}}		{{lang|ko-Hant|句麗}} (])<br>{{small|]: ''Kwulye'' (]: Guryeo)}}<br>{{small|]: (ɡuɾ.jʌ̹)}}<br>{{small|]: (구려)}}
	| conventional_long_name = Goguryeo (Goryeo)		| conventional_long_name = Goguryeo (Goryeo)
	| common_name = Goguryeo		| common_name = Goguryeo
	| era = Ancient		| era = Ancient
	| status = Kingdom/Empire		| status = Kingdom/Empire
			| motto = "Son of God"
	| motto = {{lang|ko|천제지자}} (천제의 자손)<br />{{lang|ko-Hant-KR|天帝之子}}<br />"Son of God"<ref>昔始祖鄒牟王之創基也, 出自北夫餘, '''天帝之子''', 母河伯女郞. 剖卵降世, 生而有聖□□□□. □命駕, 巡幸南下, 路由夫餘奄利大水. 王臨津言曰, 我是'''皇天之子''', 母河伯女郞, 鄒牟王. 爲我連葭浮龜, 應聲卽爲連葭浮龜. 然後造渡, 於沸流谷忽本西, 城山上而建都焉. 不樂世位, 因遣黃龍來下迎王. 王於忽本東罡, 履龍頁昇天.顧命世子儒留王, 以道興治, 大朱留王紹承基業. </ref>
			ref002 {{sfn|NHCC/Korean History|loc=ht_001_0030_0020_0010 ; the quotation given wasn't sustaining the claim}}
	| status_text =
			| status_text =
	| government_type = ]		| government_type = ]
	| year_start = 37 BC{{efn|name="277BC"|North Korea claims that the country was established in 277 BC.<ref>{{cite web |title=Panorama of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea |url=http://www.mfa.gov.kp/en/overview/ |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs DPRK |access-date=19 January 2022 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517082710/http://www.mfa.gov.kp/en/overview/ |archivedate=17 May 2021}}</ref>}}		| year_start = 37 BC{{efn|name="277BC"|North Korea claims that the country was established in 277 BC.
			ref001 {{sfn|MFA-DPRK/overview}} }}
	| year_end = AD 668		| year_end = AD 668
	| event_start = Establishment		| event_start = Establishment
	| date_start =		| date_start =
	| event_end = Fall of ]		| event_end = Fall of ]
	| date_end =		| date_end =
	| event1 = Introduction of ]		| event1 = Introduction of ]
	| date_event1 = 372		| date_event1 = 372
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	| event4 = ]		| event4 = ]
	| date_event4 = 645–668		| date_event4 = 645–668
	| event_pre =		| event_pre =
	| date_pre =		| date_pre =
	| p1 = Buyeo		| p1 = Buyeo
	| flag_p1 =		| flag_p1 =
	| s1 = Unified Silla		| s1 = Unified Silla
	| flag_s1 = Seal of Silla.png		| flag_s1 = Seal of Silla.png
	| s2 = Balhae		| s2 = Balhae
	| s3 = Protectorate General to Pacify the East		| s3 = Protectorate General to Pacify the East
	| flag_s2 =		| flag_s2 =
	| image_flag =		| image_flag =
	| image_flag2 =		| image_flag2 =
	| flag =		| flag =
	| flag_type =		| flag_type =
	| image_map = History of Korea-476.PNG		| image_map = History of Korea-476.PNG
	| image_map_caption = Goguryeo (Goryeo) in AD 476		| image_map_caption = Goguryeo (Goryeo) in AD 476
	| capital = ]<small><br />(37 BC – AD 3)</small><br />]<small><br />(3–427)</small><br />]<small><br />(427–668)</small>		| capital = ]<small><br />(37 BC – AD 3)</small><br />]<small><br />(3–427)</small><br />]<small><br />(427–668)</small>
	| latd =		| latd =
	| common_languages = ] <small>(])</small>,<br />] <small>(literary)</small>		| common_languages = ] <small>(])</small>,<br />] <small>(literary)</small>
	| religion = ] (]: AD 372),<br />],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321038/Koguryo |title = Koguryo |encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date = June 27, 2017}}</ref><br />],<br />]		| religion = ] (]: AD 372),<br />],
			ref003 {{sfn|Britannica/Koguryo}}<br />],<br />]
	| currency =
			| currency =
	| title_leader = ]/]		| title_leader = ]/]
	| leader1 = ] (first)		| leader1 = ] (first)
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	| deputy2 = ] (last)		| deputy2 = ] (last)
	| year_deputy2 = 666–668		| year_deputy2 = 666–668
	| stat_year1 = 7th century<ref name="고려시대 개경 연구">{{cite book |author = 조상헌 |title = 고구려 인구에 관한 시론|year = 1997}}</ref>		| stat_year1 = 7th century
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref004 {{sfn|NONO-04}}</span>
	| stat_pop1 = approximately 3,500,000 (697,000 households)		| stat_pop1 = approximately 3,500,000 (697,000 households)
	| footnotes =		| footnotes =
	| legislature = ]		| legislature = ]
	| today = ]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]		| today = ]<br />]<br />]<br />]<br />]
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	| koreanipa1 = {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ|}}		| koreanipa1 = {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ|}}
	| othername2 = ]		| othername2 = ]
			| hangul2 =
	| hangul2 = {{lang|ko|구려}}<ref>《汉书·地理志》：玄菟、乐浪，武帝时置，皆朝鲜、濊貉、句骊蛮夷。</ref><ref>《享太庙乐章·钧天舞》：高皇迈道，端拱无为。化怀獯鬻，兵赋勾骊。</ref>
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref005 {{sfn|NONO-05}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref006 {{sfn|NONO-06}}</span>
	| hanja2 = {{lang|ko-Hant|句麗}}		| hanja2 = {{lang|ko-Hant|句麗}}
	| rr2 = Guryeo		| rr2 = Guryeo
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	{{Goguryeo monarchs}}		{{Goguryeo monarchs}}
			A full reorganization of the references is undertaken.
	'''Goguryeo''' (37 BC{{efn|name="277BC"}} – 668 AD) ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goguryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹}}; {{lit}}: high castle; ]: Guryeo)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=고구려(高句麗) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/ |access-date=2023-06-25 |website=encykorea.aks.ac.kr |language=ko}}</ref> also later known as '''Goryeo''' ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ}}; {{lit}}: high and beautiful; ]: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''Gowoyeliᴇ''),<ref>' Institute of the Korean Language. 2023-02-04.]</ref> was a Korean kingdom<ref>{{cite web |title=Koguryŏ {{!}} ancient kingdom, Korea |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Koguryo |website=Britannica |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. |access-date=24 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Gina |title=State Formation in Korea: Emerging Elites |year= 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-84104-0 |page=20 |url={{GBurl|id=VXj_AQAAQBAJ}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Narangoa |first1=Li |last2=Cribb |first2=Robert |title=Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia |date=2014 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-16070-4 |page=152 |url={{GBurl|id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wechsler |first1=Howard J. |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3, Sui and T'ang China, AD 589–906, Part 1 |date=1979 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-21446-9 |page=231 |url={{GBurl|id=idu6-Ie1MhwC}} |chapter=T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator}}</ref> located in the northern and central parts of the ] and the southern and central parts of modern day ]. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most of the Korean Peninsula, large parts of ] and parts of eastern ] and ] as well as Russia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Goguryeo/|title=Goguryeo|website=]|access-date=2019-04-14}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hakjoon |title=Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |page=303 |url={{GBurl|id=UfPqBgAAQBAJ|p=303}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bedeski |first1=Robert |title=Dynamics Of The Korean State: From The Paleolithic Age To Candlelight Democracy |date=2021 |publisher=WSPC |page=133 |url={{GBurl|id=vH5JEAAAQBAJ|p=133}} |access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Matray |first1=James |title=Crisis in a Divided Korea: A Chronology and Reference Guide |date=2016 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |page=7 |url={{GBurl|id=QMLWCwAAQBAJ|p=7}} |access-date=18 July 2023}}</ref>
			* cyan links = quotations without a full reference. To be replaced or ousted. Due date for completion= 2023-11-11.
			* magenta links = "not so sources" : the assertion is not questionned, but the source used seems too weak. A better source from the list given will be used as a replacement. Due date for completion= 2023-11-11.
			* sourcing from not centered works will be reduced.
			* and the anchors refxxx will be removed
			'''Goguryeo''' (37 BC{{efn|name="277BC"}} – 668 AD) ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goguryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹}}; {{lit}}: high castle; ]: Guryeo)
	Along with ] and ], Goguryeo was one of the ]. ({{Korean|한국 삼국시대}}) It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in ] and ].
			ref007 {{sfn|Encykor/Goguryeo/search}}
			also later known as '''Goryeo''' ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ}}; {{lit}}: high and beautiful; ]: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''Gowoyeliᴇ''),
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref008 {{sfn|NONO-08}}</span>
			was a Korean kingdom
			ref003 {{sfn|Britannica/Koguryo}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref009 {{sfn|ref009}}</span>
			ref010 {{sfn|Barnes|2013|p=20}}
			ref011 {{sfn|Li Narangoa|2014|p=152}}
			ref012 {{sfn|Wechsler|1979|p=231}}
			located in the northern and central parts of the ] and the southern and central parts of modern day ]. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most of the Korean Peninsula, large parts of ] and parts of eastern ] and ] as well as Russia.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref013 {{sfn|CWHE/Goguryeo}}</span>
			ref014 {{sfn|Kim Hakjoon|1995|p=303}}
			ref015 {{sfn|Bedeski|2021|p=133}}
			ref016 {{sfn|Matray|2016|p=7}}
			Along with ] and ], Goguryeo was one of the ]. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in ] and ].
	The '']'' ({{Korean|삼국사기}}), a 12th-century text from ], indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by ] ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=朱蒙|hangul=주몽}}), a prince from ], who was enthroned as ].		The '']'' ({{Korean|삼국사기}}), a 12th-century text from ], indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by ] ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=朱蒙|hangul=주몽}}), a prince from ], who was enthroned as ].
			Goguryeo was one of the great powers in ],
	Goguryeo was one of the great powers in ],<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=John Morris|last2=Westad|first2=Odd Arne|title=The History of the World|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0199936762|page=443|url={{GBurl|id=A2cfZkU5aQgC|q=koguryo+powerful+empire}}|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en|year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Gardner|first1=Hall|title=Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-0230608733|pages=158–159|url={{GBurl|id=acvGAAAAQBAJ|q=Inner+Mongolia}}|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en|date=2007}}{{Dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Laet|first1=Sigfried J. de|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century|publisher=UNESCO|isbn=978-9231028137|page=1133|url={{GBurl|id=PvlthkbFU1UC|p=1133}}|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|year=1994}}</ref> until its defeat by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of ] ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=淵蓋蘇文|hangul=연개소문}}).<ref name="Graff200" /> After its fall, its territory was divided between the ], ] and ].
			ref017 {{sfn|Roberts|2013|p=443}}
			ref018 {{sfn|Gardner|2007|p=158-159}}
			ref019 {{sfn|Laet|1994|p=1133}}
			until its defeat by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of ] ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=淵蓋蘇文|hangul=연개소문}}).
			ref020 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=200}}
			After its fall, its territory was divided between the ], ] and ].
			The name '''Goryeo''', alternatively spelled Koryŏ, a shortened form of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), was adopted as the official name in the 5th century,
	The name '''Goryeo''', alternatively spelled Koryŏ, a shortened form of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), was adopted as the official name in the 5th century,<ref>{{cite web|title=디지털 삼국유사 사전, 박물지 시범개발|url=https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07032340&content_id=rp070309330002&print=Y|website=문화콘텐츠닷컴|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=6 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119100108/https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07032340&content_id=rp070309330002&print=Y|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and is the origin of the English name '''"]"'''.
			ref021 {{sfn|EncyKor/Goguryeo}}
			and is the origin of the English name '''"]"'''.
	==Names and etymology==		==Names and etymology==
			Goguryeo ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goguryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹}}) is identified with the meaning of "high castle".
	Goguryeo ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goguryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko̞ɡuɾjʌ̹}}) is identified with the meaning of "high castle".<ref name=":0" /> Originally it was called ''Guryeo'' (]: 句麗 Kwulye (]; ]: )<ref>{{Cite web |title=고구려(高句麗) |url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/ |access-date=2023-06-25 |website=encykorea.aks.ac.kr |language=ko}}</ref> or something similar to kaukuri ,<ref>' Retrieved 24 January 2023.]'</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=高句麗 |date=2023-06-24 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/search/?title=%E9%AB%98%E5%8F%A5%E9%BA%97&oldid=73715663 |work=Wiktionary |access-date=2023-06-25 |language=en}}</ref> both derived from 忽 *kuru or *kolo meaning castle, fortress, possibly a ] like the ] qoto-n.<ref>{{Cite web |title=고구려(高句麗) – 한국민족문화대백과사전 |url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%EA%B3%A0%EA%B5%AC%EB%A0%A4&ridx=9&tot=785 |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=encykorea.aks.ac.kr}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vovin|first1=Alexander|title=From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean|journal=Korean Linguistics|date=2013|volume=15|issue=2|pages=222–240|doi=10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov}}</ref><ref name=":1">Lim, Byung-joon (1999) (A) Study on the borrowed writings of the dialect of Koguryo Dynasty in Ancient Korean (MA), Konkuk University {{ISBN?}}</ref>
			ref022 {{sfn|Encykor/Goguryeo}}
			Originally it was called ''Guryeo'' (]: 句麗 Kwulye (]; ]: )
			ref007 {{sfn|Encykor/Goguryeo/search}} <!--- ref22{{sfn|ref22}} --->
			or something similar to kaukuri ,
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref023 {{sfn|nuriwiki/Goguryo language}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref024 {{sfn|wiktionary/Goguryo}}</span>
			both derived from 忽 *kuru or *kolo meaning castle, fortress, possibly a ] like the ] qoto-n.
			ref007 {{sfn|Encykor/Goguryeo/search}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref025 {{sfn|ref025}}</span>
			ref026 {{sfn|Vovin|2013|loc=p=unknown}}
			ref027 {{sfn|Lim Byung-joon|1999}}
	Goguryeo was later shortened to the ] of '''Goryeo''' ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ}}), which gained the meaning of "high and beautiful".		Goguryeo was later shortened to the ] of '''Goryeo''' ({{Korean|]|hanja=]|rr=Goryeo}}; {{IPA-ko|ko.ɾjʌ}}), which gained the meaning of "high and beautiful".
	A number of possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which was used at a later stage as a administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol .<ref>Tranter, Nicholas (2012). ''The Languages of Japan and Korea'' (1st ed.). Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 53–54. {{ISBN|978-0415462877}}.</ref> Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling.		A number of possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which was used at a later stage as a administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol .
			ref028 {{sfn|Tranter|2012|p=53–54}}
			Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling.
	The iteration of 徐羅伐 syerapel as 徐羅城 *syeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with the Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki, considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy, in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo.<ref>Shiratori, Kurakichi (1896), “朝鮮古代王號考”, in , volume 7, 史學會 (The Historical Society of Japan)</ref><ref>Mabuchi, Kazuhito (1978), “『三国史記』記載の百済地名より見た古代百済語の考察 (On the Ancient Language of Kudara as Reflected in Kudara Place Names in the Sangokushiki)”, in <sup></sup>, archived from the original on 2019-04-17, p. 79</ref>		The iteration of 徐羅伐 syerapel as 徐羅城 *syeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with the Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki, considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy, in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo.
			ref029 {{sfn|Shiratori|1896}}
			ref030 {{sfn|Mabuchi Kazuhito|1979|p=79}}
	Middle Korean 골〯 ''kwǒl'' and ᄀᆞ옳 ''kòwòlh'' ("district") are likely descended from *kolo.<ref name=":1" />
			Middle Korean 골〯 ''kwǒl'' and ᄀᆞ옳 ''kòwòlh'' ("district") are likely descended from *kolo.
			ref027 {{sfn|Lim Byung-joon|1999}}
	==History==		==History==
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	===Origins===		===Origins===
			The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo ({{hanja|高句驪}}) can be traced to geographic monographs in the '']'' and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the ], established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of ] in 113 BC.
	The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo ({{hanja|高句驪}}) can be traced to geographic monographs in the '']'' and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the ], established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of ] in 113 BC.{{sfn|Beckwith|2007|p=33}} The American historian ] offers the alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around ] (western ] and parts of ]) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the ''Book of Han''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived from were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery.<ref name="Barnes">{{cite book |last1=Barnes |first1=Gina L |title=State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives |date=2001 |isbn=978-0700713233 |page=22 |publisher=Psychology Press |url={{GBurl|id=yK8m1XiEKz0C|p=22}} |access-date=25 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="Mohan">{{cite book |last1=Mohan |first1=Pankaj |editor1-last=MacKenzie |editor1-first=John M |title=The Encyclopedia of Empire |date=2016 |publisher=Wiley |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe104 |access-date=25 February 2021 |chapter=Goguyreo|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe104 |isbn=978-1118455074 }}</ref> Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held the ruler title of marquis over said nominal ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xuefeng |title=The Formation of East Asian World during the 4th and 5th Centuries: A Study Based on Chinese Sources |journal=Frontiers of History in China |date=2010 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=525–548 |doi=10.1007/s11462-010-0110-z |s2cid=154743659 |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/fhic/5/4/article-p525_3.xml}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}} The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives.<ref>"In the year 11 AD, he (]) ordered the Koguryo people to attack the Hsiung-nu. When they refused, their ruler was murdered by the Han governor of Liao-hsi and 'so the Maek people raided the frontier even more'."</ref><ref>先是，莽發高句驪兵，當伐胡，不欲行，郡強迫之，皆亡出塞，因犯法為寇。遼西大尹田譚追擊之，為所殺。州郡歸咎於高句驪侯騶。 莽不尉安，穢貉遂反，詔尤擊之。尤誘高句驪侯騶至而斬焉，傳首長安。 於是貉人愈犯邊，東北與西南夷皆亂云。<br />''Book of Han'', Chapter 99.</ref> In the '']'' (945), it is recorded that ] refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century '']'' and the 13th-century '']'', a prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court{{sfn|Byington|2003|p= 234}}{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}} and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called ], usually thought to be located in the middle ] and ] basin.
			ref031 {{sfn|Beckwith|2007|p=33}}
			The American historian ] offers the alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around ] (western ] and parts of ]) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the ''Book of Han''.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived from were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery.
			ref032 {{sfn|Barnes|2013|p=22}}
			ref033 {{sfn|Mohan|2016|loc=p=unknown}}
			Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held the ruler title of marquis over said nominal ].
	In 75 BC, a group of ] who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's ] west of the Yalu.{{sfn|Byington|2003|p=194}}{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}} The first mention of Goguryeo as a group label associated with ] tribes is a reference in the ''Han Shu'' that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery.{{sfn|Byington|2003|p=233}}{{full citation needed|date=January 2023}}
			ref034 {{sfn|Zhang Xuefeng|2010|loc=p=unknown}}
			The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives.
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref035 {{sfn|NONO-35}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref036 {{sfn|NONO-36}}</span>
			In the '']'' (945), it is recorded that ] refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century ] and the 13th-century ], a prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court
			ref037 {{sfn|Byington|2003|p= 234}}
			and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called ], usually thought to be located in the middle ] and ] basin.
			In 75 BC, a group of ] who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's ] west of the Yalu.
	According to Book 37 the of ], Goguryeo originated north of ], then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River.<ref>Book 37 of Samguk sagi Monographs recorded: 高句麗始居中國北地，則漸東遷于浿水之側</ref> At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms.{{sfn|Aikens|1992|pp=191–196}} The '']'', in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language.<ref>{{cite book|last1=De Bary|first1=Theodore|last2=Peter H.|first2=Lee|title=Sources of Korean Tradition|year=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231120319|pages=7–11}}</ref>
			ref038 {{sfn|Byington|2003|p=194}}
			The first mention of Goguryeo as a group label associated with ] tribes is a reference in the ''Han Shu'' that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery.
			ref039 {{sfn|Byington|2003|p=233}}
			According to Book 37 the of ], Goguryeo originated north of ], then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River.
	Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo.{{Citation needed|date=October 2023}} Book 28 of Samguk Sagi stated that "many people of China fled ] due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han".<ref>Book 28 of Samguk Sagi: Baekje's Records Volume 6: 「秦、漢亂離之時，中國人多竄海東。」</ref> Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery.<ref>Book 13 of Samguk sagi Goguryeo's Records：秋八月，王命鳥伊烏伊、摩離，領兵二萬，西伐梁貊，滅其國，進兵襲取漢高句麗縣。(縣屬玄菟郡)”</ref> The population of ] was about 221,845 and they lived in three counties (Gaogouli, Shangyintai and Xigaima) of Xuantu Commandery in 2 AD.<ref>Book of Han Volume 28 Part 2 玄菟郡，戶四萬五千六，口二十二萬一千八百四十五。縣三：高句驪，上殷台，西蓋馬。]</ref> Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the ] during its expansion.<ref>Book of the Later Han Volume 85 Treatise on the Dongyi</ref>
			ref040 {{sfn|Shouldbe-40}}
			At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms.
	Both Goguryeo and ] shared founding myths and originated from ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea)|title=Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III|date=2014|publisher=길잡이미디어|isbn=978-8928900848|page=41|url={{GBurl|id=DsR3BgAAQBAJ|p=41}}|access-date=10 September 2017|language=en}}</ref>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref041 {{sfn|Rhee Song-nai|1992|pp=191–196}}</span>
			The '']'', in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language.
			ref042 {{sfn|Lee, Peter H.|1997|pp=11}}
			Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo. Book 28 of ] stated that "many people of China fled ] due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han".
			ref043 {{sfn|Shouldbe-43}}
			Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery.
			ref044 {{sfn|Shouldbe-44}}
			The population of ] was about 221,845 and they lived in three counties (Gaogouli, Shangyintai and Xigaima) of Xuantu Commandery in 2 AD.
			ref045 {{sfn|Book of the Former Han/28}}
			Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the ] during its expansion.
			ref046 {{sfn|Book of the Later Han/85}}
			Both Goguryeo and ] shared founding myths and originated from ].
			ref047 {{sfn|FolkEncy|2014|p=41}}
	===Jumong and the foundation myth===		===Jumong and the foundation myth===
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	The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th-century ]. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the ] {{linktext|朱蒙}} ''Jumong'', {{linktext|鄒牟}} ''Chumo'', or {{linktext|仲牟}} ''Jungmo''.		The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th-century ]. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the ] {{linktext|朱蒙}} ''Jumong'', {{linktext|鄒牟}} ''Chumo'', or {{linktext|仲牟}} ''Jungmo''.
			The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of ] ({{Korean|하백|河伯}}), the god of the ] or, according to an alternative interpretation, the sun god Haebak ({{Korean|해밝}}).
	The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of ] ({{Korean|하백|河伯}}), the god of the ] or, according to an alternative interpretation, the sun god Haebak ({{Korean|해밝}}).<ref name="Sources of Korean Tradition">{{cite book|last1=De Bary|first1=Theodore|last2=Peter H.|first2=Lee|title=Sources of Korean Tradition|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231120319|pages=24–25|url={{GBurl|id=kWYCxE3plWkC|p=24}}|year=1997}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Doosan Encyclopedia 유화부인 柳花夫人|publisher=]|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1185444&mobile&cid=40942&categoryId=33375}}</ref><ref name="Doosan Encyclopedia">{{Cite book|title=Doosan Encyclopedia 하백 河伯|publisher=]|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1160526&cid=40942&categoryId=31541&mobile}}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Korean Culture 하백 河伯|publisher=]|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=531903&cid=46620&categoryId=46620&mobile}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=조현설|title=유화부인|url=http://folkency.nfm.go.kr/kr/topic/%EC%9C%A0%ED%99%94%EB%B6%80%EC%9D%B8/5387|website=Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture|publisher=National Folk Museum of Korea|access-date=30 April 2018}}</ref> The '']'' and '']'' paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as ] ({{Korean|유화|柳花}}).<ref name="Sources of Korean Tradition"/><ref name="Doosan Encyclopedia"/><ref name="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture"/> Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named ] ({{Korean|해모수|解慕漱}}) who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince."<ref>Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", Yonsei University Press, p. 45</ref> The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=優渤水|hangul=우발수}}) due to her pregnancy, where she met and became the concubine of ].
			ref048 {{sfn|Lee, Peter H.|1997|p=24}}
			ref049 {{sfn|Doosan/Lady Yuwha}}
			ref050 {{sfn|Doosan/Habaek}}
			ref051 {{sfn|Encykor/Habaek}}
			ref052 {{sfn|FolkEncy/YuhwaBuin}}
			The ] and ] paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as ] ({{Korean|유화|柳花}}).
	Jumong was well known for his exceptional ] skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave ].<ref>Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", p. 46</ref> The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from ] and the ''Samgungnyusa'' and ''Samguk sagi'' say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to ], where he married ], daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country.
			ref048 {{sfn|Lee, Peter H.|1997|p=24}}
			ref050 {{sfn|Doosan/Habaek}}
			ref051 {{sfn|Encykor/Habaek}}
			Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named ] ({{Korean|해모수|解慕漱}}) who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince."
			ref053 {{sfn|Samguk Yusa|2016|p=45}}
			The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=優渤水|hangul=우발수}}) due to her pregnancy, where she met and became the concubine of ].
			Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave ].
	A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the ''Samguk sagi'' says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon<ref> {{in lang|ko}}</ref> and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support<ref name="proper"> {{in lang|ko}}</ref> in founding the new statelet, Goguryeo. After ], son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons ] and ] south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was ].
			ref054 {{sfn|Samguk Yusa|2016|p=46}}
			The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from ] and the ] and ] say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to ], where he married ], daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country.
			A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the ] says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal,
			ref055 {{sfn|Encykor/Yeon Tabal}}
			a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support
			ref056 {{sfn|Encykor/Soseono}}
			in founding the new statelet, Goguryeo. After ], son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons ] and ] south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was ].
	Jumong's given surname was "Hae" ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=解|hangul=해}}), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the ''Samgungnyusa'', Jumong changed his surname to "Go" ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=高|hangul=고}}) in conscious reflection of his divine parentage.<ref>Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", pp. 46–47</ref> Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=沸流國|hangul=비류국}}) in 36 BC, Haeng-in ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=荇人國|hangul=행인국}}) in 33 BC, and Northern ] in 28 BC.<ref>《三国史记》：“六年 秋八月 神雀集宫庭 冬十月 王命乌伊扶芬奴 伐太白山东南人国 取其地为城邑。十年 秋九月 鸾集于王台 冬十一月 王命扶尉 伐北沃沮灭之 以其地为城邑”</ref><ref name="mygoguryeo" />		Jumong's given surname was "Hae" ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=解|hangul=해}}), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the ], Jumong changed his surname to "Go" ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=高|hangul=고}}) in conscious reflection of his divine parentage.
			ref057 {{sfn|Samguk Yusa|2016|p=46-47}}
			Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=沸流國|hangul=비류국}}) in 36 BC, Haeng-in ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=荇人國|hangul=행인국}}) in 33 BC, and Northern ] in 28 BC.
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref058 {{sfn|NONO-58}}</span>
			ref059 {{sfn|PrideHK|2007}}
	===Centralization and early expansion (mid-first century)===		===Centralization and early expansion (mid-first century)===
	Goguryeo developed from a league of various ] tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the ] drainage. In the time of ] in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern ] and northern ], which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from the region to feed its population and thus, following historical ] tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically.<ref>Gina L. Barnes, "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, p. 22 {{ISBN?}}</ref>		Goguryeo developed from a league of various ] tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the ] drainage. In the time of ] in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern ] and northern ], which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from the region to feed its population and thus, following historical ] tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically.
			ref032 {{sfn|Barnes|2013|p=22}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref060 {{sfn|ref060}}</span>
			Taejo conquered the ] tribes of what is now northeastern Korea as well as the ] and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the ] of ] and ] in the ] and ]s, becoming fully independent from them.
			ref061 {{sfn|Lee Ki-Baik|1984|p=24}}
			Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to the north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court.
	Taejo conquered the ] tribes of what is now northeastern Korea as well as the ] and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the ] of ] and ] in the ] and ]s, becoming fully independent from them.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee, "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, p. 24 {{ISBN?}}</ref>
			ref062 {{sfn|Lee Ki-Baik|1984|p=36}}
			The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the ] to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord ] established the ] by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King ], defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi,
	Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to the north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee, "A New History of Korea", 1984, Harvard University Press, p. 36</ref>
			ref063 {{sfn|KBS/Sansang|2015}}
			In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo.
	The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the ] to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord ] established the ] by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King ], defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi,<ref>{{cite news |title=History: King Sansang |url=https://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?lang=e&menu_cate=history&id=&board_seq=4009&page=3&board_code=dynasty |access-date=30 August 2023 |agency=KBS |date=March 2015}}</ref> in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Records of the Three Kingdoms|volume=30|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B730|quote=建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立，與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降，還住沸流水。}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=de Crespigny|first=Rafe|year=2007|title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms|publisher=Brill|page=988}}</ref> Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the ] valley near ].<ref>'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, pp. 22–23'</ref>
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref064 {{sfn|NONO-64}}</span>
			ref065 {{sfn|Crespigny|2006|p=988}}
			Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the ] valley near ].
			ref066 {{sfn|Barnes|2013|pp=22-23|}}
	===Goguryeo–Wei Wars===		===Goguryeo–Wei Wars===
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	In the chaos following the fall of the ], the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of ] in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with Wei ].{{cn|date=January 2023}}		In the chaos following the fall of the ], the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of ] in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with Wei ].{{cn|date=January 2023}}
	When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the ] in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, the Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244.<ref>{{cite book |access-date=9 February 2012 |year=1996 |quote=Wei. In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando. |url = {{GBurl|id=tKTtAAAAMAAJ|q=244+sacked}} |edition=illustrated |isbn=978-0-7103-0532-9 |publisher=Kegan Paul International|title=A history of Korea |author=Charles Roger Tennant|author-link = Roger Tennant |page=22 }}</ref> It is said that ], with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the ] state in the east.<ref>'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, p. 23'</ref> Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok;<ref>{{cite book|last1=Injae|first1=Lee|last2=Miller|first2=Owen|last3=Jinhoon|first3=Park|last4=Hyun-Hae|first4=Yi|title=Korean History in Maps|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1107098466|page=30|url={{GBurl|id=46OTBQAAQBAJ|p=30}}|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|date=2014}}</ref> according to the '']'', ] assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kim Bu-sik|title=Samguk Sagi|volume=17|quote=十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級}}</ref>		When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the ] in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, the Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244.
			ref067 {{sfn|Tennant|1996|p=22}}.
			CITE= In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando.}}
			It is said that ], with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the ] state in the east.
			ref068 {{sfn|Barnes|2013|p=23}}
			Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok;
			ref069 {{sfn|Lee Injae|2014|p=30}}
			according to the ], ] assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies.
			ref070 {{sfn|Shouldbe-70}}
	===Revival and further expansion (300 to 390)===		===Revival and further expansion (300 to 390)===
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	] image.]]		] image.]]
	In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital ] and again began to raid the Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the ], the last ] commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by ] in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold.<ref>'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 20</ref> This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years.<ref name="Tennant">{{cite book|last1=Tennant|first1=Charles Roger|title=A History of Korea|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0710305329|page=22|url={{GBurl|id=Xn85nFTAX8EC|p=22}}|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|quote=Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand.|year=1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url={{GBurl|id=EazRC28tdIIC|p=3}}|title=Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|others=Translated by Robert E. Buswell|year=1991|isbn=978-0824814274|editor-last=Buswell|editor-first=Robert E.|edition=abridged|page=3|author=Chinul|access-date=22 April 2014}}</ref> From that point on, until the 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the ].		In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital ] and again began to raid the Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the ], the last ] commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by ] in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold.
			ref071 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-Baik|1984|p=20}}
			This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. {{sfn|Tennant|1996|p=22}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref072 {{sfn|ref072}}</span>
			CITE= Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand.
			ref073 {{sfn|Buswell|1991|p=3}}
			From that point on, until the 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the ].
	Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of ] in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol ] people occupied northern China;<ref name="Tennant" /> during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of ], ruled by the ] clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner,<ref>{{cite book|title=Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen|author=Chinul|editor-first=Robert E.|editor-last=Buswell|others=Translated by Robert E. Buswell|edition=abridged|year=1991|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|url={{GBurl|id=EazRC28tdIIC|p=4}}|page=4|isbn=978-0824814274|access-date=22 April 2014}}</ref> and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula.<ref name="Tennant" /> In 371, ] killed Gogukwon in the ] and sacked ], one of Goguryeo's largest cities.<ref name="World History P464">''Encyclopedia of World History'', Vol I, p. 464 Three Kingdoms, Korea, Edited by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, Mark F. Whitters, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-6386-4}}.</ref>
			Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of ] in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol ] people occupied northern China;{{sfn|Tennant|1996|p=22}} during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of ], ruled by the ] clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner,
	], who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from a great crisis.<ref name="Sosurim">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253000781|page=34|url={{GBurl|id=QFPsi3IK8gcC|p=34}}|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|date=2012}}</ref> Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced ] as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the ''Taehak'' ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=太學|hangul=태학}}).<ref name="Lee">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|pages=38–40|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=38}}|access-date=11 October 2016|language=en|year=1984}}</ref> Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and ], Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in the future.<ref name="Sosurim" /><ref name="William E. Henthorn' page 34">'William E. Henthorn', "A History of Korea", 1971 Macmillan Publishing Co., p. 34</ref> Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion.<ref name="Lee" /> His successor and the father of ], ], invaded ], the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386.<ref>{{cite web|title=국양왕|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07031366&content_id=rp070313660001&search_left_menu=|website=KOCCA|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kings and Queens of Korea|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?No=10039591|website=KBS World Radio|access-date=10 October 2016|archive-date=24 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024215257/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/program/program_dynasty_detail.htm?No=10039591|url-status=dead}}</ref>
			ref074 {{sfn|Buswell|1991|p=4}}
			and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula.{{sfn|Tennant|1996|p=22}} In 371, ] killed Gogukwon in the ] and sacked ], one of Goguryeo's largest cities.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref075 {{sfn|EWH7/Three Kingdoms}}</span>
			], who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from a great crisis.
			ref076 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=34}}
			Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced ] as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the ''Taehak'' ({{Ko-hhrm|hanja=太學|hangul=태학}}).
	Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of the Korean peninsula, and the ] in ], who would later become the ].<ref name="Tennant21">{{cite book|last1=Tennant|first1=Charles Roger|title=A History of Korea|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0710305329|pages=21–22|url={{GBurl|id=Xn85nFTAX8EC|p=21}}|access-date=10 October 2016|language=en|year=1996}}</ref>
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and ], Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in the future.
			ref076 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=34}}
			ref078 {{sfn|Henthorn|1971|p=34}}
			<!--- about Sosurim and Gwanggaeto --->
			Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion.
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			His successor and the father of ], ], invaded ], the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386.
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref079 {{sfn|NONO-79}}</span>
			ref080 {{sfn|KBS/Gogukyang|2015}}
			Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of the Korean peninsula, and the ] in ], who would later become the ].
			ref081 {{sfn|Tennant|1996|pp=21–22}}
	===Zenith of Goguryeo's Power (391 to 531 AD)===		===Zenith of Goguryeo's Power (391 to 531 AD)===
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	], China, was built by the Goguryeo Kingdom.]]		], China, was built by the Goguryeo Kingdom.]]
			Goguryeo experienced a golden age under ] and his son ].
	Goguryeo experienced a golden age under ] and his son ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Hyŏn-hŭi|last2=Pak|first2=Sŏng-su|last3=Yun|first3=Nae-hyŏn|title=New history of Korea|year=2005|publisher=Jimoondang|isbn=978-8988095850|page=201|url={{GBurl|id=KO8MAQAAMAAJ}}|language=en}} "He launched a military expedition to expand his territory, opening the golden age of Goguryeo."</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Hall|first1=John Whitney|title=The Cambridge History of Japan|year=1988|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521223522|page=362|url={{GBurl|id=A3_6lp8IOK8C|q=%22The+reign+of+King+Kwanggaet%27o+is+thought+of+as+Koguryo%27s+golden+age+of+political+might+and+Buddhist+splendor.%22}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Embree|first1=Ainslie Thomas|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|year=1988|publisher=Scribner|isbn=978-0684188997|page=324|url={{GBurl|id=LtwpAQAAMAAJ|q=%22Nevertheless%2C+the+reigns+of+Kwanggaet%27o+and+his+successor+Changsu+%28413-491%29+constituted+the+golden+age+of+Koguryo.%22}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Cohen|first1=Warren I.|title=East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World|date=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231502511|page=50|url={{GBurl|id=Okjd2rDwb8IC|q=%22Koguryo%27s+Golden+Age%22}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref> During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the ], including what is now ], almost all of Manchuria,<ref name="Jinwung">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|date=2012|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|isbn=978-0253000781|pages=35–36|url={{GBurl|id=QFPsi3IK8gcC|p=35}}|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en}}</ref> and parts of ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Tudor|first1=Daniel|title=Korea: The Impossible Country: The Impossible Country|date=2012|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|isbn=978-1462910229|url={{GBurl|id=BA_QAgAAQBAJ|q=Inner+Mongolia}}|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en}}</ref> There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in present-day ], based on discoveries of ] ruins in Mongolia.<ref>{{cite web|last1=김운회|title=한국과 몽골, 그 천년의 비밀을 찾아서|url=http://www.pressian.com/news/article.html?no=113599|website=Pressian|date=4 February 2014|publisher=Korea Press Foundation|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}}<ref>{{cite web|last1=成宇濟|title=고고학자 손보기 교수|url=http://www.sisapress.com/journal/articlePrint/99094|website=시사저널|access-date=11 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031650/http://www.sisapress.com/journal/articlePrint/99094|archive-date=13 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}}<ref>{{cite web|title=(14)초원로가 한반도까지|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_travel/khan_art_view.html?artid=200905061508575|website=경향신문|date = 19 August 2009|publisher=The Kyunghyang Shinmun|access-date=11 October 2016}}</ref>
			ref082 {{sfn|Jimoondang|2005|p=2001}}
			ref083 {{sfn|Hall|1988|p=362}}
			ref084 {{sfn|Embree|1988|loc=Koguryo, T=3, p=324-326}}
			ref085 {{sfn|Cohen|2000|p=50}}
			During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the ], including what is now ], almost all of Manchuria,
	Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic ] who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm.<ref name="William E. Henthorn' page 34" /> He instituted the era name of ''Yeongnak'' or ''Eternal Rejoicing'', affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland.<ref name="Jinwung" /><ref name="Lee" /><ref name="Djun">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Djun Kil|title=The History of Korea|edition=2nd|date= 2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1610695824|page=32|url={{GBurl|id=IgxvBAAAQBAJ|p=32}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en}}</ref> Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns.<ref name="Lee" /><ref name="Jinwung" /><ref>Szczepanski, Kallie. (2011). ''Inscription from Gwanggaeto the Great's Stele'' Retrieved from September 18, 2011, from {{cite web |url=http://asianhistory.about.com/od/northkorea/a/Inscription-From-Gwanggaeto-The-Greats-Stele.htm |title=Gwanggaeto the Great Stele Inscription |access-date=2011-09-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016214908/http://asianhistory.about.com/od/northkorea/a/Inscription-From-Gwanggaeto-The-Greats-Stele.htm |archive-date=2011-10-16 }}</ref> To the west, he destroyed neighboring ] tribes and invaded ], conquering the entire ];<ref name="Lee" /><ref name="Jinwung" /><ref name="Djun" /> to the north and east, he annexed much of ] and conquered the ], who were ] ancestors of the ] and ];<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|date=2012|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=978-1477265161|page=137|url={{GBurl|id=3Z3a0NU4RHMC|p=137}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|quote=He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.}}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref> and to the south, he defeated and subjugated ], contributed to the dissolution of ], and vassalized ] after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Peter H.|last2=Ch'oe|first2=Yongho|last3=Kang|first3=Hugh H. W.|title=Sources of Korean Tradition: Volume One: From Early Times Through the Sixteenth Century|date= 1996|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231515313|pages=25–26|url={{GBurl|id=x9q69SroxWkC|p=25}}|access-date=21 October 2016|language=en}}</ref> Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of the Korean Peninsula,<ref name="Jinwung" /><ref>{{cite web|title=Kings and Queens of Korea|url=http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/archive/program/program_dynasty.htm?no=10039827|website=KBS World Radio|publisher=Korea Communications Commission|access-date=7 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828051916/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/archive/program/program_dynasty.htm?no=10039827|archive-date=28 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and achieved undisputed control of most of ] and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula.<ref name="Jinwung" />
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			and parts of ].
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref087 {{sfn|Tudor|2012|p=18}}</span>
			There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in present-day ], based on discoveries of ] ruins in Mongolia.
			ref088 {{sfn|Pressian/2014-02-04}}
			ref089 {{sfn|Cheng Yuji|1995}}
			ref090 {{sfn|Jeong Su-il|2009}}
			Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic ] who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm.
			ref078 {{sfn|Henthorn|1971|p=34}}
			He instituted the era name of ''Yeongnak'' or ''Eternal Rejoicing'', affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland.
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			ref091 {{sfn|Kim Djun-kil|2014|p=32}}
			Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns.
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref092 {{sfn|Szczepanski|2011}}</span>
			<!-- better ref = {{sfn|De Bary|1997|p=24}} -->
			To the west, he destroyed neighboring ] tribes and invaded ], conquering the entire ];
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			ref091 {{sfn|Kim Djun-kil|2014|p=32}}
			to the north and east, he annexed much of ] and conquered the ], who were ] ancestors of the ] and ];
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref093 {{sfn|Walker|2012|p=137}}</span>
			CITE=quote=He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries.
			And to the south, he defeated and subjugated ], contributed to the dissolution of ], and vassalized ] after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa.
			ref094 {{sfn|Lee, Peter H.|1997|p=25-26}}
			Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of the Korean Peninsula,
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			ref095 {{sfn|KBS/Ganggwaeto-1|2015}}
			and achieved undisputed control of most of ] and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula.
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
	Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge ] erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day ] on the border between China and North Korea.		Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge ] erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day ] on the border between China and North Korea.
			] (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to ], a more suitable region to grow into a burgeoning metropolitan capital,
	] (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to ], a more suitable region to grow into a burgeoning metropolitan capital,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Baik|title=A New History of Korea|date=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674615762|pages=38–40}} "This move from a region of narrow mountain valleys to a broad riverine plain indicates that the capital could no longer remain primarily a military encampment but had to be developed into a metropolitan center for the nation's political, economic, and social life."</ref> which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253000781|page=36|url={{GBurl|id=QFPsi3IK8gcC|p=36}}|access-date=15 July 2016|language=en|date=2012-11-05}} "Because Pyongyang was located in the vast, fertile Taedong River basin and had been the center of advanced culture of Old Chosŏn and Nangnang, this move led Koguryŏ to attain a high level of economic and cultural prosperity."</ref> Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the ] to the north.<ref name="Jinwung" /> He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the ], located in eastern Mongolia, with his ] allies.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ko:한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사|publisher=ebookspub(이북스펍)|isbn=979-1155191965|url={{GBurl|id=w8N3BgAAQBAJ|p=474}}|access-date=16 November 2016|language=ko|date=2014}}</ref> Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of the ].<ref name="Jinwung" /> He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both.<ref name="Lee" /><ref name="Jinwung" /> In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements.<ref name="Lee" /> Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Baik|title=A New History of Korea|date=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674615762|pages=38–40}}</ref> the longest reign in East Asian history.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Walker|first1=Hugh Dyson|title=East Asia: A New History|publisher=AuthorHouse|isbn=9781477265161|page=137|url={{GBurl|id=3Z3a0NU4RHMC|q=%22King+Changsu+succeeded+Kwanggaet%27o+and+ruled+Koguryo+for+79+years+%28412%E2%80%93491%29+the+longest+reign+in+East+Asian%2C+and+possibly%2C+world+history%21%22}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|date=November 2012}}{{self-published source|date=December 2017}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}
			ref096 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|pp=38-40}}
			CITE= .
			which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity.
			ref097 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=36}}
			CITE=
			Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the ] to the north.
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the ], located in eastern Mongolia, with his ] allies.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref098 {{sfn|Lee Yun-seop|2014}}</span>
			Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of the ].
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both.
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}}
			ref086 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=35-36}}
			In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements.
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}} Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98,
			ref096 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|pp=38-40}}
			CITE
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref099 {{sfn|ref099}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref093 {{sfn|Walker|2012|p=137}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref100 {{sfn|ref100}}</span>
	During the reign of ], Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over the kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan.		During the reign of ], Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over the kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan.
Line 202:		Line 405:
	{{Main|Goguryeo–Sui War|Battle of Salsu}}		{{Main|Goguryeo–Sui War|Battle of Salsu}}
	The ]'s reunification of China for the first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and ] began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops.<ref>{{cite web |title=평원왕 |url=https://www.doopedia.co.kr/doopedia/master/master.do?_method=view&MAS_IDX=181755}}</ref> Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under the ]. However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize the others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals.		The ]'s reunification of China for the first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and ] began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops.
			ref101 {{sfn|Doosan/Pyeongwon}}
			Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under the ]. However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize the others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals.
	Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with ] and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on ] which led to the ], but was beaten back by Sui forces.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|page=47|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=47}}|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en|year=1984}}</ref> This caused ] to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.<ref name="White">{{cite book|last1=White|first1=Matthew|title=Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0393081923|pages=78–79|url={{GBurl|id=0-fQHlaIpR4C|p=78}}|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en|date=2011-11-07}}</ref>		Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with ] and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on ] which led to the ], but was beaten back by Sui forces.
			ref102 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=47}}
			This caused ] to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref103 {{sfn|White|2011|p=78-79}}</span>
	Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the ], a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies.		Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the ], a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies.
Line 212:		Line 420:
	The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general ] rebelled against ], while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.		The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general ] rebelled against ], while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.
			Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.
	Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty.<ref name="White" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Bedeski|first1=Robert|title=Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134125975|page=90|url={{GBurl|id=iNl9AgAAQBAJ|p=90}}|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en|date=2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808150|page=106|url={{GBurl|id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ|p=106}}|access-date=16 November 2016|language=en|year=2013}}</ref>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref103 {{sfn|White|2011|p=78-79}}</span>
			ref104 {{sfn|Bedeski|2007|p=90}}
			ref105 {{sfn|Ebrey|2013|p=106}}
	====Goguryeo–Silla War, Goguryeo-Tang War and the Silla–Tang alliance====		====Goguryeo–Silla War, Goguryeo-Tang War and the Silla–Tang alliance====
Line 218:		Line 429:
	]		]
	In the winter of 642, ] was apprehensive about ], one of the great nobles of Goguryeo,<ref name="Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134553532|page=196|url={{GBurl|id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ|p=196}}|access-date=3 November 2016|language=en|date=2003}}</ref> and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a ]. He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as ] while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji (Korean: 대막리지; Hanja: 大莫離支, a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of ] and ]). At the outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported ] at the expense of ], and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla.		In the winter of 642, ] was apprehensive about ], one of the great nobles of Goguryeo,
			ref106 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=196}}
			and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a ]. He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as ] while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji (Korean: 대막리지; Hanja: 大莫離支, a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of ] and ]). At the outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported ] at the expense of ], and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla.
			However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against ] and ]. Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by the Goguryeo-Baekje alliance.
	However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against ] and ]. Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by the Goguryeo-Baekje alliance.<ref>{{cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|title=Goguryeo|date=2016-10-05|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Three_Kingdoms_Period_in_Korea|website=]}} Retrieved February 28, 2021</ref> Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King ], numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people.<ref name="100.nate.com">{{cite web |title=진평왕 |url=http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=271861&v=42 |website=The Academy of Korean Studies| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610011238/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=271861&v=42 | archive-date=2011-06-10 }}</ref> During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo.<ref name="100.nate.com"/> Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, ], requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo.<ref name="Medieval Chinese Warfare 300-900"/>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref107 {{sfn|CWHE/Three Kingdoms}}</span>
			Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King ], numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people.
	In 645, ], who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where ] had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important ] (遼東城, in modern ], ]). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to the defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money.<ref name="Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900">{{cite book |last1=Graff |first1=David |title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900 |date=2001 |publisher=Routledge |page=197}}</ref> ] (in modern ], Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the ] of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed a Goguryeo relief force at the ]. Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict.<ref name="Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900"/> However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be ]) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under the command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese,<ref name="World History P464"/> failing to capture Ansi Fortress after a protracted siege that lasted more than 60 days.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|page=48|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=48}}|access-date=2 November 2016|language=en|year=1984}}</ref> Emperor Taizong invaded Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was defeated both times.<ref name="Kim">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Jinwung|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253000781|page=50|url={{GBurl|id=QFPsi3IK8gcC|q=%22In+647+and+648+Taizong+again+dispatched+expeditionary+forces+to+invade+Kogury%C5%8F%2C+but+these+attacks%2C+too%2C+were+repulsed+by+Kogury%C5%8F.+Taizong+never+accomplished+his+ambition+to+conquer+Kogury%C5%8F+in+his+lifetime.%22}}|access-date=2 August 2016|language=en|date=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Ebrey|first1=Patricia Buckley|last2=Walthall|first2=Anne|last3=Palais|first3=James B.|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1111808150|page=106|url={{GBurl|id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ|q=%22Still+convinced+that+he+could+defeat+Koguryo%2C+Taizong+dispatched+two+more+expeditions+against+it+in+647+and+648%2C+neither+of+them+successful.%22}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|year=2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851096725|page=406|url={{GBurl|id=h5_tSnygvbIC|q=%22In+645+he+led+Tang+forces+to+conquer+Koguryo+but+was+defeated.+Again+in+647+and+648+he+sent+out+expeditionary+forces+to+invade+Koguryo%2C+but+these+attacks+were+also+repulsed+by+the+Korean+kingdom.%22}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|date=2009}}</ref><ref name="Wei">{{cite book|last1=Chen|first1=Jack Wei|title=The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674056084|page=43|url={{GBurl|id=5wlDivOQGakC|p=43}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Guo|first1=Rongxing|title=Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1441908490|page=42|url={{GBurl|id=dbJ3LsL6jJMC|q=%22The+subsequent+dynasty%2C+Tang+%28AD+618%E2%80%93907%29%2C+dispatched+three+unsuccessful+expeditions+against+Koguryo+in+AD+644%2C+648%2C+and+655.%22}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|date=2009}}</ref>
			ref108 {{sfn|Doosan/Jinpyeong}}
			During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo.
			ref108 {{sfn|Doosan/Jinpyeong}}
			Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, ], requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo.
			ref106 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=196}}
			In 645, ], who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where ] had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important ] (遼東城, in modern ], ]). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to the defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money.
			ref109 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=197}}
			] (in modern ], Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the ] of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed a Goguryeo relief force at the ]. Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict.
			ref109 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=197}}
			However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be ]) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under the command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese,
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref075 {{sfn|EWH7/Three Kingdoms}}</span>
			failing to capture Ansi Fortress after a protracted siege that lasted more than 60 days.
			ref110 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=48}}
			Emperor Taizong invaded Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was defeated both times.
			ref105 {{sfn|Ebrey|2013|p=106}}
			ref111 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=50}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref112 {{sfn|ref112}}</span>
			ref113 {{sfn|Tucker|2009|p=406}}
			ref114 {{sfn|Chen Jack Wei|2010|p=43}}
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref115 {{sfn|Guo|2009|p=42}}</span>
	] court: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. '']'', circa 650 AD, Tang dynasty]]		] court: Silla, Baekje, and Goguryeo. '']'', circa 650 AD, Tang dynasty]]
	] of ]. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Library |first1=British |title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith |year=2004 |publisher=Serindia Publications, Inc. |isbn=978-1-932476-13-2 |page=110 |url={{GBurl|id=ArWLD4Qop38C|p=110}} |language=en}}</ref> 648–651 AD, ], Samarkand.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumer |first1=Christoph |title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set |date=18 April 2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-83860-868-2 |page=243 |url={{GBurl|id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ|pg=RA1-PA243}} |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grenet |first1=Frantz |title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole |journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales |date=2004 |volume=5/6 |page=Fig. C |url=https://www.cairn.info/journal-annales-2004-5-page-1043.htm}}</ref>]]		] of ]. They are identified by the two feathers on top of their head.
			ref116 {{sfn|Whitfield|2004|p=110}}
	Emperor Taizong prepared another invasion in 649, but died in the summer, possibly due to an illness he contracted during his Korean campaigns.<ref name="Wei" /><ref name="Kim" /> His son ] continued his campaigns. Upon the suggestion of ], the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered ] in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo.<ref name="oceania">{{cite book|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul|title=Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1136639791|page=486|url={{GBurl|id=voerPYsAB5wC|q=stalwart+defenses}}|access-date=16 July 2016|language=en|date=2012}}</ref> However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by ];<ref name="oceania" /><ref name="maps">{{cite book|last1=Injae|first1=Lee|last2=Miller|first2=Owen|last3=Jinhoon|first3=Park|last4=Hyun-Hae|first4=Yi|title=Korean History in Maps|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1107098466|page=29|url={{GBurl|id=46OTBQAAQBAJ|p=29}}|access-date=4 August 2016|language=en|date=2014}}</ref> one of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the ''Battle of Sasu'' (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general ] (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons.<ref>{{cite book|last1=이희진|date=2013|script-title=ko:옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1|publisher=EastAsia |isbn=978-8962620726|url={{GBurl|id=GfevAwAAQBAJ|pg=PT348}}|access-date=4 November 2016|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=통일기|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE003&cp_code=cp0901&index_id=cp09010004&content_id=cp090100040001&search_left_menu=1|website=한국콘텐츠진흥원|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=4 November 2016}}</ref> Therefore, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=김용만|year=1998|script-title=ko:고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사|publisher=바다출판사|isbn=978-8987180212|page=486|url={{GBurl|id=0iN1PAAACAAJ|q=%EA%B3%A0%EA%B5%AC%EB%A0%A4%EC%9D%98+%EB%B0%9C%EA%B2%AC}}|access-date=4 November 2016|language=ko}}</ref>
			648–651 AD, ], Samarkand.
			ref117 {{sfn|Baumer|2018|p=243}}
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref118 {{sfn|Grenet|2004|p=1066|loc=Fig. C}}</span>
			]]
			Emperor Taizong prepared another invasion in 649, but died in the summer, possibly due to an illness he contracted during his Korean campaigns.
			ref111 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=50}}
			ref114 {{sfn|Chen Jack Wei|2010|p=43}}
			His son ] continued his campaigns. Upon the suggestion of ], the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered ] in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref119 {{sfn|Ring et al.|2012|p=486}}</span>
			However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by ];
	====Fall====
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref119 {{sfn|Ring et al.|2012|p=486}}</span>
	In the summer of 666, ] died of a natural cause and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother.<ref name="Succession">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|page=67|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=67}}|access-date=2 August 2016|language=en}}</ref> He was initially succeeded as ''Dae Mangniji'', the highest position newly made under the ruling period of Yeon Gaesomun, by his oldest son ]. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers ] and ], whom he had left in charge at ], and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan were planning to rebel against Yeon Namsaeng. When Yeon Namsaeng subsequently sent officials close to him back to Pyongyang to try to spy on the situation, Yeon Namgeon arrested them and declared himself ''Dae Mangniji'', attacking his brother. Yeon Namsaeng sent his son ] (泉獻誠), as Yeon Namsaeng changed his family name from Yeon (淵) to Cheon (泉) observe naming taboo for Emperor Gaozu, to Tang to seek aid. ] saw this as an opportunity and sent an army to attack and destroy Goguryeo. In the middle of Goguryeo's power struggles between Yeon Gaesomun's successors, his younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.<ref name="Succession" />
			ref120 {{sfn|Lee Injae|2014|p=29}}
			One of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the ''Battle of Sasu'' (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general ] (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons.
	In 667, the Chinese army crossed the ] and captured Shin/Xin Fortress (新城, in modern ], ]). The Tang forces thereafter fought off counterattacks by Yeon Namgeon, and joined forces with and received every possible assistance from the defector Yeon Namsaeng,<ref name="Succession" /> although they were initially unable to cross the Yalu River due to resistance. In spring of 668, Li Ji turned his attention to Goguryeo's northern cities, capturing the important city of Buyeo (扶餘, in modern ], ]). In fall of 668, he crossed the ] and put ] under siege in concert with the Silla army.
			ref121 {{sfn|Lee Heejin|2013|p=348}}
			ref122 {{sfn|NONO-122}}
			Therefore, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo.
			ref123 {{sfn|Kim Yongman|1998|p=486}}
			====Fall====
	Yeon Namsan and Bojang surrendered, and while Yeon Namgeon continued to resist in the inner city, his general, the Buddhist monk ] (信誠) turned against him and surrendered the inner city to Tang forces. Yeon Namgeon tried to commit suicide, but was seized and treated. This was the end of Goguryeo, and Tang annexed Goguryeo into its territory, with ] being put initially in charge of former Goguryeo territory as protector general. The violent dissension resulting from Yeon Gaesomun's death proved to be the primary reason for the Tang–Silla triumph, thanks to the division, defections, and widespread demoralization it caused.<ref name="Graff200">{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134553532|page=200|url={{GBurl|id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ|p=200}}|access-date=6 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> The alliance with Silla had also proved to be invaluable, thanks to the ability to attack Goguryeo from opposite directions, and both military and logistical aid from Silla.<ref name="Graff200" /> The Tang established the ] on former Goguryeo lands after the latter's fall.{{sfn|Wang|2013|p=81}}{{sfn|Xiong|2008|p=43}}
			In the summer of 666, ] died of a natural cause and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother. ref124
			ref124 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=67}}
			He was initially succeeded as ''Dae Mangniji'', the highest position newly made under the ruling period of Yeon Gaesomun, by his oldest son ]. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers ] and ], whom he had left in charge at ], and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan were planning to rebel against Yeon Namsaeng. When Yeon Namsaeng subsequently sent officials close to him back to Pyongyang to try to spy on the situation, Yeon Namgeon arrested them and declared himself ''Dae Mangniji'', attacking his brother. Yeon Namsaeng sent his son ] (泉獻誠), as Yeon Namsaeng changed his family name from Yeon (淵) to Cheon (泉) observe naming taboo for Emperor Gaozu, to Tang to seek aid. ] saw this as an opportunity and sent an army to attack and destroy Goguryeo. In the middle of Goguryeo's power struggles between Yeon Gaesomun's successors, his younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side.
			ref124 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=67}}
			In 667, the Chinese army crossed the ] and captured Shin/Xin Fortress (新城, in modern ], ]). The Tang forces thereafter fought off counterattacks by Yeon Namgeon, and joined forces with and received every possible assistance from the defector Yeon Namsaeng,
	However, there was much resistance to Tang rule (fanned by Silla, which was displeased that Tang did not give it Goguryeo or Baekje's territory), and in 669, following Emperor Gaozong's order, a part of the Goguryeo people were forced to move to the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River, as well as the regions south of the Qinling Mountains and west of Chang'an, only leaving old and weak inhabitants in the original land. Over 200,000 prisoners from Goguryeo were taken by the Tang forces and sent to ].<ref> {{cite book | last=Lewis | first=Mark Edward | title=China's cosmopolitan empire: The Tang dynasty | year=2009 | publisher=Harvard University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=9780674033061}}</ref> Some people entered the service of the Tang government, such as ] and his son ] (Go Seonji in Korean), the famed general who commanded the Tang forces at the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Graff|first1=David|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900|date=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1134553532|page=213|url={{GBurl|id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ|p=213}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Grant|first1=Reg G.|title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History|year=2011|publisher=Universe Pub.|isbn=978-0789322333|page=118|url={{GBurl|id=s4njwZGrZg4C|p=118}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Starr|first1=S. Frederick|title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1317451372|page=38|url={{GBurl|id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ|p=38}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Connolly|first1=Peter|last2=Gillingham|first2=John|last3=Lazenby|first3=John|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare|date=
			ref124 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=67}}
	2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1135936815|url={{GBurl|id=1LUoDAAAQBAJ|pg=PT263}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Neelis|first1=Jason|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia|date=2010|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004181595|page=176|url={{GBurl|id=GB-JV2eOr2UC|p=176}}|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en}}</ref>
			although they were initially unable to cross the Yalu River due to resistance. In spring of 668, Li Ji turned his attention to Goguryeo's northern cities, capturing the important city of Buyeo (扶餘, in modern ], ]). In fall of 668, he crossed the ] and put ] under siege in concert with the Silla army.
			Yeon Namsan and Bojang surrendered, and while Yeon Namgeon continued to resist in the inner city, his general, the Buddhist monk ] (信誠) turned against him and surrendered the inner city to Tang forces. Yeon Namgeon tried to commit suicide, but was seized and treated. This was the end of Goguryeo, and Tang annexed Goguryeo into its territory, with ] being put initially in charge of former Goguryeo territory as protector general. The violent dissension resulting from Yeon Gaesomun's death proved to be the primary reason for the Tang–Silla triumph, thanks to the division, defections, and widespread demoralization it caused.
	Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang dynasty had its price. Tang set up the ], governed by ], but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which lead to the ]s, but their own strength did not extend beyond the ].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} Although the Tang forces were expelled from territories south of Taedong River, Silla failed to regain the former Goguryeo territories north of the ], which were now under Tang dominion.<ref name=fuqua07-40>{{cite book | last=Fuqua|first=Jacques L. | title=Nuclear endgame: The need for engagement with North Korea|year=2007|publisher=Praeger Security International|location=Westport|isbn=9780275990749 | page=40}}</ref>
			ref020 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=200}}
			The alliance with Silla had also proved to be invaluable, thanks to the ability to attack Goguryeo from opposite directions, and both military and logistical aid from Silla.
			ref020 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=200}}
			The Tang established the ] on former Goguryeo lands after the latter's fall.
			ref125 {{sfn|Wang|2013|p=81}}
			ref126 {{sfn|Xiong|2008|p=43}}
			However, there was much resistance to Tang rule (fanned by Silla, which was displeased that Tang did not give it Goguryeo or Baekje's territory), and in 669, following Emperor Gaozong's order, a part of the Goguryeo people were forced to move to the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River, as well as the regions south of the Qinling Mountains and west of Chang'an, only leaving old and weak inhabitants in the original land. Over 200,000 prisoners from Goguryeo were taken by the Tang forces and sent to ].
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref127 {{sfn|Lewis|2009|p=34}}</span>
			Some people entered the service of the Tang government, such as ] and his son ] (Go Seonji in Korean), the famed general who commanded the Tang forces at the ].
			ref128 {{sfn|Graff|2003|p=213}}
			ref129 {{sfn|Grant|2011|p=118}}
			CITE=[Talas. July 751. The battle between China and the Muslim
			Abbasid caliphate at the Talas River, in modernday Khazakhstan, was
			arguably a turning point in world history.
			The Chinese defeat at Talas marked the end of Tang advances to the west, and the heavy losses by Abbasid forces despite the victory ended Abbasid designs in the east as well].
			ref130 {{sfn|Starr|2015|p=38}}
			ref131 {{sfn|Connolly|2016|p=263}}
			ref132 {{sfn|Neelis|2010|p=176}}
			Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang dynasty had its price. Tang set up the ], governed by ], but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which lead to the ]s, but their own strength did not extend beyond the ].{{citation needed|date=January 2018}} Although the Tang forces were expelled from territories south of Taedong River, Silla failed to regain the former Goguryeo territories north of the ], which were now under Tang dominion.
			ref133 {{sfn|Fuqua|2007|p=40}}
	====Revival movements====		====Revival movements====
Line 248:		Line 524:
	In 677, Tang crowned ] as the "King of ]" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the ]. However, Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to ] in 681, and died the following year.		In 677, Tang crowned ] as the "King of ]" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the ]. However, Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to ] in 681, and died the following year.
	The ] was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General ], but was later replaced by Bojang due to the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Bojang's descendants declared independence from ] during the same period as the ] and ] (Yi Jeong-gi in Korean)'s rebellion in ].<ref>《資治通鑑·唐紀四十一》</ref><ref>《資治通鑑·唐紀四十三》</ref> The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "]" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of ].		The ] was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General ], but was later replaced by Bojang due to the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Bojang's descendants declared independence from ] during the same period as the ] and ] (Yi Jeong-gi in Korean)'s rebellion in ].
			ref134 {{sfn|Zizhi Tongjian/225}}
			ref135 {{sfn|Zizhi Tongjian/227}}
			The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "]" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of ].
	] and ] rose briefly at the Han Fortress (한성, 漢城, in modern ], ]), but failed, when Anseung surrendered to ]. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. There, Anseung established the ] (보덕, 報德), incited a rebellion, which was promptly crushed by ]. Anseung was then forced to reside in the Silla capital, given a Silla bride and had to adopt the Silla Royal surname of "Kim."		] and ] rose briefly at the Han Fortress (한성, 漢城, in modern ], ]), but failed, when Anseung surrendered to ]. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. There, Anseung established the ] (보덕, 報德), incited a rebellion, which was promptly crushed by ]. Anseung was then forced to reside in the Silla capital, given a Silla bride and had to adopt the Silla Royal surname of "Kim."
	] and his son ], either a former Goguryeo general or a ] chief, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the ] (진, 震), which was renamed to ] after 713. To the south of ], ] controlled the Korean peninsula south of the ], and ] (present-day ]) was conquered by Balhae. Balhae considered itself (particularly in diplomatic correspondence with Japan) a ] of Goguryeo.		] and his son ], either a former Goguryeo general or a ] chief, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the ] (진, 震), which was renamed to ] after 713. To the south of ], ] controlled the Korean peninsula south of the ], and ] (present-day ]) was conquered by Balhae. Balhae considered itself (particularly in diplomatic correspondence with Japan) a successor state of Goguryeo.
			In 901, the general ] rebelled against ] and founded Later Goguryeo (renamed to ] in 911), which considered itself to be a successor of Goguryeo. Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions, including ] (modern Kaesong), which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees.
	In 901, the general ] rebelled against ] and founded Later Goguryeo (renamed to ] in 911), which considered itself to be a successor of Goguryeo. Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions, including ] (modern Kaesong), which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees.<ref>{{cite book|last1=이상각|script-title=ko:고려사 – 열정과 자존의 오백년|date=2014|publisher=들녘|isbn=979-1159250248|url={{GBurl|id=LonnCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT25}}|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=(2) 건국―호족들과의 제휴|url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_011_0040_0030_0020_0020|website=우리역사넷|publisher=National Institute of Korean History|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> Later Goguryeo's original capital was established in Songak, the hometown of ], a prominent general under Gung Ye.<ref>{{cite book|last1=성기환|script-title=ko:생각하는 한국사 2: 고려시대부터 조선·일제강점까지|date=2008|publisher=버들미디어|isbn=978-8986982923|url={{GBurl|id=gQ3-AwAAQBAJ|pg=PT6}}|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref> Wang Geon was a descendant of Goguryeo and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan.<ref>{{cite book|last1=박|first1=종기|date= 2015|script-title=ko:고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=978-8958629023|url={{GBurl|id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT59}}|access-date=27 October 2016|language=ko}}</ref> In 918, Wang Geon overthrew Gung Ye and established ], as the successor of Goguryeo, and laid claim to Manchuria as Goryeo's rightful legacy.<ref name="Goryeo">{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|page=103|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=103}}|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rossabi">{{cite book|last1=Rossabi|first1=Morris|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries|date=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0520045620|page=323|url={{GBurl|id=sNpD5UKmkswC|q=%22As+the+self-proclaimed+successor+to+Koguryo+and+the+protector+of+Parhae+refugees%2C+many+of+them+of+Koguryo+origin%2C+Koryo+considered+the+northern+territories+in+Manchuria+its+rightful+legacy.%22}}|access-date=1 August 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="seohui">{{cite book|last1=Kim|first1=Djun Kil|title=The History of Korea|date=2005|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0313038532|page=57|url={{GBurl|id=ci_iGuAAqmsC|p=57}}|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Grayson">{{cite book|last1=Grayson|first1=James H.|title=Korea – A Religious History|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1136869259|page=79|url={{GBurl|id=LU78AQAAQBAJ|p=79}}|access-date=20 October 2016|language=en}}</ref> Wang Geon unified the ] in 936, and Goryeo ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref136 {{sfn|Lee Sang-Gak|2014|p=25}}</span>
			ref137 {{sfn|NHCC/Taebong Founding}}
			Later Goguryeo's original capital was established in Songak, the hometown of ], a prominent general under Gung Ye.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref138 {{sfn|Seong Gi-hwan|2008|p=6}}</span>
			Wang Geon was a descendant of Goguryeo and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref139 {{sfn|Park Jong-gi|2015|p=59}}</span>
			In 918, Wang Geon overthrew Gung Ye and became ]. He established ] as the successor of Goguryeo, and laid claim to Manchuria as Goryeo's rightful legacy.
			ref140 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=103}}
			ref141 {{sfn|Rossabi|1983|p=323}}
			CITE=
			ref142 {{sfn|Kim Djun-kil|2014|p=57}}
			ref143 {{sfn|Grayson|2013|p=79}}
			Wang Geon unified the ] in 936, and Goryeo ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392.
			In the 10th century, Balhae collapsed and much of its ruling class and the last crown prince ] fled to Goryeo. The Balhae refugees were warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, who felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae,
			ref141 {{sfn|Rossabi|1983|p=323}}
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref144 {{sfn|Park Jong-gi|2015|p=66}}</span>
			ref145 {{sfn|Yu Seok-jae (Chosun)|2006}}
			thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.
			ref146 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=103}}
			CITE= "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."
	In the 10th century, Balhae collapsed and much of its ruling class and the last crown prince ] fled to Goryeo. The Balhae refugees were warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, who felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae,<ref name="Rossabi" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=박종기|script-title=ko:고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다|date=2015|publisher=휴머니스트|isbn=978-8958629023|url={{GBurl|id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT66}}|access-date=23 March 2018|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=박용운|title='고구려'와 '고려'는 같은 나라였다|url=http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html|website=조선닷컴|publisher=Chosun Ilbo|access-date=23 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622072057/http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html|archive-date=22 June 2017|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Baik|title=A New History of Korea|date=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts|isbn=978-0674615762|page=103}} "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."</ref>
	==Government==		==Government==
	Early Goguryeo was a federation of five tribes, which later turned into five districts. As the autonomy of these five tribal collectives waned, regional officers were appointed with valley as a unit.As Goguryeo progressed into the 4th century, a regional administration unit arose that centred around fortresses that were built in the newly enlarged areas. From the 4th century to the early 6th century, The gun (roughly translated as counties) system began to be established in most of the regions controlled by Goguryeo, though not all, evidenced by the existence of 16 counties near the Han river and the nickname of a military post called Malyak, nicknamed the gundu (roughly translated as the head of county). The gun subdivision had sub subdivisions which was either a seong (fortress) or chon (village). The official that was governing the whole county was called a susa, though its names changed to Yoksal, Choryogunji and Rucho. Yoksal and Choryogunji had both military and civil capabilities, and its residence often assigned inside fortresses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0003323|title=고구려|website=]}}</ref>		Early Goguryeo was a federation of five tribes, which later turned into five districts. As the autonomy of these five tribal collectives waned, regional officers were appointed with valley as a unit.As Goguryeo progressed into the 4th century, a regional administration unit arose that centred around fortresses that were built in the newly enlarged areas. From the 4th century to the early 6th century, The gun (roughly translated as counties) system began to be established in most of the regions controlled by Goguryeo, though not all, evidenced by the existence of 16 counties near the Han river and the nickname of a military post called Malyak, nicknamed the gundu (roughly translated as the head of county). The gun subdivision had sub subdivisions which was either a seong (fortress) or chon (village). The official that was governing the whole county was called a susa, though its names changed to Yoksal, Choryogunji and Rucho. Yoksal and Choryogunji had both military and civil capabilities, and its residence often assigned inside fortresses.
			ref022 {{sfn|Encykor/Goguryeo}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref147 {{sfn|ref147}}</span>
	==Military==		==Military==
	{{Main|Military history of Goguryeo}}		{{Main|Military history of Goguryeo}}
			Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state.
	Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Yi|first1=Ki-baek|title=A New History of Korea|year=1984|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0674615762|pages=23–24|url={{GBurl|id=g2mdVwXpMzwC|p=23}}|access-date=21 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> Goguryeo has been described as an empire by Korean scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last1=신형식|script-title=ko:高句麗史|date=2003|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press|isbn=978-8973005284|page=56|url={{GBurl|id=1Sg7_rxpT-gC|p=56}}|access-date=12 September 2017|language=ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=이덕일|last2=박찬규|script-title=ko:고구려 는 천자 의 제국 이었다|date=2007|publisher=역사의아침|isbn=978-8995884973|url={{GBurl|id=eGQRAQAAMAAJ}}|access-date=12 September 2017|language=ko}}</ref> Initially, there were four partially autonomous districts based on the cardinal directions, and a central district led by the monarch; however, in the first century the cardinal districts became centralized and administered by the central district, and by the end of the 3rd century, they lost all political and military authority to the monarch.<ref>{{cite web|title=고구려 5부 (高句麗 五部)|url=http://contents.koreanhistory.or.kr/id/G0001|website=한국사 콘텐츠|publisher=National Institute of Korean History|access-date=21 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171828/http://contents.koreanhistory.or.kr/id/G0001|archive-date=28 December 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the 4th century, after suffering defeats against the ] and ] during the reign of ], ] instituted military reforms that paved the way for Gwanggaeto's conquests.<ref name="Sosurim" /><ref name="Lee" /> During its height, Goguryeo was able to mobilize 300,000 troops.<ref>{{cite book|script-title=ko:한국사 전쟁의 기술: 한국사의 판도를 바꿔 놓은 36가지 책략|publisher=Dasan Books|isbn=978-8963704067|page=61|url={{GBurl|id=O8nFAwAAQBAJ|p=61}}|access-date=21 November 2016|language=ko|year=2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|script-title=ko:고구려와 수나라의 전쟁|publisher=ebookspub (이북스펍)|isbn=979-1155191330|page=26|url={{GBurl|id=YCf-AwAAQBAJ|pg=PT26}}|access-date=21 November 2016|language=ko|date=2014-03-07}}</ref> Goguryeo often enlisted semi-nomadic vassals, such as the Mohe people, as foot soldiers.<ref name="Tennant21" /> Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of Bojang.
			ref148 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|pp=23–24}}
			Goguryeo has been described as an empire by Korean scholars.
			ref149 {{sfn|Sin Hyeon-sik|2003|p=56}}
			ref150 {{sfn|Lee Deok-il|2007|loc=p=unknown}}
			Initially, there were four partially autonomous districts based on the cardinal directions, and a central district led by the monarch; however, in the first century the cardinal districts became centralized and administered by the central district, and by the end of the 3rd century, they lost all political and military authority to the monarch.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref151 {{sfn|KHC/Five Bu}}</span>
			In the 4th century, after suffering defeats against the ] and ] during the reign of ], ] instituted military reforms that paved the way for Gwanggaeto's conquests.
			ref076 {{sfn|Kim Jinwung|2012|p=34}}
			ref077 {{sfn|Lee_Ki-baik|1984|p=38-40}} During its height, Goguryeo was able to mobilize 300,000 troops.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref152 {{sfn|Han Jeong-ju|2010}}</span>
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref153 {{sfn|Lee Yunseop|2014|p=26}}</span>
			Goguryeo often enlisted semi-nomadic vassals, such as the Mohe people, as foot soldiers.
			ref081 {{sfn|Tennant|1996|pp=21–22}}
			Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of Bojang.
	===Equipment===		===Equipment===
			The main projectile weapon used in Goguryeo was the bow.
	{{tone|section|date=October 2014}}
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref154 {{sfn|Yun Myeong-cheol|2014|loc=# 9}}</span>
	{{more citations needed section|date=October 2014}}
	The main projectile weapon used in Goguryeo was the ].<ref name=donga>{{Cite web|url=http://news.donga.com/List/Series_70040100000145/3/70040100000145/20140401/62155239/1|title = &#91;윤명철 교수의 고구려 이야기&#93;보병-기병, 최첨단 무기 무장… 고구려군은 동아시아 최강|date = April 2014}}</ref> The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with ]s. To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the ] and in open order, were mostly spears. Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged sword with minimal hilt and ring pommel, of eastern Han influence. The helmets were similar to helmets used by ]n peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. The cavalry were called ''Gaemamusa'' (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and similar in type to the ].<ref name=donga/>		The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with crossbows. To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the cavalry and in open order, were mostly spears. Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged sword with minimal hilt and ring pommel, of eastern Han influence. The helmets were similar to helmets used by Central Asian peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. The cavalry were called ''Gaemamusa'' (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and similar in type to the ].
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref154 {{sfn|Yun Myeong-cheol|2014|loc=# 9}}</span>
	====Hwandudaedo====		====Hwandudaedo====
			]Goguryeo used a sword called ].
	]Goguryeo used a sword called ].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.heritage.go.kr/heri/cul/culSelectDetail.do?VdkVgwKey=12,07760000,11 | title=보물 환두대도 (環頭大刀) : 국가문화유산포털 – 문화재청 }}</ref> It looks like the sword drawing in the following picture which is 2000 years old from an old Goguryeo tomb.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Kokuryeo_Korean_sword_Hwando_%28original_Katana%29.jpg |title=2000 years old Korean Hwando picture}}</ref> As Korean swords changed from Bronze Age to Iron Age, the sword shapes changed. There are many archaeological finds on ancient Korean iron swords particularly the swords with a ring at the end.
			ref155 {{sfn|Heritage/Hwandusaedo}}
			It looks like the sword drawing in the following picture which is 2000 years old from an old Goguryeo tomb.
			ref156 {{sfn|Mural Tomb/sword}}
			As Korean swords changed from Bronze Age to Iron Age, the sword shapes changed. There are many archaeological finds on ancient Korean iron swords particularly the swords with a ring at the end.
	===Fortifications===		===Fortifications===
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	The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.		The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.
	{{Blockquote|Goguryeo lies a thousand li to the east of Liaodong, being contiguous with Joseon and Yemaek on the south, with Okjeo on the east, and with Buyeo on the north. They make their capital below Hwando. With a territory perhaps two thousand li on a side, their households number three myriads. They have many mountains and deep valleys and have no plains or marshes. Accommodating themselves to mountain and valley, the people make do with them for their dwellings and food. With their steep-banked rivers, they lack good fields; and though they plow and till energetically, their efforts are not enough to fill their bellies; their custom is to be sparing of food. They like to build palaces... By temperament the people are violent and take delight in brigandage... As an old saying of the Dongyi would have it, they are a separate branch of the Buyeo. And indeed there is much about their language and other things they share with the Buyeo, but in temperament and clothing there are differences.<br /><br />Their people delight in singing and dancing. In villages throughout the state, men and women gather in groups at nightfall for communal singing and games. They have no great storehouses, each family keeping its own small store... They rejoice in cleanliness, and they are good at brewing alcohol. When they kneel in obeisance, they extend one leg; in this they differ from the Buyeo. In moving about on foot they all run... In their public gatherings they all wear colorfully brocaded clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver.{{sfn|Lee|1992|pp=16–17}}|]}}		{{Blockquote|Goguryeo lies a thousand li to the east of Liaodong, being contiguous with Joseon and Yemaek on the south, with Okjeo on the east, and with Buyeo on the north. They make their capital below Hwando. With a territory perhaps two thousand li on a side, their households number three myriads. They have many mountains and deep valleys and have no plains or marshes. Accommodating themselves to mountain and valley, the people make do with them for their dwellings and food. With their steep-banked rivers, they lack good fields; and though they plow and till energetically, their efforts are not enough to fill their bellies; their custom is to be sparing of food. They like to build palaces... By temperament the people are violent and take delight in brigandage... As an old saying of the Dongyi would have it, they are a separate branch of the Buyeo. And indeed there is much about their language and other things they share with the Buyeo, but in temperament and clothing there are differences.<br /><br />Their people delight in singing and dancing. In villages throughout the state, men and women gather in groups at nightfall for communal singing and games. They have no great storehouses, each family keeping its own small store... They rejoice in cleanliness, and they are good at brewing alcohol. When they kneel in obeisance, they extend one leg; in this they differ from the Buyeo. In moving about on foot they all run... In their public gatherings they all wear colorfully brocaded clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver.
			ref157 {{sfn|Lee|1992|pp=16–17}}|]}}
	===Goguryeo tombs===		===Goguryeo tombs===
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	] of the ].]]		] of the ].]]
	] in a Goguryeo tomb.]]		] in a Goguryeo tomb.]]
			Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural.
	Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural.<ref name="mygoguryeo">{{cite web|url=http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm|title=The Pride History of Korea|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528113348/http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm|archive-date=2007-05-28}}{{better source needed|reason=Link is broken, but judging from the URL and title, it looks like this was a questionable source even when it was live.|date=January 2018}}</ref>{{better source needed|reason=Link is broken, but judging from the URL and title, it looks like this was a questionable source even when it was live.|date=January 2018}} ], the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. There was even a ] in ] dedicated to Jumong. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
			ref059 {{sfn|PrideHK|2007}}
			], the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. There was even a ] in ] dedicated to Jumong. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
	Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The ] and ] were both worshipped, while the ], the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}		Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The ] and ] were both worshipped, while the ], the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
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	They also believed in the ']', which were 4 mythical animals. ] or Chunryonga (blue dragon) guarded the east, ] (white tiger) guarded the west, ] (red phoenix (bird)) guarded the south, and ] (black turtle, sometimes with snakes for a tail) guarded the north.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}		They also believed in the ']', which were 4 mythical animals. ] or Chunryonga (blue dragon) guarded the east, ] (white tiger) guarded the west, ] (red phoenix (bird)) guarded the south, and ] (black turtle, sometimes with snakes for a tail) guarded the north.{{citation needed|date=January 2018}}
	] was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372.<ref name="Harv|ScienceView|Unknown year">{{Harv|ScienceView}}</ref> The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in ] and ], which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.<ref name="Harv|ScienceView|Unknown year"/>		] was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref158 {{sfn|VPI|2001}}</span>
			The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in ] and ], which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to.
			<span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">ref158 {{sfn|VPI|2001}}</span>
			], a religion originating in what is now ], was transmitted to ] via ] in the late 4th century.
	], a religion originating in what is now ], was transmitted to ] via ] in the late 4th century.<ref name="autogenerated13">{{cite web|title=Buddhist Sculpture |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Korea/koreaonline/IntroSculpture.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530145726/http://www.metmuseum.org/explore/Korea/koreaonline/IntroSculpture.htm |archive-date=30 May 2010 |access-date=2021-01-18|website=www.metmuseum.org}}</ref> The ] records the following 3 monks among first to bring the ] teaching, or ], to ]: ] (late 4th century) – an ]n ] monk who brought Buddhism to ] in the southern ], ] – a Chinese monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea, and ] monk who brought Buddhism to ] in central Korea.<ref>"Malananta bring Buddhism to Baekje" in ''Samguk Yusa'' III, Ha & Mintz translation, pp. 178–179.</ref>
			ref159 {{sfn|MET/TOAH}}
			The ] records the following 3 monks among first to bring the ] teaching, or ], to ]: ] (late 4th century) – an ]n ] monk who brought Buddhism to ] in the southern ], ] – a Chinese monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea, and ] monk who brought Buddhism to ] in central Korea.
	'']'' and ] seeking to become immortals were thought to aid in ] and ] about the future.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Amore |first1=Roy C. |title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions |last2=Hussain |first2=Amir |last3=Narayanan |first3=Vasudha |last4=Singh |first4=Pashaura |last5=Vallely |first5=Anne |last6=Woo |first6=Terry Tak-ling |last7=Nelson |first7=John K. |publisher=] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-542676-2 |editor-last=Oxtoby |editor-first=Willard Gurdon |edition=3rd |location=Donn Mills, Ontario |pages=317 |author-link2=Amir Hussain |author-link3=Vasudha Narayanan |author-link4=Pashaura Singh (Sikh scholar) |editor-last2=Amore |editor-first2=Roy C.}}</ref>
			ref160 {{sfn|Samguk Yusa|2016|p=178-179}}
			Malananta bring Buddhism to Baekje.
			'']'' and ] seeking to become immortals were thought to aid in ] and ] about the future.
			ref161 {{sfn|Amore|2010|p=278}}
	] depicted on Goguryeo mural]]		] depicted on Goguryeo mural]]
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	], preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour and fine detail of its imagery. Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting, depicting various traditions that have continued throughout Korea's history.		], preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour and fine detail of its imagery. Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting, depicting various traditions that have continued throughout Korea's history.
	Cultural legacies of Goguryeo are found in modern Korean culture, for example: ], ],<ref>, Korea Ssireum Research Institute</ref> ],<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20120906043117/http://www.koreataekwondo.org/KTA_ENG/html/ency/intro01_1.asp |date=2012-09-06 }} Korea Taekwondo Association</ref><ref>, The World Taekwondo Federation</ref> ], ] (Goguryeo's floor heating system) and the ].<ref>], p. 18</ref>		Cultural legacies of Goguryeo are found in modern Korean culture, for example: ], ], ] (Goguryeo's floor heating system) and the ].
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;">ref165 {{sfn|NONO-165}}</span>
			It is also said that moderndays ] originates from Goguryo's ]
			ref162 {{sfn|KBS World|2021}}
			<!--- <ref>, Korea Ssireum Research Institute</ref> --->
			through Joseon's ].
			ref163 {{sfn|KTA|2008}}
			But some researchers are not endorsing this filiation.
			ref164 {{sfn|Capener|2016}}
	==Legacy==		==Legacy==
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	===Name===		===Name===
			The modern English name "Korea" derives from ] (918–1392), which regarded itself as the legitimate successor of Goguryeo.
	The modern English name "Korea" derives from ] (918–1392), which regarded itself as the legitimate successor of Goguryeo.<ref name="Goryeo" /><ref name="Rossabi" /><ref name="seohui" /><ref name="Grayson" /> The name Goryeo was first used during the reign of ] in the 5th century. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo after 520 AD in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html|title='고구려'와 '고려'는 같은 나라였다 – 조선닷컴|website=www.chosun.com|access-date=2010-01-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611195139/http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html|archive-date=2011-06-11|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.krsrt.com/koguryo/A/koguryoA-13.html|title=고구려란 이름|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829153153/http://www.krsrt.com/koguryo/A/koguryoA-13.html|archive-date=2008-08-29}}</ref>
			ref140 {{sfn|Lee Ki-baik|1984|p=103}}
			ref141 {{sfn|Rossabi|1983|p=323}}
			ref142 {{sfn|Kim Djun-kil|2014|p=57}}
			{{sfn|Grayson|2013|p=79}} The name Goryeo was first used during the reign of ] in the 5th century. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo after 520 AD in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.
			ref145 {{sfn|Yu Seok-jae (Chosun)|2006}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref166 {{sfn|ref166}}</span>
			ref167 {{sfn|Im Ki-hwan|2004}}
	== Language ==		== Language ==
	{{Main|Goguryeo language}}		{{Main|Goguryeo language}}
			There have been some academic attempts to reconstruct the Goguryeo words based on the fragments of toponyms, recorded in the ], of the areas once possessed by Goguryeo. However, the reliability of the toponyms as linguistic evidence is still in dispute.
	There have been some academic attempts to reconstruct the Goguryeo words based on the fragments of toponyms, recorded in the '']'', of the areas once possessed by Goguryeo. However, the reliability of the toponyms as linguistic evidence is still in dispute.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/DataGarden/Journal%2802-2%29%282%29.pdf |title=Special Issue: The Language(s) of Koguryŏ |website=www.historyfoundation.or.kr |access-date=11 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226195328/http://www.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/DataGarden/Journal%2802-2%29%282%29.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The linguistic classification of the language is difficult due to the lack of historical sources. The most cited source, a body of ], has been interpreted by different authors as ], ], or an intermediate between the two.{{sfnp|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=44}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vovin|first1=Alexander|title=From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean|journal=Korean Linguistics|date=2013|volume=15|issue=2|pages=222–240|doi=10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Lee|first1=Ki-Moon|last2=Ramsey|first2=S. Robert|title=A History of the Korean language|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-66189-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Whitman|first1=John|title=Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan|journal=Rice|date=2011|volume=4|issue=3–4|pages=149–158|doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Unger|first1=J. Marshall|title=The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages|date=2009|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|location=Honolulu|isbn=978-0-8248-3279-7}}</ref> Lee and Ramsey also look broadly to include ] and/or ].{{sfnp|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=43}}
			ref168 {{sfn|JIEAS|2005|loc=p=unknown}}
			The linguistic classification of the language is difficult due to the lack of historical sources. The most cited source, a body of ], has been interpreted by different authors as ], ], or an intermediate between the two.
	Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East ], and ] were similar, while they differed from that of the Malgal (]).<ref>Fan Ye, '']'', volume 85; the '']''</ref><ref>Wei Shou, '']'', volume 100; the ''Liezhuan'' 88, ]</ref><ref>Li Dashi, '']'', volume 94; the ''Liezhuan'' 82, ]</ref>
			ref026 {{sfn|Vovin|2013|loc=p=unknown}}
			ref169 {{sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=44}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref170 {{sfn|ref170}}</span>
			<!--- doi=10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov}} --->
			ref171 {{sfn|Pozzi|2006|p=257}}
			<!--- was a duplicate of ref169 --->
			ref172 {{sfn|Whitman|2011|loc=p=unknown}}
			ref173 {{sfn|Unger|2009|loc=p=unknown}}
			Lee and Ramsey also look broadly to include ] and/or ].
			ref174 {{sfn|Lee|Ramsey|2011|p=43}}
			Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East ], and ] were similar, while they differed from that of the Malgal (]).
			{{sfn|Book of the Later Han/85}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref175 {{sfn|ref175}}</span>
			ref176 {{sfn|Book of Wei/100}}
			ref177 {{sfn|Northern Dynasties/94}}
	==Controversies==		==Controversies==
	{{Main|Goguryeo controversies}}		{{Main|Goguryeo controversies}}
			Goguryeo was viewed as a Korean kingdom in premodern China,
	Goguryeo was viewed as a Korean kingdom in premodern China,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Byington |first1=Mark |title=The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7077 |website=History News Network |publisher=Columbian College of Arts & Sciences |access-date=29 May 2019 |quote=Surrounding states, both in the Chinese mainland and in the Japanese archipelago, acknowledged that Koguryo was a state whose heritage belonged to the later peninsular states of Koryo (918–1392) and Choson (1392–1910).}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Myung-gi |title=Korean and Chinese Intellectuals' recognitions of Koguryo in Choson dynasty |journal=Korean Culture |date=2006 |volume=38 |pages=337–366 |url=https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/handle/10371/66808 |publisher=Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies |language=ko |issn=1226-8356}}</ref> but in modern times, there is a dispute between China and Korea over whether Goguryeo can be considered part of Chinese history or it is Korean history.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bae |first1=Young-dae |last2=Lee |first2=Min-a |title=Korea finds some allies in Goguryeo history spat |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2004/09/16/socialAffairs/Korea-finds-some-allies-in-Goguryeo-history-spat/2470382.html |work=Korea JoongAng Daily |date=September 16, 2004}}</ref><ref name="atimes.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html|title=Asia Times – News and analysis from Korea; North and South|website=www.atimes.com|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203014606/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html|archive-date=2012-02-03}}</ref><!--
			ref178 {{sfn|Byington op.ed.}}
	--><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=108&oid=040&aid=0000014982|title=네이버 뉴스|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185753/https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=108&oid=040&aid=0000014982|archive-date=2013-10-29}}</ref>
			CITE=
			ref179 {{sfn|Han Myung-gi|2006}}
	In 2002, Chinese government started a five-year research project on the history and current situation of the frontiers of Northeast China which lasted from 2002 to 2007.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811041202/http://bjzx.cass.cn/news/129976.htm |date=2012-08-11 }} {{in lang|zh}}, Research Center for Chinese Borderland History and Geography (中国边疆史地研究中心), ] (retrieved on 11 January 2013).</ref> It was launched by the ] (CASS) and received financial support from both the Chinese government and the CASS.
			but in modern times, there is a dispute between China and Korea over whether Goguryeo can be considered part of Chinese history or it is Korean history.
			ref180 {{sfn|Bae Young-dae (JoongAng)|2004}}
			ref181 {{sfn|Klinger (Asia Time)|2004}}
			ref182 {{sfn|Staines (Korea Times)|2004}}
			In 2002, Chinese government started a five-year research project on the history and current situation of the frontiers of Northeast China which lasted from 2002 to 2007.
			ref183 {{sfn|CASS|2012}}
			It was launched by the ] (CASS) and received financial support from both the Chinese government and the CASS.
	The stated purpose of the Northeast Project was to use authoritative academic research to restore historical facts and protect the stability of Northeast China—a region sometimes known as ]—in the context of the strategic changes that have taken place in ] since China's "]" started in 1978.<ref>{{harvnb|Yoon|2004|p=108}}.</ref> Two of the project's leaders accused some foreign scholars and institutions of rewriting history to demand territory from China or to promote instability in the frontier regions, hence the necessity of the Project.<ref>{{harvnb|Yoon|2004|pp=108–109}}, citing two of the Northeast Project's programmatic statements.</ref>		The stated purpose of the Northeast Project was to use authoritative academic research to restore historical facts and protect the stability of Northeast China—a region sometimes known as ]—in the context of the strategic changes that have taken place in ] since China's "]" started in 1978.
			ref184 {{sfn|Yoon|2004|p=108}}
			Two of the project's leaders accused some foreign scholars and institutions of rewriting history to demand territory from China or to promote instability in the frontier regions, hence the necessity of the Project.
			ref185 {{sfn|Yoon|2004|pp=108–109}}
			<!--- citing two of the Northeast Project's programmatic statements--->
			The Project has described as applying the contemporary vision of China as a "]" to ancient ethnic groups, states and history of the region of ] and northern ].
			ref186 {{sfn|Yoon|2004|p=103}}
			ref187 {{sfn|Mohan|2011|p=}}
			According to this idea, there was a greater Chinese state in the ancient past.
	The Project has been criticized for applying the contemporary vision of China as a "]" to ancient ethnic groups, states and history of the region of ] and northern ].<ref name="Yoon 2004 p">{{harvnb|Yoon|2004|p=}}{{page needed|date=January 2013}}; {{harvnb|Mohan|2011|p=}}{{page needed|date=January 2013}}.</ref> According to this idea, there was a greater Chinese state in the ancient past.<ref name="Yoon 2004 p"/> Accordingly, any pre-modern people or state that occupied any part of what is now the People's Republic of China is defined as having been part of Chinese history.<ref>{{harvnb|Yoon|2004|p=103}}.</ref> Similar projects have been conducted on ], ] and ], which have been named ], ] and ] respectively.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://article.joins.com/article/article.asp?Total_ID=2447385| title = How was the "Southwest Project" that preceded the Chinese Northeast Project? 중국 동북공정에 앞서 '서남공정'은 어떻게| access-date = 2007-04-20| date = 2006-09-14| publisher = ] | language = ko}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:北部边疆历史与现状综合研究项目 |trans-title=Comprehensive research project on the history and current situation of the northern frontier |url=http://www.nmgass.com.cn/content.html?id=3165 |website=inner mongolia academy of social science }}</ref>
			ref186 {{sfn|Yoon|2004|p=103}}
			Accordingly, any pre-modern people or state that occupied any part of what is now the People's Republic of China is defined as having been part of Chinese history.
			ref186 {{sfn|Yoon|2004|p=103}}
			Similar projects have been conducted on ], ] and ], which have been named ], ] and ] respectively.
			ref188 {{sfn|Jin Se-geun|2006}}
			ref189 {{sfn|NMGASS|2020}}
			Due to its claims on ], Goguryeo and ], the project sparked disputes with Korea.
	Due to its claims on ], Goguryeo and ], the project sparked disputes with Korea.<ref>{{cite news| url = http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609050028.html| title = China Co-Opts More Old Korean Kingdoms| access-date = 2007-05-30| date = 2006-09-06| newspaper = ] |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071128011146/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609050028.html <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2007-11-28}}</ref> In 2004, this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between the People's Republic of China and ], although all governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations.<ref>{{cite news | first = Hyun-jin | last = Seo | title = Skepticism Lingers over History Issue | url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/skepticism-lingers-over-history-issue | format = Reprint | work = ]
			ref190 {{sfn|Chosun Ilbo|2006-09-06}}
	| date = 2004-08-24 | access-date = 2012-01-08 }}</ref>
			In 2004, this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between the People's Republic of China and South Korea, although all governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations.
			ref191 {{sfn|Seo Hyun-jin|2004}}
	In 2004, the Chinese government made a diplomatic compromise, pledging not to place claims to the history of Goguyreo in its history textbooks.<ref>{{cite news		In 2004, the Chinese government made a diplomatic compromise, pledging not to place claims to the history of Goguyreo in its history textbooks.
	| first = Hyun-jin		ref191 {{sfn|Seo Hyun-jin|2004}}
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref192 {{sfn|ref192}}</span>
	| last = Seo
			ref193 {{sfn|Chen Dingding|loc=paywall}}
	| title = Skepticism Lingers over History Issue
			However, online discussion regarding this topic among the general public has since increased. The Internet has provided a platform for a broadening participation in the discussion of Goguryeo in both South Korea and China. Thomas Chase points out that despite the growing online discussion on this subject, this has not led to a more objective treatment of this history, nor a more critical evaluation of its relationship to ].
	| url = http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/skepticism-lingers-over-history-issue
			ref194 {{sfn|Chase|2011|p=61-82}}
	| format = Reprint
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">ref195 {{sfn|ref195}}</span>
	| work = ]
	| date = 2004-08-24
	| access-date = 2012-01-08
	}}</ref><ref name="Chen">{{cite journal|title=Domestic Politics, National Identity, and International Conflict: the case of the Koguryo controversy|first=Dingding|last=Chen|date=February 2012|journal=Journal of Contemporary China|volume=21|issue=74|pages=227–241|doi=10.1080/10670564.2012.635928|s2cid=145079682}}</ref> However, online discussion regarding this topic among the general public has since increased. The Internet has provided a platform for a broadening participation in the discussion of Goguryeo in both South Korea and China. Thomas Chase points out that despite the growing online discussion on this subject, this has not led to a more objective treatment of this history, nor a more critical evaluation of its relationship to ].<ref>{{cite journal
	|last = Chase
	|first = Thomas
	|title = Nationalism on the Net: Online discussion of Goguryeo history in China and South Korea
	|journal = China Information
	|year = 2011
	|volume = 25
	|issue = 1
	|pages = 61–82
	|doi = 10.1177/0920203X10394111
	|s2cid = 143964634
	|url = http://cin.sagepub.com/content/25/1/61.full.pdf+html
	|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513071625/http://cin.sagepub.com/content/25/1/61.full.pdf+html
	|url-status = dead
	|archive-date = 2012-05-13
	|access-date = 2012-08-23
	}}</ref>
	== See also ==		== See also ==
Line 405:		Line 771:
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	== References ==		== References ==
	=== Note ===
	{{Notelist}}		{{Notelist}}
			{{Reflist|20em}}
	=== Citations ===		=== Further reading ===
	{{Reflist|30em}}
	=== Sources ===
	* {{cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Christopher I.|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith |title=Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages, with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese |edition = Second |url = {{GBurl|id=XeSvCQAAQBAJ|p=3}} |year=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn = 978-90-474-2028-6}}
	*{{citation |last=Mohan |first=Pankaj |year=2011 |title=Contending Perspectives on Koguryo: A Fresh Look at China's Northeast Project |journal=The Dong Gook Sa Hak |volume=50 |pages=53–93}}.
	* {{cite book |title = Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary |editor1-first=Alessandra |editor1-last=Pozzi |editor2-first=Juha Antero |editor2-last=Janhunen |editor3-first=Michael |editor3-last=Weiers |others = Giovanni Stary (Contributor) |volume=20 of Tunguso Sibirica |year=2006 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3447053785 |url = {{GBurl|id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C}} |access-date = 1 April 2013 |ref = {{harvid|Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|2006}} }}
	* {{citation |last=Yoon |first=Hwy-tak |year=2004 |title=China's Northeast Project: Defensive or Offensive Strategy? |journal=East Asian Review |issue=4 |volume=16 |pages=99–121 |url=http://www.ieas.or.kr/vol16_4/16_4_6.pdf |access-date=2013-01-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014015/http://www.ieas.or.kr/vol16_4/16_4_6.pdf |archive-date=2012-11-14 |url-status=dead}}.
	== Further reading ==
	{{Refbegin}}		{{Refbegin}}
	* Asmolov, V. Konstantin. (1992). The System of Military Activity of Koguryo, ''Korea Journal'', v. 32.2, 103–116, 1992.		* Asmolov, V. Konstantin. (1992). The System of Military Activity of Koguryo, ''Korea Journal'', v. 32.2, 103–116, 1992.
	*{{citation|last=Beckwith| first = Christopher I. |chapter=Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean |date=August 2003 |title = 13th Japanese/Korean Linguistics Conference |location = Michigan State University |chapter-url = http://www.msu.edu/~jk13/Abs.Beckwith.pdf |access-date = 2006-03-12 }}
	* {{cite book |last=Byeon |first=Tae-seop |title = 韓國史通論 (Outline of Korean history) |edition=4th |year=1999 |isbn=978-89-445-9101-3 |publisher=Unknown Publisher}}		* {{cite book |last=Byeon |first=Tae-seop |title = 韓國史通論 (Outline of Korean history) |edition=4th |year=1999 |isbn=978-89-445-9101-3 |publisher=Unknown Publisher}}
	* {{citation |last=Byington |first=Mark |chapter=The Creation of an Ancient Minority Nationality: Koguryo in Chinese Historiography |title=Embracing the Other: The Interaction of Korean and Foreign Cultures: Proceedings of the 1st World Congress of Korean Studies, III |location=Songnam, Republic of Korea |publisher=The Academy of Korean Studies |year=2002 |chapter-url=http://www.ikorea.ac.kr/congress/upload/free8-mark_byington.pdf }}
	* {{cite thesis |last=Byington |first=Mark |title=A History of the Puyo State, its People, and its Legacy |type=PhD |publisher=Havard University |date=2003}}
	* {{citation |last=Byington |first=Mark |title=The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided |publisher=History News Network (WWW) |url=http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html |year=2004b |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423023131/http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html |archive-date=2007-04-23 }}
	* {{citation |last=Chase |first=Thomas |title=Nationalism on the Net: Online discussion of Goguryeo history in China and South Korea |journal=China Information |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=61–82 |url=http://cin.sagepub.com/content/25/1/61.full.pdf+html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120513071625/http://cin.sagepub.com/content/25/1/61.full.pdf+html |url-status=dead |archive-date=2012-05-13 |year=2011 |doi=10.1177/0920203X10394111 |s2cid=143964634 }}
	*{{citation|last=Lee|first=Peter H.|year=1992|title=Sourcebook of Korean Civilization 1|publisher=Columbia University Press}}
	* Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In {{cite book|last=Aikens|first=C. Melvin|title=Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites|url={{GBurl|id=3hSBAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1992|publisher=WSU Press|isbn=978-0-87422-092-6}}
	*{{citation |last=Sun |first=Jinji |title =Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research) |publisher = Heilongjiang People's Publishing House |year=1986}}		*{{citation |last=Sun |first=Jinji |title =Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research) |publisher = Heilongjiang People's Publishing House |year=1986}}
	*{{citation |author =((Unknown Author))|title=Korea, 1–500 AD|url= http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/eak/ht05eak.htm|publisher=Metropolitan Museum }}
	* {{citation |author = ((Unknown Author)) |title = Koguryo |url = https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369333 |publisher = Britannica Encyclopedia |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070212011620/https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369333 |archive-date = 2007-02-12 }}
	* {{citation |encyclopedia = Columbia Encyclopedia |author = ((Unknown Author)) |title=Korea |publisher = Bartleby.com |year=2005 |url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ko/Korea.html |access-date = 2007-03-12}}		* {{citation |encyclopedia = Columbia Encyclopedia |author = ((Unknown Author)) |title=Korea |publisher = Bartleby.com |year=2005 |url = http://www.bartleby.com/65/ko/Korea.html |access-date = 2007-03-12}}
	* {{citation |last = ScienceView |title = Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms |publisher = ScienceView (WWW) |url = http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060822060248/http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html |archive-date = 2006-08-22 }}
	*{{citation|last=Wang|first=Zhenping|year=2013|title=Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War|publisher=University of Hawaii Press}}
	*{{citation|last = Xiong |first= Victor |year = 2008 |title = Historical Dictionary of Medieval China |publisher = Scarecrow Press, Inc. |location = United States |isbn = 978-0810860537}}
	{{Refend}}		{{Refend}}
			---------------------------------------------
	== External links ==
			picture ref156:
			https://m.cafe.daum.net/gimadea/G2os/15
			https://arca.live/b/novelchannel/43276981
			Goguryo tombs:
			http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=011_murals.inc&issue=011
			Shared Heritage Sites: The Mural Tombs of Gaogouli-Koguryo
			CHINA HERITAGE QUARTERLY
			China Heritage Project, The Australian National University
			ISSN 1833-8461 --- No. 11, September 2007
			http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.php?issue=011
			---------------------------------------------
			---------------------------------------------
			=== External links ===
	{{Commons category|Goguryeo Kingdom}}		{{Commons category|Goguryeo Kingdom}}
	*
	* ( 2009-10-31)		* ( 2009-10-31)
	*		*
	* {{in lang|ko}}		* {{in lang|ko}}
	*
	{{Empires}}		<!--- {{Empires}}
	{{Korea topics}}		{{Korea topics}}
	{{Authority control}}		{{Authority control}} --->
			===Categories===
	{{Coord|41|02|24|N|126|40|12|E|region:KP_type:country_source:kolossus-dewiki|display=title}}		{{Coord|41|02|24|N|126|40|12|E|region:KP_type:country_source:kolossus-dewiki|display=title}}
Line 467:		Line 830:
	]		]
	]		]
	]
			== NONO ==
	]
			<span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> quotations without a full reference. To be replaced or ousted. Deadline = 2023-11-11 </span>
			*{{citation
			|author= Cho Sang-heon
			|year=1997
			|title=A theory about the population of Goguryeo
			|trans-title=조상헌 (1997). 고구려 인구에 관한 시론
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-04}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-04</span> ref004
			*{{citation
			|title = 《汉书·地理志》：玄菟、乐浪，武帝时置，皆朝鲜、濊貉、句骊蛮夷。
			|trans-title= "Hanshu Geography": Xuantu and Lelang were placed during the reign of Emperor Wu, and they were all barbarians from Korea, Hao raccoon dog, and Gouli.
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-05}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-05 </span> ref005
			*{{citation
			|title=《享太庙乐章·钧天舞》：高皇迈道，端拱无为。化怀獯鬻，兵赋勾骊。
			|trans-title="Enjoy the Ancestral Temple Movement·Juntian Dance": Emperor Gao stepped forward, arching his head and doing nothing. It transforms into the Huai Mao vanda, and the soldiers are endowed with Gou Li.
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-06}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-06 </span> ref006
			* {{citation|title=NONO-08|ref={{harvid|NONO-08}}}} Institute of the Korean Language. 2023-02-04.] <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-08 : this wiki-article is not even achieved !!! </span> ref008
			* {{citation
			|title=NONO-35
			|trans-title= In the year 11 AD, he (]) ordered the Koguryo people to attack the Hsiung-nu. When they refused, their ruler was murdered by the Han governor of Liao-hsi and 'so the Maek people raided the frontier even more'.
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-35}}
			}}, <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-35 : source not given </span> ref035
			* {{citation
			|title=NONO-36: 先是，莽發高句驪兵，當伐胡，不欲行，郡強迫之，皆亡出塞，因犯法為寇。遼西大尹田譚追擊之，為所殺。州郡歸咎於高句驪侯騶。 莽不尉安，穢貉遂反，詔尤擊之。尤誘高句驪侯騶至而斬焉，傳首長安。 於是貉人愈犯邊，東北與西南夷皆亂云。<br />''Book of Han'', Chapter 99.
			|trans-title= First, Gaoguli soldiers were sent out recklessly to attack the Hu, but they did not want to do so. The county forced them to leave the fortress, and they all died and became bandits for violating the law. Dayin Tiantan of western Liaoning pursued him and killed him. The prefectures and counties were blamed on the Marquis of Gaoguli. The reckless raccoon dog rebelled against Wei's safety, and the imperial edict was issued to attack him. You especially lured Gaogouli Hou's disciples to arrive and beheaded Yan, and sent the message to Chang'an. As a result, the raccoon dogs invaded the borders more and more, and the barbarians in the northeast and southwest were in chaos (google translate).
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-36}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-36 : so what ? </span> ref036
			* {{citation
			| title= NONO-58: 《三国史记》：六年 秋八月 神雀集宫庭 冬十月 王命乌伊扶芬奴 伐太白山东南人国 取其地为城邑。十年 秋九月 鸾集于王台 冬十一月 王命扶尉 伐北沃沮灭之 以其地为城邑.
			|trans-title= Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms: In the autumn of the sixth year, in the eighth month, the divine birds gathered in the palace, and in the winter of the tenth month, the king ordered Wuyi Fufennu to attack the people in the southeast of Taibai Mountain and take the land for the city. In the autumn of the tenth year, in the ninth month, the luan gathered in Wangtai, and in the winter of the eleventh month, the king ordered Fufen When Wei attacked Beiwoju and destroyed it, he made the land his city.
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-58}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-58 : so what ? </span> ref058
			* {{citation
			|author=]
			|title=NONO-64: Records of the Three Kingdoms, 建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立，與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降，還住沸流水。
			|volume=30
			|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/%E4%B8%89%E5%9C%8B%E5%BF%97/%E5%8D%B730
			|trans-title=During Jian'an, Gongsun Kang sent out troops to attack him, destroyed his country and burned the towns. Ba Qi complained that he was his brother but could not stand up. He and Juan Nujia each had their subordinates with more than 30,000 people surrendered to Kang, and they still lived in Boliushui (google translated).
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-64}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-64 : so what ?</span> ref064
			*{{citation
			|title=NONO-79: 국양왕
			|trans-title= King Gukyang
			|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07031366&content_id=rp070313660001&search_left_menu=
			|website=KOCCA
			|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency
			|access-date=11 October 2016
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-79}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-79 : to be fixed </span> ref079
			* {{cite web|title=통일기|url=http://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div_id=CP_THE003&cp_code=cp0901&index_id=cp09010004&content_id=cp090100040001&search_left_menu=1|website=한국콘텐츠진흥원|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=4 November 2016
			|ref={{harvid|NONO-122}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-122, 403, Forbidden </span>
			* {{cite book| author=Brown |year=2006|p=18| title=no title given| ref={{harvid|NONO-165}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> NONO-165, no title given</span> ref165
			* {{citation
			|author= Lim, Byung-joon
			|year=1999
			|title=A Study on the borrowed writings of the dialect of Koguryo Dynasty in Ancient Korean (MA)
			|others=Konkuk University
			|ref={{harvid|Lim Byung-joon|1999}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> not referenced !!!</span> ref027
			== Not so Sources ==
			* {{citation
			|url=https://nuriwiki.net/%EA%B3%A0%EA%B5%AC%EB%A0%A4%EC%96%B4
			|title=고대 고구려의 단어
			|trans-title=Goguryeo language
			|author=Nuriwiki
			|ref={{harvid|nuriwiki/Goguryo language}}
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> wiki </span>. From in Japanese ref023
			*{{Citation
			|title=高句麗
			|trans-title=Goguryo
			|date=2023-06-24
			|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/search/?title=%E9%AB%98%E5%8F%A5%E9%BA%97&oldid=73715663 |work=Wiktionary
			|access-date=2023-06-25
			|ref={{harvid|wiktionary/Goguryo}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> another wiki </span> ref024
			*{{cite book
			|author= Rhee, Song-nai
			|year=1992
			|ref={{harvid|Rhee Song-nai|1992}}
			|chapter= Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State.
			|editor-last=Aikens|editor-first=C. Melvin
			|title=Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites
			|url={{GBurl|id=3hSBAAAAMAAJ}}
			|publisher=WSU Press
			|isbn=978-0-87422-092-6
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> unavailable </span> ref041
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Tudor,Daniel
			|title=Korea: The Impossible Country
			|date=2012
			|publisher=Tuttle Publishing
			|isbn=978-1462910229
			|url={{GBurl|id=BA_QAgAAQBAJ|p=18}}
			|ref={{harvid|Tudor|2012}}
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> rather a travel guide ; only to prove "Inner Mongolia"</span> ref087
			* about: {{cite web
			|author=Szczepanski, Kallie
			|year=2011
			|title=Inscription from Gwanggaeto the Great's Stele
			|access-date=2011-09-18
			|url=HTouTouPou://asianhistory.about.com.com/od/northkorea/a/Inscription-From-Gwanggaeto-The-Greats-Stele.htm
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016214908/http://asianhistory.about.com/od/northkorea/a/Inscription-From-Gwanggaeto-The-Greats-Stele.htm
			|archive-date=2011-10-16
			|ref={{harvid|Szczepanski|2011}}
			}} <!---
			http://www004.upp.so-net.ne.jp/teikoku-denmo/english/history/kohtaioh-hi_hibun.html
			https://www.fathersmanifesto.net/gwanggaeto_stele_translation.htm
			---> <br><span style="background-color:#00FFEF;"> please, find a better ref ! </span> <nowiki> found = {{sfn|De Bary|1997|p=24}} </nowiki> ref092
			*{{cite book
			|last1=Walker
			|first1=Hugh Dyson
			|title=East Asia: A New History
			|date=November 2012
			|publisher=AuthorHouse
			|isbn=978-1477265161
			|url={{GBurl|id=3Z3a0NU4RHMC|p=137}}
			}}<br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> self-published ; only p.137 ...</span> ref093, ref100
			* {{cite book
			|author= 이윤섭 (Lee Yun-seop)
			|title=한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사
			|trans-title=Read the history of Baekje in half a day
			|publisher=ebookspub(이북스펍)
			|isbn=979-1155191965
			|url={{GBurl|id=w8N3BgAAQBAJ|p=474}}
			|access-date=16 November 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Yun-seop|2014}}
			|date=2014
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a source at all</span> ref098
			* {{cite book
			|title=고구려와 수나라의 전쟁
			|trans-title=War between Goguryeo and Sui Dynasty
			|author= 이윤섭 (Lee Yunseop)
			|publisher= 이북스펍 (ebookspub)
			|isbn=979-1155191330
			|url={{GBurl|id=YCf-AwAAQBAJ|pg=PT26}}
			|access-date=21 November 2016
			|language=ko
			|date=2014-03-07
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Yunseop|2014}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a source at all</span> ref153
			* {{cite book
			|author1=White, Matthew
			|title=Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History
			|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company
			|isbn=978-0393081923
			|url={{GBurl|id=0-fQHlaIpR4C|p=78}}
			|date=2011-11-07
			|ref={{harvid|White|2011}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a R.S. </span> ref103
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Guo|first1=Rongxing
			|title=Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method
			|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media
			|isbn=978-1441908490
			|url={{GBurl|id=dbJ3LsL6jJMC|p=42}}
			|date=2009
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> p=42 says: from http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/three_kingdoms.htm, which says: from Ambassy !!!</span> ref115
			* {{cite journal
			|author=Grenet, Frantz
			|title=Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole. Sources écrites et archéologie
			|journal=Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales
			|volume=59
			|number=5/6
			|date=2004
			|pages=1043-1067
			|url=https://www.cairn.info/load_pdf.php?ID_ARTICLE=ANNA_595_1043&download=1
			|ref={{harvid|Grenet|2004}}
			|language=french
			}} <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> this paper only says "Coréens" instead of Goguryeo</span> ref118
			*{{cite book
			|last1=Ring|first1=Trudy
			|last2=Watson|first2=Noelle
			|last3=Schellinger|first3=Paul
			|title=International Dictionary of Historic Places, vol 5: Asia and Oceania
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1136639791
			|page=486
			|url={{GBurl|id=voerPYsAB5wC|p=486}}
			|date=2012
			|ref={{harvid|Ring et al.|2012}}
			}}<br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> rather a travel guide ; nothing *centered* on Goguryeo</span> ref119
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Lewis, Mark Edward
			|title=China's cosmopolitan empire: The Tang dynasty
			|year=2009
			|publisher=Harvard University Press
			|location=Cambridge
			|isbn=9780674033061
			|ref={{harvid|Lewis|2009}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> circular: note 9 page 34 points to </span> ref127
			* {{cite book
			|author=이상각 (Lee Sang-Gak)
			|title=고려사 – 열정과 자존의 오백년
			|trans-title=Goryeo History – 500 years of passion and pride
			|date=2014
			|publisher=들녘 (Deulnyeok)
			|isbn=979-1159250248
			|url={{GBurl|id=LonnCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT25}}
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Sang-Gak|2014}}
			}}<br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a R.S.</span> ref136
			*{{cite book
			|author=성기환 (Seong Gi-hwan)
			|title=생각하는 한국사 2: 고려시대부터 조선·일제강점까지
			|trans-title= Thinking about Korean History 2: From the Goryeo Dynasty to Joseon and Japanese Occupation
			|date=2008
			|publisher=버들미디어 (Beodeul Media)
			|isbn=978-8986982923
			|url={{GBurl|id=gQ3-AwAAQBAJ|pg=PT6}}
			|ref={{harvid|Seong Gi-hwan|2008}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a RS + not using "Thinking about Korean History 1: From Gojoseon to the Unified Silla period" is rather ridiculous !!!</span> ref138
			* {{cite book
			|author1=박종기 (Park Jong-gi)
			|title=고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다
			|trans-title=Rediscovery of Goryeo History : meet the 500 years of Goryeo history
			|date=2015
			|publisher=휴머니스트 (Humanist)
			|isbn=978-8958629023
			|url={{GBurl|id=Qn6TCgAAQBAJ|pg=PT66}}
			|ref={{harvid|Park Jong-gi|2015}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not a R.S.</span> ref139, ref144
			* {{cite web
			|url=http://contents.koreanhistory.or.kr/id/G0001
			|title=고구려 5부 (高句麗 五部)
			|website=한국사 콘텐츠 (Korean history content)
			|trans-title=Goguryeo five Bu
			|publisher=National Institute of Korean History
			|access-date=21 November 2016
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228171828/http://contents.koreanhistory.or.kr/id/G0001
			|archive-date=28 December 2017
			|url-status=dead
			|ref={{harvid|KHC/Five Bu}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">A better source is needed</span> ref151
			* {{cite book
			|author=한정주 (Han Jeong-ju)
			|title=한국사 전쟁의 기술: 한국사의 판도를 바꿔 놓은 36가지 책략
			|trans-title=The Art of War in Korean History : 36 Strategies That Changed the Game of Korean History
			|publisher=Dasan Books
			|isbn=978-8963704067
			|page=61
			|url={{GBurl|id=O8nFAwAAQBAJ|p=61}}
			|access-date=21 November 2016
			|year=2010
			|ref={{harvid|Han Jeong-ju|2010}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">A better source is needed</span> ref152
			* {{Cite web
			|url=http://news.donga.com/List/Series_70040100000145/3/70040100000145/20140401/62155239/1
			|title = 9: 보병-기병, 최첨단 무기 무장… 고구려군은 동아시아 최강
			|trans-title= 9: Infantry and cavalry, armed with cutting-edge weapons... Goguryeo army is the strongest in East Asia
			|date = April 2014
			|ref={{harvid|Yun Myeong-cheol|2014}}
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">part of the series = </span> listed at ref154
			* {{citation
			|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060904120442/http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/index.html
			|title=Virtual Project Island
			|chapter = Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms
			|chapter-url = http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html
			|url-status = dead
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060822060248/http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html |archive-date = 2006-08-22
			|year=2001
			|ref={{harvid|VPI|2001}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">not a source. read the introduction !</span> ref158
			* which is which ? <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> related or not with ] ? </span>
			:*{{cite web
			|website=Cartwright World History Encyclopedia
			|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Goguryeo/
			|last=Cartwright|first=Mark
			|title=Goguryeo
			|date=2016-10-05
			|access-date=2019-04-14
			|ref={{harvid|CWHE/Goguryeo}}
			}}<> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> unreliable ? and useless</span> ref013
			:*{{cite web
			|website=Cartwright World History Encyclopedia
			|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Three_Kingdoms_Period_in_Korea
			|last=Cartwright|first=Mark
			|title=Three_Kingdoms_Period_in_Korea
			|date=2016-10-05
			|access-date=2021-02-28
			|ref={{harvid|CWHE/Three Kingdoms}}
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> unreliable ?</span> ref107
			:*{{cite encyclopedia
			|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of World History (7 Volumes Set)
			|chapter=Vol I, Three Kingdoms, Korea
			|page=464
			|editor1=Marsha E. Ackermann
			|editor2=Michael J. Schroeder
			|display-editors=etal
			|date=2008-01-01
			|isbn=978-0-8160-6386-4
			|ref={{harvid|EWH7/Three Kingdoms}}
			}} <br> ref075
			---------------------------
			* KBS <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> a series encompassing all Goguryeo Kings. 4000-4045 </span>
			:*{{cite news
			|title=KBS History: King Sansang
			|url=https://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?lang=e&menu_cate=history&id=&board_seq=4009&page=3&board_code=dynasty
			|access-date=30 August 2023
			|date=2015-03-09
			|ref={{harvid|KBS/Sansang|2015}}
			}}, 63
			:*{{cite news
			|title=KBS History: King Gogukyang
			|url=https://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?lang=e&menu_cate=history&id=&board_seq=4017&page=3&board_code=dynasty
			|access-date=30 August 2023
			|date=2015-05-11
			|ref={{harvid|KBS/Gogukyang|2015}}
			}}, 80
			:*{{cite web
			|title=KBS History: King Ganggwaeto (1)
			|url=https://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?lang=e&menu_cate=history&id=&board_seq=4018&page=3&board_code=dynasty
			|date=2015-05-18
			|access-date=7 October 2016
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828051916/http://world.kbs.co.kr/english/archive/program/program_dynasty.htm?no=10039827
			|archive-date=28 August 2016
			|ref={{harvid|KBS/Ganggwaeto-1|2015}}
			}}, 95
			* {{cite book
			|author= 이희진 (Lee Heejin)
			|date=2013
			|title=옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1
			|trans-title=East Asian Romance of the Three Kingdoms read sideways 1
			|publisher=EastAsia
			|isbn=978-8962620726
			|url={{GBurl|id=GfevAwAAQBAJ|pg=PT348}}
			|access-date=4 November 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Heejin|2013}}
			}}, 121 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> RS or not ? ; one line about Salsu battle</span>
			==Sources==
			===Usuals===
			*Britannica {{cite encyclopedia
			|title = Koguryo
			|url = https://www.britannica.com/place/Koguryo
			|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070212011620/https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369333 |archive-date = 2007-02-12
			|access-date = June 27, 2017
			}}, ref003, ref009
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Wechsler
			|first1=Howard J.
			|editor1-last=Twitchett
			|editor1-first=Denis
			|title=The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3, Sui and T'ang China, AD 589–906, Part 1
			|date=1979
			|publisher=Cambridge University Press
			|isbn=978-0-521-21446-9
			|url={{GBurl|id=idu6-Ie1MhwC}}
			|chapter=T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator
			}} ref012
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Hall
			|first1=John Whitney
			|title=The Cambridge History of Japan
			|year=1988
			|publisher=Cambridge University Press
			|isbn=978-0521223522
			|url={{GBurl|id=A3_6lp8IOK8C|q=%22The+reign+of+King+Kwanggaet%27o+is+thought+of+as+Koguryo%27s+golden+age+of+political+might+and+Buddhist+splendor.%22}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			}} ref083
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Graff, David
			|title=Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900
			|date=2003
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1134553532
			|url={{GBurl|id=gpmBAgAAQBAJ|p=200}}
			|access-date=6 November 2016
			|language=en
			|ref={{harvid|Graff|2003}}
			}} ref020 ref106 ref109 ref128
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Lee |first1= Peter H.
			|author2=De Bary, Theodore
			|title=Sources of Korean Tradition (Tome 1: origins through 16th century)
			|year=1997
			|publisher=Columbia University Press
			|isbn= 9780231105675
			|url={{GBurl|id=kWYCxE3plWkC|p=24}}
			|ref={{harvid|Lee, Peter H.|1997}}
			}}, ref042, ref048, ref094
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Ebrey |first1=Patricia Buckley
			|last2=Walthall |first2=Anne
			|last3=Palais |first3=James B.
			|title=East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800
			|publisher=Cengage Learning
			|isbn=978-1111808150
			|url={{GBurl|id=CWE8AAAAQBAJ|p=106}}
			|year=2013
			}} ref105, ref112 (only page 106 is used !!!)
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Kim, Jinwung
			|title=A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict
			|publisher=Indiana University Press
			|isbn=978-0-253-00078-1
			|date=2012
			|url={{GBurl|id=QFPsi3IK8gcC|p=34}}
			|ref={{harvid|Kim Jinwung|2012}}
			}} ref076, ref086, ref097, ref111 (only pages 34-36 et 50 are used !!!)
			*{{cite book
			|last=Lee
			|first=Ki-Baik
			|title=A New History of Korea
			|date=1984
			|publisher=Harvard University Press
			|location=Cambridge, Massachusetts
			|isbn=978-0674615762
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Ki-baik|1984}}
			}} ref061, ref062, ref071, ref077, ref096, ref099, ref102, ref110, ref124, ref140, ref146, ref148
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Li |first1=Narangoa
			|last2=Cribb |first2=Robert
			|title=Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia |date=2014
			|publisher=Columbia University Press
			|isbn=978-0-231-16070-4 |url={{GBurl|id=zfMYBQAAQBAJ}}
			|ref={{harvid|Li Narangoa|2014}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> Great usual. But Goguryeo doesn't belongs to 1590-2010 !</span> ref011
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Barnes, Gina
			|title=State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives
			|year= 2013
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1-136-84104-0
			|url={{GBurl|id=VXj_AQAAQBAJ}}
			|ref={{harvid|Barnes|2013}}
			}}, ref010, ref032, ref060, ref066, ref068
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Lee|first1=Injae
			|last2=Miller|first2=Owen
			|last3=Park|first3=Jinhoon
			|last4=Yi|first4=Hyun-Hae
			|title=Korean History in Maps
			|publisher=Cambridge University Press
			|isbn=978-1107098466
			|url={{GBurl|id=46OTBQAAQBAJ|p=30}}
			|date=2014
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Injae|2014}}
			}}, ref069, ref120
			* {{cite book
			|url=https://folkency.nfm.go.kr/api/file/download/dictionary/82
			|editor=The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea)
			|title=Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III
			|date=2014
			|isbn=978-8928900848
			|access-date=10 September 2017
			|ref={{harvid|FolkEncy|2014}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> a whole set of usuals can be downloaded at </span> ref047
			* {{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=2120479&cid=50223&categoryId=51051
			|last1=조현설 (Cho Hyeonseol)
			|title=유화부인 | trans-title=Lady Yuhwa
			|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture
			|access-date=30 April 2018
			|ref={{harvid|FolkEncy/YuhwaBuin}}
			}} ref052
			===secondary sources in Korean===
			* {{cite encyclopedia
			|url= http://contents.history.go.kr/front/ht/sub.do?levelId=ht_002
			|encyclopedia=국사편찬위원회 (National History Compilation Committee)
			|chapter-url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/ht/sub.do?levelId=ht_001
			|chapter=한국의 건국 신화 읽기
			|trans-chapter=Korean History by subject
			|ref={{harvid|NHCC/Korean History}}
			}} ref002
			:* {{cite encyclopedia
			|url=http://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_011_0040_0030_0020_0020
			|encyclopedia=국사편찬위원회 (National History Compilation Committee)
			|title=11권-III.3: 후고구려의 건국
			|trans-title=Vol11-III.3: Founding of Later Goguryeo (Taebong)
			|access-date=23 March 2018
			|ref={{harvid|NHCC/Taebong Founding}}
			}} ref137
			*{{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/Search/%EA%B3%A0%EA%B5%AC%EB%A0%A4
			|encyclopedia=Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies
			|chapter=고구려 (高句麗)
			|trans-chapter= Goguryeo, search EncyKor
			|ref={{harvid|Encykor/Goguryeo/search}}
			}} ref007, ref023, ref025
			*{{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0003323
			|encyclopedia=Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies
			|title=고구려 (高句麗)
			|trans-title= Goguryeo
			|ref={{harvid|Encykor/Goguryeo}}
			}}, ref021
			*{{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0036943
			|encyclopedia=Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies
			|title=연타발 (延陀勃)
			|trans-title= Yeon Tabal
			|ref={{harvid|Encykor/Yeon Tabal}}
			}}, ref055 Yeon Tabal
			*{{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=557703&cid=46620&categoryId=46620
			|encyclopedia=Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies
			|title=소서노 (召西奴)
			|trans-title= Soseono
			|ref={{harvid|Encykor/Soseono}}
			}}, ref056
			*{{cite encyclopedia
			|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=531903&cid=46620&categoryId=46620
			|encyclopedia=Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies
			|title=하백 (河伯)
			|trans-title= Habaek
			|ref={{harvid|Encykor/Habaek}}
			}}, ref051
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1185444&mobile&cid=40942&categoryId=33375
			|encyclopedia=Doosan Encyclopedia
			|title= 유화부인 (柳花夫人)
			|trans-title=Lady Yuwha
			|ref={{harvid|Doosan/Lady Yuwha}}
			}}, ref049
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			|url=http://terms.naver.com/entry.nhn?docId=1160526&cid=40942&categoryId=31541
			|encyclopedia=Doosan Encyclopedia
			|title= 하백 (河伯)
			|trans-title=Habaek
			|ref={{harvid|Doosan/Habaek}}
			}}, ref050
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=1158098&cid=40942&categoryId=33375
			|encyclopedia=Doosan Encyclopedia
			|title=평원왕 (平原王)
			|trans-title= King Pyeongwon
			|ref={{harvid|Doosan/Pyeongwon}}
			}}, 101
			* {{Cite encyclopedia
			|url= https://terms.naver.com/entry.naver?docId=1145012&cid=40942&categoryId=33375
			|encyclopedia=Doosan Encyclopedia
			|title=진평왕 (眞平王)
			|trans-title= King Jinpyeong
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610011238/http://100.nate.com/dicsearch/pentry.html?s=K&i=271861&v=42
			|archive-date=2011-06-10
			|ref={{harvid|Doosan/Jinpyeong}}
			}}, 108
			<!---
			<ref>{{cite web|title=디지털 삼국유사 사전, 박물지 시범개발|url=https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07032340&content_id=rp070309330002&print=Y|website=문화콘텐츠닷컴|publisher=Korea Creative Content Agency|access-date=6 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119100108/https://www.culturecontent.com/content/contentView.do?search_div=CP_THE&search_div_id=CP_THE004&cp_code=rp0703&index_id=rp07032340&content_id=rp070309330002&print=Y|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> --->
			* {{cite book
			|author=신형식 (Sin Hyeon-sik)
			|title=ko:高句麗史
			|trans-title=Goguryeo History
			|date=2003
			|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press
			|isbn=978-8973005284
			|page=56
			|url={{GBurl|id=1Sg7_rxpT-gC|p=56}}
			|access-date=12 September 2017
			|others= 427 p.
			|ref={{harvid|Sin Hyeon-sik|2003}}
			}}, 149
			===Primary sources of the past===
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|author= Ban Gu
			|author-link= Ban Gu
			|title=]
			|trans-title= Three Counties: Gaoguli, Shangyintai, Xigeima
			|ref={{harvid|Book of the Former Han/28}}
			|date= 60CE
			}}, ref045
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|author= Fan Ye
			|author-link= Fan Ye
			|title=]
			|trans-title= Manchuria, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Dongwoju, Dongye, Samhan, Japan
			|ref={{harvid|Book of the Later Han/85}}
			|date= c. 450
			}}, ref046, ref175
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|author = Sima Guang
			|author-link= Sima Guang
			|title= ] 卷二百二十五 唐紀四十一
			|trans-title=Vol 225, Tang Ji 41
			|ref={{harvid|Zizhi Tongjian/225}}
			|date= 1084
			}}, ref134
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|author = Sima Guang
			|author-link= Sima Guang
			|title= ] 卷二百二十七 唐紀四十三
			|trans-title=Vol 227, Tang Ji 43
			|ref={{harvid|Zizhi Tongjian/227}}
			|date= 1084
			}}, ref135
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|title= ]
			|trans-title= Goguryeo, Baekje, Wuji, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didouyu, Kumoxi, Khitan, Uluohou
			|author= Wei Shou | author-link= Wei Shou
			|date= c. 550
			|ref={{harvid|Book of Wei/100}}
			}}, ref176
			* {{citation
			|work=]
			|author = Li Dashi
			|author-link= Li Dashi
			|title= ]
			|trans-title=Goryeo, Baekje, Silla, Wuji, Xi, Khitan, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didougan, Wuluohou, Liuqiu, Japan
			|ref={{harvid|Northern Dynasties/94}}
			|date= c. 650
			}}, ref177
			====Samguk Sagi====
			*see ] for the en:wp description of this key document.
			*access the raw primary source using {{cite encyclopedia
			|url=https://db.history.go.kr/item/level.do?sort=levelId&dir=ASC&start=-1&limit=52&page=1&pre_page=0&setId=-1&totalCount=0&prevPage=1&prevLimit=20&itemId=sg&types=o&synonym=off&chinessChar=on&brokerPagingInfo=&levelId=
			|author= Kim Bu-sik
			|trans-title=Samguk Sagi
			|title=삼국사기
			|editor=National Historical Compilation Committe
			}}
			* should be fixed (Google translations don't replace secondary sources !!!):
			:* {{citation
			|title=should be #13 Goguryeo (Sage King Dongmyeong)
			|trans-title=秋八月，王命鳥伊烏伊、摩離，領兵二萬，西伐梁貊，滅其國，進兵襲取漢高句麗縣。(縣屬玄菟郡) == In the eighth month of autumn, the king ordered Niaoyiwuyi and Moli to lead 20,000 troops to attack Liangqi from the west, destroy his country, and advance to attack Han Dynasty's Goguryeo County. (The county belongs to Xuantu County)
			|ref={{harvid|Shouldbe-44}}
			}}, ref044
			:* {{citation
			|title=should be #17 Goguryeo (King Jungcheon)
			|trans-title=十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級 == In the winter of the 12th year of the twelfth year, in the twelfth month of the year, Wang Tian went to the Valley of Dune. Wei general Wei Chikai, who was famous for his crime, led the army to attack Chang Lingba.
			|ref={{harvid|Shouldbe-70}}
			}}, ref070
			:* {{citation
			|title=should be #28 Baekje (King Uija)
			|trans-title= 秦、漢亂離之時，中國人多竄海東。== When the Qin and Han Dynasties were in chaos, many Chinese people fled to the east of the sea.
			|ref={{harvid|Shouldbe-43}}
			}}, ref043
			:* {{citation
			|title=should be #37 Monographies (Geography of Goguryeo and Baekje)
			|trans-title= 高句麗始居中國北地，則漸東遷于浿水之側 == Goguryeo first settled in northern China, then gradually moved eastward to the side of the Xishui River
			|ref={{harvid|Shouldbe-40}}
			}}, ref040
			====Samguk Yusa====
			* {{cite book
			|title=]
			|author = Iryŏn
			|translator1=Ha Tae-hung
			|translator2=Mintz, Grafton K.
			|date= c. 1200
			|publisher= Yonsei University
			|edition= 2016
			|isbn = 9788971410172
			|others=456p.
			|ref = {{harvid|Samguk Yusa|2016}}
			}}, ref053, ref054, ref057, ref160
			===Promising, but poorly used===
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Bedeski, Robert
			|title=Dynamics Of The Korean State: From The Paleolithic Age To Candlelight Democracy
			|date=2021
			|publisher=WSPC
			|page=133
			|url={{GBurl|id=vH5JEAAAQBAJ|p=133}}
			|access-date=18 July 2023
			|ref={{harvid|Bedeski|2021}}
			}} About Russia v. Korea ref015
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Matray, James
			|title=Crisis in a Divided Korea: A Chronology and Reference Guide
			|date=2016
			|publisher=ABC-CLIO
			|url={{GBurl|id=QMLWCwAAQBAJ|p=7}}
			|access-date=18 July 2023
			|ref={{harvid|Matray|2016}}
			}} <br> Pages 1-22 are giving a great overview of Korean history. Deserves more than being used to prove the geographical proximity of Russia and Korea !!! ref016
			* {{cite journal
			|url=http://pds9.egloos.com/pds/200806/04/03/5.pdf
			|author=馬淵 和夫 (Mabuchi Kazuhito)
			|journal= 文藝言語研究. 言語篇 (Literary Language Research. Language Series)
			|pages = 73-127
			|title = 『三国史記』記載の百済地名より見た古代百済語の考察
			|trans-title=A study of ancient Baekje language from the perspective of Baekje place names mentioned in ]
			|volume=6
			|date = March 1979
			|ref={{harvid|Mabuchi Kazuhito|1979}}
			}} <br> Page 79 compares 내 / 납 / 냇 . So what ? ref030
			* {{cite book
			|title=A History of Korea
			|author=Henthorn, William E.
			|year=1971
			|publisher=Macmillan
			|isbn=9780029144602
			|others=256 p.
			|ref={{harvid|Henthorn|1971}}
			}}, ref078
			*{{cite journal
			|last=Beckwith, Christopher I.
			|date=December 2005
			|title=Ethnolinguistic history of Korea
			|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith
			|journal = Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies
			|volume=2
			|number=2
			|pages=34-64
			|url=https://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/KOREAN/Beckwith,%20Ethnolinguistic%20history%20of%20Korea.pdf
			|ref={{harvid|Beckwith|2005}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> unused as of now </span>
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Rossabi, Morris
			|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries
			|date=1983
			|publisher=University of California Press
			|isbn=978-0520045620
			|page=323
			|url={{GBurl|id=sNpD5UKmkswC|p=323}}
			|ref={{harvid|Rossabi|1983}}
			}} ref141
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Kim|first1=Djun Kil
			|title=The History of Korea
			|edition=2nd
			|date= 2014
			|publisher=ABC-CLIO
			|isbn=978-1610695824
			|url={{GBurl|id=IgxvBAAAQBAJ|p=32}}
			|ref={{harvid|Kim Djun-kil|2014}}
			}}, ref091, ref142
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Grayson, James H.
			|title=Korea – A Religious History
			|date=2013
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1136869259
			|url={{GBurl|id=LU78AQAAQBAJ|p=79}}
			|ref={{harvid|Grayson|2013}}
			}} ref143
			===Others===
			* {{cite web
			|title=Panorama of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea
			|url=http://www.mfa.gov.kp/en/overview/
			|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs DPRK
			|access-date=19 January 2022
			|url-status=dead
			|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517082710/http://www.mfa.gov.kp/en/overview/
			|archivedate=17 May 2021
			|ref={{harvid|MFA-DPRK/overview}}
			}} ref001
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Gardner
			|first1=Hall
			|title=Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy
			|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
			|isbn=978-0230608733
			|url={{GBurl|id=gLVsCwAAQBAJ|q=Inner+Mongolia}}
			|date=2007
			}}, ref018
			* {{cite book
			|author=Beckwith, Christopher I.
			|year=2007
			|author-link=Christopher I. Beckwith
			|title=Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages, with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese
			|edition = Second
			|url = {{GBurl|id=XeSvCQAAQBAJ|p=3}}
			|publisher=Brill
			|isbn = 978-90-474-2028-6
			|ref={{harvid|Beckwith|2007}}
			}} ref031
			* {{citation
			|last=Byington
			|first=Mark
			|chapter=The Creation of an Ancient Minority Nationality: Koguryo in Chinese Historiography
			|title=Embracing the Other: The Interaction of Korean and Foreign Cultures: Proceedings of the 1st World Congress of Korean Studies, III
			|location=Songnam, Republic of Korea
			|publisher=The Academy of Korean Studies
			|year=2002
			|chapter-url=http://www.ikorea.ac.kr/congress/upload/free8-mark_byington.pdf
			|url=https://dokumen.tips/download/link/the-creation-of-an-ancient-minority-nationality-koguryo-in-2008-4-2-nevertheless.html
			}}
			* {{cite thesis
			|last=Byington
			|first=Mark
			|title=A History of the Puyo State, its People, and its Legacy
			|type=PhD
			|publisher=Havard University |date=2003
			}}
			* Jimoondang - {{cite book
			|last1=Yi|first1=Hyŏn-hŭi|last2=Pak|first2=Sŏng-su|last3=Yun|first3=Nae-hyŏn
			|title=New history of Korea
			|year=2005
			|publisher=Jimoondang
			|isbn=978-8988095850
			|url={{GBurl|id=KO8MAQAAMAAJ}}
			|ref={{harvid|Jimoondang|2005}}
			}}
			*{{cite book
			|author=Tennant, Charles Roger
			|year=1996
			|url = {{GBurl|id=tKTtAAAAMAAJ|q=244+sacked}}
			|edition=illustrated
			|isbn=978-0-7103-0532-9
			|publisher=Kegan Paul International
			|title=A history of Korea
			|author-link = Roger Tennant
			|ref={{harvid|Tennant|1996}}
			}} Only page=22 is used !!!!! ref067,072,081
			*{{cite journal
			|last1=Zhang |first= Xuefeng
			|title=The Formation of East Asian World during the 4th and 5th Centuries: A Study Based on Chinese Sources
			|journal=Frontiers of History in China
			|date=2010
			|volume=5
			|issue=4
			|pages=525–548
			|doi=10.1007/s11462-010-0110-z
			|s2cid=154743659
			|url=https://brill.com/view/journals/fhic/5/4/article-p525_3.xml
			|ref={{harvid|Zhang Xuefeng|2010}}
			}}, ref034
			*{{cite book
			|last=Wang
			|first=Zhenping
			|year=2013
			|title=Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War
			|publisher=University of Hawaii Press
			}}, ref125
			*{{cite book
			|last = Xiong
			|first= Victor
			|year = 2008
			|title = Historical Dictionary of Medieval China
			|publisher = Scarecrow Press, Inc.
			|location = United States
			|isbn = 978-0810860537
			}}, ref126
			* {{cite book
			|author=김용만 (Kim Yongman)
			|year=1998
			|title=고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사
			|trans-title=Discovery of Goguryeo: A new history of Goguryeo civilization
			|publisher=바다출판사
			|isbn=978-8987180212
			|url={{GBurl|id=0iN1PAAACAAJ|q=고구려의+발견}}
			|access-date=4 November 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Kim Yongman|1998}}
			}}, only used to prove an obvious assertion (p=486) ref123
			*{{cite book
			|author=Mohan, Pankaj
			|editor1-last=MacKenzie |editor1-first=John M
			|title=The Encyclopedia of Empire
			|date=2016
			|publisher=Wiley
			|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe104
			|access-date=25 February 2021
			|chapter=Goguyreo
			|doi=10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe104
			|isbn=978-1118455074
			|ref={{harvid|Mohan|2016}}
			}}, ref033
			* {{cite web
			|url=http://www.heritage.go.kr/heri/cul/culSelectDetail.do?VdkVgwKey=12,07760000,11
			|title=보물 환두대도 (環頭大刀) : 국가문화유산포털 – 문화재청
			|trans-title=Treasure: Hwandu Daedo: National Cultural Heritage Portal – Cultural Heritage Administration
			|ref={{harvid|Heritage/Hwandusaedo}}
			}} ref155
			*{{cite web
			|url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Kokuryeo_Korean_sword_Hwando_%28original_Katana%29.jpg |title=Mural Tomb painting of an Hwando Sword
			|ref={{harvid|Mural Tomb/sword}}
			}} ref156
			*{{cite web
			|url=https://world.kbs.co.kr/service/contents_view.htm?board_seq=415521
			|title=Ssireum (Traditional Korean Wrestling) in N. Korea
			|date=2021-12-16
			|journal=KBS World
			|ref={{harvid|KBS World|2021}}
			}} ref162
			===Sources about language===
			*{{cite journal
			|last1=Vovin, Alexander
			|title=From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean
			|journal=Korean Linguistics
			|date=2013
			|volume=15
			|issue=2
			|pages=222–240
			|doi=10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov
			|ref={{harvid|Vovin|2013}}
			}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> paywall ...and no pages given...</span> ref026, ref170
			* {{cite book
			|author=Tranter, Nicholas
			|year=2012
			|title=The Languages of Japan and Korea
			|publisher=Abingdon: Routledge
			|isbn=978-0415462877
			|others=516 p.
			|ref={{harvid|Tranter|2012}}
			}} ref028
			* {{cite web
			|author=유석재 (Yu Seok-jae)
			|url=http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html
			|title='고구려'와 '고려'는 같은 나라였다 – 조선닷컴
			|website=www.chosun.com
			|access-date=2010-01-09
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611195139/http://www.chosun.com/culture/news/200606/200606160471.html
			|archive-date=2011-06-11
			|url-status=dead
			|date=2006-06-16
			|ref={{harvid|Yu Seok-jae (Chosun)|2006}}
			}}, ref145, ref166
			:『고려의 고구려계승에 대한 종합적 검토』 : 박용운, 2006, 일지사
			:『Comprehensive Review of Goryeo’s Succession to Goguryeo』: Park Yong-un, 2006, Iljisa
			* {{cite web
			|author=임기환 (Im Ki-hwan)
			|date=2004-07-01
			|url=http://www.krsrt.com/koguryo/A/koguryoA-13.html
			|title=고구려란 이름
			|trans-title=The name Goguryeo
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080829153153/http://www.krsrt.com/koguryo/A/koguryoA-13.html
			|archive-date=2008-08-29
			|ref={{harvid|Im Ki-hwan|2004}}
			}}, ref167 (Goguryeo Research Foundation) ... part 3 of a series of 4.
			*{{cite web
			|url=http://www.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/DataGarden/Journal%2802-2%29%282%29.pdf
			|title=Special Issue: The Language(s) of Koguryŏ
			|website=www.historyfoundation.or.kr
			|access-date=11 January 2022
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226195328/http://www.historyfoundation.or.kr/Data/DataGarden/Journal%2802-2%29%282%29.pdf
			|archive-date=26 February 2009
			|url-status=dead
			|date=December 2005
			|ref={{harvid|JIEAS|2005}}
			}}, ref168
			*{{cite book
			|author1=Lee, Ki-Moon
			|author2=Ramsey, Robert S.
			|title=A History of the Korean language
			|date=2011
			|publisher=Cambridge University Press
			|location=Cambridge
			|isbn=978-0-521-66189-8
			|ref= {{harvid|Lee|Ramsey|2011}}
			}}, ref169
			* {{cite journal
			|author1=Whitman, John
			|title=Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan
			|journal=Rice
			|date=2011
			|volume=4
			|issue=3–4
			|pages=149–158
			|doi=10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0
			|doi-access=free
			|ref={{harvid|Whitman|2011}}
			}}, ref 172
			*{{cite book
			|author1=Unger, J. Marshall
			|title=The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages
			|date=2009
			|publisher=University of Hawaii Press
			|location=Honolulu
			|isbn=978-0-8248-3279-7
			|ref={{harvid|Unger|2009}}
			}}, ref173
			* {{cite book
			|title = Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary
			|editor1=Pozzi, Alessandra
			|editor2-first=Juha Antero |editor2-last=Janhunen
			|editor3-first=Michael |editor3-last=Weiers
			|others = Giovanni Stary (Contributor)
			|volume=20 of Tunguso Sibirica
			|year=2006
			|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag
			|isbn=978-3447053785
			|url = {{GBurl|id=LbmP_1KIQ_8C}}
			|access-date = 1 April 2013
			|ref = {{harvid|Pozzi|2006}}
			}}
			=== Sources about Wrestling ===
			*{{cite web
			|title= Historical Background Of Taekwondo
			|archive-date=2014-10-19
			|url=http://www.koreataekwondo.org/KTA_ENG/html/ency/intro01_1.asp
			|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20141019022748/http://www.koreataekwondo.org/KTA_ENG/html/ency/intro01_1.asp
			|website=Korea Taekwondo Association
			|year=2008
			|ref={{harvid|KTA|2008}}
			}}, ref163
			* {{cite journal
			|title=The Making of a Modern Myth: Inventing a Tradition for Taekwondo
			|date=March 2016
			|journal=Korea Journal
			|volume= 56
			|number=1
			|pages=61-92
			|doi=10.25024/kj.2016.56.1.61
			|author=Capener, Steven D.
			|ref={{harvid|Capener|2016}}
			}} ref164
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			* ]
			== Sources about the Chinese Controversy ==
			* {{cite web
			|url=http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm
			|title=The Pride History of Korea
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070528113348/http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm
			|archive-date=2007-05-28
			|ref={{harvid|PrideHK|2007}}
			}}, <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> wiki</span> ref059
			<!--- {{better source needed|reason=Link is broken, but judging from the URL and title, it looks like this was a questionable source even when it was live.|date=January 2018}} --->
			* {{cite web
			|author1=김운회 (Kim Wonhoe)
			|title=한국과 몽골, 그 천년의 비밀을 찾아서
			|trans-title=Korea and Mongolia, in search of their thousand-year secrets
			|url=http://www.pressian.com/news/article.html?no=113599
			|website=Pressian, ]
			|date=4 February 2014
			|publisher=Korea Press Foundation
			|access-date=11 October 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Pressian/2014-02-04}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">From a serial about the "Empress Ki" TV series</span> See or for a small bio about the author --- ref088
			<!--- https://koreanology.wordpress.com/2013/01/23/was-goguryeo-%E9%AB%98%E5%8F%A5%E9%BA%97-gaogouli-korean-or-chinese-draft-ideas/ --->
			* {{cite web
			|last1=成宇濟 (Cheng Yuji)
			|title=고고학자 손보기 교수
			|trans-title=Archaeologist Professor Son Bogi
			|url=http://www.sisapress.com/journal/articlePrint/99094
			|website=시사저널
			|access-date=11 October 2016
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313031650/http://www.sisapress.com/journal/articlePrint/99094
			|archive-date=13 March 2018
			|date=1995-08-10
			|url-status=dead
			|ref={{harvid|Cheng Yuji|1995}}
			}} <br>{{Unreliable source?|date=June 2023}} <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> a research paper is needed</span> ref089
			* {{cite web
			|author= 정수일 (Jeong Su-il)
			|title=(14)초원로가 한반도까지
			|trans-title= (14) Grassland Road to the Korean Peninsula
			|url=http://news.khan.co.kr/kh_travel/khan_art_view.html?artid=200905061508575
			|website=경향신문 (Kyunghyang Shinmun)
			|date = 19 August 2009
			|access-date=11 October 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Jeong Su-il|2009}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> a research paper is needed !</span> ref090
			* {{cite book
			|author1=이덕일 (Lee Deok-il)
			|author2=김병기 (Kim Byeong-gi)
			|author3=박찬규 (Park Chan-gyu)
			|title=고구려 는 천자 의 제국 이었다
			|trans-title=Goguryeo was the empire of the Son of Heaven
			|date=2007
			|publisher=역사의아침 (Morning of History)
			|series=우리 역사 바로잡기 (Correcting our history)
			|others=511 p.
			|isbn=978-8995884973
			|url={{GBurl|id=eGQRAQAAMAAJ}}
			|access-date=12 September 2017
			|ref={{harvid|Lee Deok-il|2007}}
			}} ref150
			* {{cite web
			|last=Byington
			|first=Mark
			|title=Koguryo part of China ?
			|publisher=koreanstudies koreaweb
			|url=http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html
			|year=2004b
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070423023131/http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html
			|archive-date=2007-04-23 }} <br> <span style="background-color:#FF99EF;">mailing list ; should be described as such</span> ref178
			*{{cite web
			|last1=Byington
			|first1=Mark
			|title=The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided |url=https://historynewsnetwork.org/article/7077
			|website=History News Network
			|publisher=Columbian College of Arts & Sciences
			|access-date=29 May 2019
			|ref={{harvid|Byington op.ed.}}
			}}<br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;">op ed ; no date on the web page</span> ref178
			*{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Myung-gi
			|title=조선시대 韓中 지식인의 高句麗 인식
			|trans-title=Korean and Chinese Intellectuals' recognitions of Koguryo in Choson dynasty
			|journal=Korean Culture
			|date=2006
			|volume=38
			|pages=337–366
			|url=https://s-space.snu.ac.kr/handle/10371/66808
			|publisher=Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies
			|issn=1226-8356
			|ref={{harvid|Han Myung-gi|2006}}
			}}, ref179
			* {{cite news
			|last1=Bae |first1=Young-dae
			|last2=Lee |first2=Min-a
			|title=Korea finds some allies in Goguryeo history spat
			|url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2004/09/16/socialAffairs/Korea-finds-some-allies-in-Goguryeo-history-spat/2470382.html
			|journal= Korea JoongAng Daily
			|date=September 16, 2004
			|ref={{harvid|Bae Young-dae (JoongAng)|2004}}
			}} ref180, a small breve !!!
			* {{cite web
			|author=Klingner, Bruce
			|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html
			|title=China shock for South Korea
			|website=]
			|date=2004-09-11
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120203014606/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/FI11Dg03.html
			|archive-date=2012-02-03
			|ref={{harvid|Klinger (Asia Time)|2004}}
			}}, ref181
			:* Z-making-Wiki/Goguryeo/Controversy/Harold-IeodoMetaphorGrowing-2012.pdf
			:* https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/shambaugh.pdf
			* {{cite web
			|author=Staines, Reuben
			|url=http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=108&oid=040&aid=0000014982
			|title= China's Nationalism Warps Koguryo History
			|date = 2004-08-30
			|journal=] at Naver News
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029185753/https://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=108&oid=040&aid=0000014982
			|archive-date=2013-10-29
			|ref={{harvid|Staines (Korea Times)|2004}}
			}}, ref182
			: naver (2023) says : This article has been deleted at the request of the media.
			* {{cite web
			|url=http://bjzx.cass.cn/news/129976.htm
			|title=东北工程简介
			|trans-title=Brief introduction to the Northeast Project
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120811041202/http://bjzx.cass.cn/news/129976.htm
			|archive-date=2012-08-11
			|website= 中国边疆史地研究中心 (Research Center for Chinese Borderland History and Geography) ]
			|access-date=11 January 2013
			|ref={{harvid|CASS|2012}}
			}}, ref183
			* {{citation
			|last=Yoon |first=Hwy-tak
			|year=2004
			|title=China's Northeast Project: Defensive or Offensive Strategy?
			|journal=East Asian Review
			|issue=4 |volume=16
			|pages=99–121
			|url=http://www.ieas.or.kr/vol16_4/16_4_6.pdf
			|access-date=2013-01-10
			|url-status=dead
			|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114014015/http://www.ieas.or.kr/vol16_4/16_4_6.pdf
			|archive-date=2012-11-14
			}}, ref 186
			* {{citation
			|last=Mohan |first=Pankaj
			|year=2011
			|title=Contending Perspectives on Koguryo: A Fresh Look at China's Northeast Project
			|journal=The Dong Gook Sa Hak
			|volume=50
			|pages=53–93}}, ref187
			*{{cite web
			|author= 진세근 (Jin Se-geun)
			|url = https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/2447385
			|title = 중국 동북공정에 앞서 '서남공정'은 어떻게
			|trans-title = How was the "Southwest Project" that preceded the Chinese Northeast Project?
			|access-date = 2007-04-20
			|date = 2006-09-14
			|publisher = ]
			|ref={{harvid|Jin Se-geun|2006}}
			}}, ref188
			* {{cite web
			|title=zh:北部边疆历史与现状综合研究项目
			|trans-title=Comprehensive research project on the history and current situation of the northern frontier
			|url=http://www.nmgass.com.cn/content.html?id=3165
			|website=inner mongolia academy of social science
			|date=2020-03-30
			|ref={{harvid|NMGASS|2020}}
			}}, ref189
			* {{cite news
			|url = http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609050028.html
			|title = China Co-Opts More Old Korean Kingdoms
			|access-date = 2007-05-30
			|date = 2006-09-06
			|newspaper = ]
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071128011146/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609050028.html
			|archive-date = 2007-11-28
			|ref={{harvid|Chosun Ilbo|2006-09-06}}
			}}, ref190
			<!--- https://web.archive.org/web/20081021002856/http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200609/200609110003.html , about Balhae, is better !--->
			* {{cite news
			| last = Seo | first = Hyun-jin
			| url=http://www.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2004/08/25/200408250009.asp
			| archive-url = https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/skepticism-lingers-over-history-issue
			| archive-date = 2004-08-24
			| title = Skepticism Lingers over History Issue
			| format = Reprint
			| work = ]
			| date = 2004-08-24
			| access-date = 2012-01-08
			| ref={{harvid|Seo Hyun-jin|2004}}
			}}, ref191
			* {{cite journal
			|title=Domestic Politics, National Identity, and International Conflict: the case of the Koguryo controversy
			|last=Chen|first=Dingding
			|date=February 2012
			|journal=Journal of Contemporary China
			|volume=21
			|issue=74
			|pages=227–241
			|doi=10.1080/10670564.2012.635928
			|s2cid=145079682
			|ref={{harvid|Chen Dingding}}
			}}, ref193
			* {{cite journal
			|url = https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0920203X10394111
			|author = Chase, Thomas
			|title = Nationalism on the Net: Online discussion of Goguryeo history in China and South Korea
			|journal = China Information
			|year = 2011
			|volume = 25
			|issue = 1
			|pages = 61–82
			|doi = 10.1177/0920203X10394111
			|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120513071625/http://cin.sagepub.com/content/25/1/61.full.pdf+html
			|archive-date = 2012-05-13
			|access-date = 2012-08-23
			|ref={{harvid|Chase|2011}}
			}}, ref194
			==Large hammer for so small a nail==
			<span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> sorted by ref number </span>
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Kim |first1=Hakjoon
			|title=Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East
			|date=1995
			|publisher=Routledge
			|page=303
			|url={{GBurl|id=UfPqBgAAQBAJ|p=303}}
			|ref={{harvid|Kim Hakjoon|1995}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only one line about old-Russia -- old-Korea </span> ref014
			* {{cite book
			|title=The History of the World|publisher=Oxford University Press
			|last1=Roberts|first1=John Morris
			|last2=Westad|first2=Odd Arne
			|isbn=978-0199936762
			|url={{GBurl|id=A2cfZkU5aQgC|q=koguryo+powerful+empire}}
			|access-date=15 July 2016
			|year=2013
			|others=1260 p.
			|ref={{harvid|Roberts|2013}}
			}}, <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> A 1260 pages book only to prove that "Goguryeo was a great power" !!!</span> ref017
			* {{cite book
			|title=History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century
			|author= International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind
			|editor1=Laet, Sigfried J. de
			|display-editors=etal
			|publisher=UNESCO
			|isbn=978-9231028137
			|url={{GBurl|id=PvlthkbFU1UC|p=1133}}
			|language=en
			|year=1994
			|ref={{harvid|Laet|1994}}
			|others= seven tomes, circa 4000 p.
			}} <br>1. Prehistory and the beginnings of civilization <br>2. From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C. <br>3. From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D. <br>4. From the seventh to the sixteenth century <br>5. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century <br>6. The nineteenth century <br>:7. The twentieth century <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> such a large book only to prove that "Goguryeo was a great power" !!!</span> ref019
			* {{citation
			|last1=Shiratori, Kurakichi
			|year=1896
			|title=朝鮮古代王號考
			|trans-title=An Examination of Ancient King's Titles in Korea
			|volume=7
			|journal=史學雜誌 (Journal of History)
			|ref={{harvid|Shiratori|1896}}
			}}, <br> ] was a notable Japanese historian and Sinologist. <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> Quoting him only about the world "castle" is rather strange !!!</span> ref029
			* {{cite book
			|last=de Crespigny
			|first=Rafe
			|title=A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms
			|publisher=Brill
			|isbn=978-90-04-15605-0
			|date=2006-12-28
			|others=xxxvi + 1312 pp.
			|ref={{harvid|Crespigny|2006}}
			}}, <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> 1312 pages, but only p=988 is used to prove "in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again" </span> ref065
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Embree, Ainslie Thomas
			|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history
			|year=1988
			|publisher=Scribner
			|isbn=978-0684188997
			|url={{GBurl|id=LtwpAQAAMAAJ|p=324}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Embree|1988}}
			}} <br> v.1. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0001unse/page/n5/mode/2up <br> v.2. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0002unse/page/n5/mode/2up <br> v.3. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse/page/n5/mode/2up <br> v.4. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0004unse/page/n5/mode/2up <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> such a large book only to prove that "Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto" !!!</span> ref084
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Cohen, Warren I.
			|title=East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World
			|date=2000
			|publisher=Columbia University Press
			|isbn=978-0231502511
			|others=528 p.
			|url={{GBurl|id=Okjd2rDwb8IC|p=50}}
			|ref={{harvid|Cohen|2000}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only to prove "Koguryo's golden age"</span> ref085
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Bedeski, Robert
			|title=Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1134125975
			|url={{GBurl|id=iNl9AgAAQBAJ|p=90}}
			|date=2007
			|ref={{harvid|Bedeski|2007}}
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only to prove the defeat of Sui</span> ref104
			*{{cite book
			|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.
			|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East
			|publisher=ABC-CLIO
			|isbn=978-1851096725
			|url={{GBurl|id=h5_tSnygvbIC|q=In 645 he led Tang forces to conquer Koguryo but was defeated. Again in 647 and 648 he sent out expeditionary forces to invade Koguryo but these attacks were also repulsed by the Korean kingdom.}}
			|date=2009
			|others=2777 p.
			}} <br> <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> 2777 pages, but only p=406 is used</span> ref113
			*{{cite book
			|last1=Grant|first1=Reg G.
			|title=1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History
			|year=2011
			|publisher=Universe Pub.
			|isbn=978-0789322333
			|page=118
			|url={{GBurl|id=s4njwZGrZg4C|p=118}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			|others=960 p.
			}} <br> ref129 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only one line, about Talas (Tang v. Abassid) </span>
			*{{cite book
			|author1=Starr, S. Frederick
			|title=Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland
			|date=2015
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1317451372
			|url={{GBurl|id=XuvqBgAAQBAJ|p=38}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Starr|2015}}
			}}, ref130
			*{{cite book
			|author1=Connolly, Peter
			|last2=Gillingham|first2=John
			|last3=Lazenby|first3=John
			|title=The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare
			|date=2016
			|publisher=Routledge
			|isbn=978-1135936815
			|url={{GBurl|id=1LUoDAAAQBAJ|pg=PT263}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			|ref={{harvid|Connolly|2016}}
			}}, ref131
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Neelis, Jason
			|title=Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia
			|date=2010
			|publisher=Brill
			|isbn=978-9004181595
			|url={{GBurl|id=GB-JV2eOr2UC|p=176}}
			|access-date=29 July 2016
			|language=en
			|ref={{harvid|Neelis|2010}}
			}}, ref132
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Fuqua, Jacques L.
			|title=Nuclear endgame: The need for engagement with North Korea
			|year=2007
			|publisher=Praeger Security International
			|location=Westport
			|isbn=9780275990749
			|ref={{harvid|Fuqua|2007}}
			}}, ref133
			* {{Cite book
			|url= https://archive.org/details/worldreligionsea0000oxto/mode/2up
			|editor1=Oxtoby, Willard Gurdon
			|title=World Religions: Eastern Traditions
			|chapter=IV. The Buddhist Tradition
			|author1=Amore, Roy C.
			|author2=Ching, Julia
			|publisher=]
			|year=2010
			|isbn=978-0-19-542676-2
			|edition=3rd
			|location=Donn Mills, Ontario
			|others=532p.
			|ref={{harvid|Amore|2010}}
			}}, ref161 <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only one line about Koguryo </span>
			* {{cite web
			|editor=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
			|title=Korean Buddhist Sculpture (5th–9th Century)
			|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/kobs/hd_kobs.htm
			|access-date=2021-01-18
			|website=www.metmuseum.org
			|ref={{harvid|MET/TOAH}}
			}}, <br><span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> only to prove "in the late 4th century" </span> <br> see also ref159
			*{{cite book
			|author=Chinul
			|title=Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen
			|editor-first=Robert E.
			|editor-last=Buswell
			|edition=abridged
			|year=1991
			|publisher=University of Hawaii Press
			|url={{GBurl|id=EazRC28tdIIC|p=4}}
			|isbn=978-0824814274
			|ref={{harvid|Buswell|1991}}
			}} <br> ref73, ref74 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> not used about Buddhism ! </span>
			* {{cite book
			|last1=Chen|first1=Jack Wei
			|title=The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty
			|publisher=Harvard University Press
			|isbn=978-0674056084
			|page=43
			|url={{GBurl|id=5wlDivOQGakC|p=43}}
			|access-date=4 August 2016
			|year=2010
			|ref={{harvid|Chen Jack Wei|2010}}
			}} <br> ref114 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> why not - but not too convincing </span>
			* {{cite book
			|editor=Susan Whitfield
			|title=The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith
			|year=2004
			|publisher=Serindia Publications, Inc.
			|isbn=978-1-932476-13-2
			|url={{GBurl|id=ArWLD4Qop38C|p=110}}
			|ref={{harvid|Whitfield|2004}}
			}} <br> ref116 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> great catalogue ; but only two lines about the painting and nothing about Goguryeo </span>
			* {{cite book
			|author1=Baumer, Christoph
			|title=History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set
			|date=18 April 2018
			|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing
			|isbn=978-1-83860-868-2
			|url={{GBurl|id=DhiWDwAAQBAJ|pg=RA1-PA243}}
			|ref={{harvid|Baumer|2018}}
			}} <br> ref117 <span style="background-color:#FFEF00;"> nothing about Goguryeo found at p=243 (nor in the index)</span>

---

Revision as of 18:18, 4 November 2023

Ancient Korean kingdom (c.37 BC–AD 668)

Goguryeo (Goryeo)高句麗 (Korean) (Hanja) 고구려 (Korean) (Hangul) 高麗 (Korean) (Hanja) 고려 (Korean) (Hangul) Goryeo 句麗 (Old Korean) Yale: Kwulye (RR: Guryeo) IPA-Notation: (ɡuɾ.jʌ̹) Korean alphabet: (구려)
37 BC–AD 668
Motto: "Son of God" ref002
Goguryeo (Goryeo) in AD 476
Status	Kingdom/Empire
Capital	Jolbon (37 BC – AD 3) Gungnae (3–427) Pyongyang (427–668)
Common languages	Goguryeo (Koreanic), Classical Chinese (literary)
Religion	Buddhism (State Religion: AD 372), Confucianism, ref003 Taoism, Shamanism
Government	Monarchy
King/Taewang
• 37–19 BC	Dongmyeong (first)
• 391–413	Gwanggaeto
• 413–491	Jangsu
• 590–618	Yeongyang
• 642–668	Bojang (last)
Grand Prime Minister
• 642–665	Yeon Gaesomun (first)
• 666–668	Yeon Namgeon (last)
Legislature	Jega Council
Historical era	Ancient
• Establishment	37 BC
• Introduction of Buddhism in Korea	372
• Campaigns of Gwanggaeto the Great	391–413
• Goguryeo–Sui War	598–614
• Goguryeo–Tang War	645–668
• Fall of Pyongyang	AD 668
Population
• 7th century ref004	approximately 3,500,000 (697,000 households)
Preceded by Succeeded by Buyeo Unified Silla Balhae Protectorate General to Pacify the East
Today part of	North Korea South Korea China Mongolia Russia

Goguryeo (Korean: 고구려) Goryeo (Korean: 고려)
Statue of Jumong at the Tomb of King Tongmyŏng in Pyongyang, North Korea
Korean name
Hangul	고구려
Hanja	高句麗
Revised Romanization	Goguryeo
McCune–Reischauer	Koguryŏ
IPA	Template:IPA-ko
Alternative Korean name
Hangul	고려
Hanja	高麗
Revised Romanization	Goryeo
McCune–Reischauer	Koryŏ
IPA	Template:IPA-ko
Old Korean
Hangul	[ref005 ref006 ] Error: {{Lang}}: Latn text/non-Latn script subtag mismatch (help)
Hanja	句麗
Revised Romanization	Guryeo
McCune–Reischauer	Kuryŏ
IPA	Template:IPA-ko

Part of a series on the
History of Korea
Prehistoric period Palaeolithic 700,000 BC-8000 BC Neolithic 8000 BC–1500 BC * Jeulmun Bronze Age 1500 BC–300 BC * Mumun * Liaoning dagger
Ancient period Gojoseon 2333 BC–108 BC * Dangun * Gija * Wiman Jin 4th–2nd century BC Yemaek
Proto–Three Kingdoms period Takri Dongye Buyeo Eastern Galsa Okjeo Samhan Ma Byeon Jin Goguryeo Tamna Nakrang Four Commanderies of Han
Three Kingdoms period Goguryeo 37 BC–668 AD Baekje 18 BC–660 AD Silla 57 BC–935 AD Gaya confederacy 42–562 Tamna (Tributary of Baekje) 498–660 Usan 512–930
Northern and Southern period United Silla (Unified Silla) 668–892 Balhae 698–926 Little Goguryeo 699–820 Tamna (Tributary of Silla) 662–925
Later Three Kingdoms period Later Baekje 892–936 Taebong (Later Goguryeo) 901–918 Unified Silla (Later Silla) 892–935 Later Sabeol 919–927 Dongdan Kingdom 926–936 Later Balhae 927–935 Jeongan 938–986
Dynastic period Goryeo 918–1392 Tamna (Vassal of Goryeo) 938–1105 Heungyo 1029–1030 Joseon 1392–1897 Korean Empire 1897–1910
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History of Manchuria
Prehistoric period Liao civilization Baijinbao culture Liaoning bronze dagger culture
Ancient to Classical period Gojoseon Sushen Donghu Yemaek Takri Kingdom Yan (Warring States) Xiongnu Han dynasty Wuhuan Xianbei state Yan (Three Kingdoms) Cao Wei Buyeo Goguryeo Sima Jin dynasty Yuwen Former Yan Former Qin Later Yan Northern Yan Kumo Xi Khitan Mohe Shiwei Göktürk Khaganate
Medieval to Early Modern period Eastern Turkic Khaganate Tang dynasty (Andong Protectorate) Balhae Little Goguryeo Dongdan Kingdom Later Balhae Jeongan Liao dynasty Xingliao Jurchen Jin dynasty Yuan rule Northern Yuan Ming rule (Nurgan) Later Jin Sino-Russian border conflicts (Jaxa) Qing rule
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Monarchs of Korea
Goguryeo
Chumo c. 37–19 BC Yuri 19 BC–18 AD Daemusin 18–44 Minjung 44–48 Mobon 48–53 Taejodae 53–146 Chadae 146–165 Sindae 165–179 Gogukcheon 179–197 Sansang 197–227 Dongcheon 227–248 Jungcheon 248–270 Seocheon 270–292 Bongsang 292–300 Micheon 300–331 Gogugwon 331–371 Sosurim 371–384 Gogugyang 384–391 Gwanggaeto the Great 391–413 Jangsu 413–491 Munja 491–519 Anjang 519–531 Anwon 531–545 Yangwon 545–559 Pyeongwon 559–590 Yeongyang 590–618 Yeongnyu 618–642 Bojang 642–668
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A full reorganization of the references is undertaken.

• cyan links = quotations without a full reference. To be replaced or ousted. Due date for completion= 2023-11-11.
• magenta links = "not so sources" : the assertion is not questionned, but the source used seems too weak. A better source from the list given will be used as a replacement. Due date for completion= 2023-11-11.
• sourcing from not centered works will be reduced.
• and the anchors refxxx will be removed

Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (Korean: 고구려; Hanja: 高句麗; RR: Goguryeo; Template:IPA-ko; lit.: high castle; Old Korean: Guryeo) ref007 also later known as Goryeo (Korean: 고려; Hanja: 高麗; RR: Goryeo; Template:IPA-ko; lit.: high and beautiful; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, Gowoyeliᴇ), ref008 was a Korean kingdom ref003 ref009 ref010 ref011 ref012 located in the northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula and the southern and central parts of modern day Northeast China. At its peak of power, Goguryeo controlled most of the Korean Peninsula, large parts of Manchuria and parts of eastern Mongolia and Inner Mongolia as well as Russia. ref013 ref014 ref015 ref016

Along with Baekje and Silla, Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. It was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula and was also associated with the foreign affairs of neighboring polities in China and Japan.

The Samguk sagi (Korean: 삼국사기), a 12th-century text from Goryeo, indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BC by Jumong (Korean: 주몽; Hanja: 朱蒙), a prince from Buyeo, who was enthroned as Dongmyeong.

Goguryeo was one of the great powers in East Asia, ref017 ref018 ref019 until its defeat by a Silla–Tang alliance in 668 after prolonged exhaustion and internal strife caused by the death of Yeon Gaesomun (Korean: 연개소문; Hanja: 淵蓋蘇文). ref020 After its fall, its territory was divided between the Tang dynasty, Later Silla and Balhae.

The name Goryeo, alternatively spelled Koryŏ, a shortened form of Goguryeo (Koguryŏ), was adopted as the official name in the 5th century, ref021 and is the origin of the English name "Korea".

Names and etymology

Goguryeo (Korean: 고구려; Hanja: 高句麗; RR: Goguryeo; Template:IPA-ko) is identified with the meaning of "high castle". ref022 Originally it was called Guryeo (Old Korean: 句麗 Kwulye (Yale; IPA: ) ref007 or something similar to kaukuri , ref023 ref024 both derived from 忽 *kuru or *kolo meaning castle, fortress, possibly a Wanderwort like the Middle Mongolian qoto-n. ref007 ref025 ref026 ref027

Goguryeo was later shortened to the calque of Goryeo (Korean: 고려; Hanja: 高麗; RR: Goryeo; Template:IPA-ko), which gained the meaning of "high and beautiful".

A number of possible cognates for 忽 exist as well, which was used at a later stage as a administrative subdivision with the spelling of hwol , as in 買忽 mwoyhwol/michwuhwol , alongside the likely cognate of 骨 kwol . ref028 Nam Pung-hyun presents it also as a Baekje term, probably a cognate with the Goguryeo word with the same meaning and spelling.

The iteration of 徐羅伐 syerapel as 徐羅城 *syeraKUY equated the Old Korean word for village, 伐 pel with the Old Japanese one for castle 城 ki, considered a borrowing from Baekje 己 *kuy, in turn a borrowing from Goguryeo 忽 *kolo. ref029 ref030 Middle Korean 골〯 kwǒl and ᄀᆞ옳 kòwòlh ("district") are likely descended from *kolo. ref027

History

Origins

The earliest record of the name of Goguryeo (Hanja: 高句驪) can be traced to geographic monographs in the Book of Han and is first attested as the name of one of the subdivisions of the Xuantu Commandery, established along the trade routes within the Amnok river basin following the destruction of Gojoseon in 113 BC. ref031 The American historian Christopher Beckwith offers the alternative proposal that the Guguryeo people were first located in or around Liaoxi (western Liaoning and parts of Inner Mongolia) and later migrated eastward, pointing to another account in the Book of Han. The early Goguryeo tribes from whom the administrative name is derived from were located close to or within the area of control of the Xuantu Commandery. ref032 ref033

Its tribal leaders also appeared to have held the ruler title of marquis over said nominal Gaogouli/Goguryeo county. ref034 The collapse of the first Xuantu Commandery in 75 BC is generally attributed to the military actions of the Goguryeo natives. ref035 ref036 In the Old Book of Tang (945), it is recorded that Emperor Taizong refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. According to the 12th-century Samguk sagi and the 13th-century Samguk yusa, a prince from the Buyeo kingdom named Jumong fled after a power struggle with other princes of the court ref037 and founded Goguryeo in 37 BC in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Amnok/Yalu and Hun River basin.

In 75 BC, a group of Yemaek who may have originated from Goguryeo made an incursion into China's Xuantu Commandery west of the Yalu. ref038 The first mention of Goguryeo as a group label associated with Yemaek tribes is a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryeo revolt in 12 AD, during which they broke away from the influence of the Xuantu Commandery. ref039

According to Book 37 the of Samguk sagi, Goguryeo originated north of ancient China, then gradually moved east to the side of Taedong River. ref040 At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of people from Buyeo and Yemaek, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms. ref041 The Records of the Three Kingdoms, in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", implied that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke a similar language. ref042 Chinese people were also in Gorguyeo. Book 28 of Samguk sagi stated that "many people of China fled Haedong due to the chaos of war by Qin and Han". ref043 Later Han dynasty established the Four Commanderies, and in 12 AD Goguryeo made its first attack on the Xuantu Commandery. ref044 The population of Xuantu Commandery was about 221,845 and they lived in three counties (Gaogouli, Shangyintai and Xigaima) of Xuantu Commandery in 2 AD. ref045 Later on, Goguryeo gradually annexed all the Four Commanderies of Han during its expansion. ref046 Both Goguryeo and Baekje shared founding myths and originated from Buyeo. ref047

Jumong and the foundation myth

Main article: Jumong

The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th-century Gwanggaeto Stele. Jumong is the modern Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 Jumong, 鄒牟 Chumo, or 仲牟 Jungmo.

The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and that he was the son of the prince of Buyeo and daughter of Habaek (Korean: 하백; Hanja: 河伯), the god of the Amnok River or, according to an alternative interpretation, the sun god Haebak (Korean: 해밝). ref048 ref049 ref050 ref051 ref052

The Samguk sagi and Samguk yusa paint additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa (Korean: 유화; Hanja: 柳花). ref048 ref050 ref051 Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Haemosu (Korean: 해모수; Hanja: 解慕漱) who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince." ref053 The river god chased Yuhwa away to the Ubal River (Korean: 우발수; Hanja: 優渤水) due to her pregnancy, where she met and became the concubine of Geumwa of Dongbuyeo.

Jumong was well known for his exceptional archery skills. Eventually, Geumwa's sons became jealous of him, and Jumong was forced to leave Eastern Buyeo. ref054 The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from Buyeo and the Samguk yusa and Samguk sagi say he came from Eastern Buyeo. Jumong eventually made it to Jolbon, where he married Soseono, daughter of its ruler. He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country. A traditional account from the "Annals of Baekje" section in the Samguk sagi says that Soseono was the daughter of Yeon Tabal, ref055 a wealthy influential figure in Jolbon and married to Jumong. However, the same source officially states that the king of Jolbon gave his daughter to Jumong, who had escaped with his followers from Eastern Buyeo, in marriage. She gave her husband, Jumong, financial support ref056 in founding the new statelet, Goguryeo. After Yuri, son of Jumong and his first wife, Lady Ye, came from Dongbuyeo and succeeded Jumong, she left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms, one of which was Baekje.

Jumong's given surname was "Hae" (Korean: 해; Hanja: 解), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk yusa, Jumong changed his surname to "Go" (Korean: 고; Hanja: 高) in conscious reflection of his divine parentage. ref057 Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu (Korean: 비류국; Hanja: 沸流國) in 36 BC, Haeng-in (Korean: 행인국; Hanja: 荇人國) in 33 BC, and Northern Okjeo in 28 BC. ref058 ref059

Centralization and early expansion (mid-first century)

Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Hun River drainage. In the time of Taejodae in 53 AD, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Early expansion might be best explained by ecology; Goguryeo controlled territory in what is currently central and southern Manchuria and northern Korea, which are both very mountainous and lacking in arable land. Upon centralizing, Goguryeo might have been unable to harness enough resources from the region to feed its population and thus, following historical pastoralist tendencies, would have sought to raid and exploit neighboring societies for their land and resources. Aggressive military activities may have also aided expansion, allowing Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and dominate them politically and economically. ref032 ref060

Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of what is now northeastern Korea as well as the Dongye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Taejodae led Goguryeo in attacking the Han Commanderies of Lelang and Xuantu in the Korean and Liaodong Peninsulas, becoming fully independent from them. ref061

Generally, Taejodae allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but required them to report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line; tribes under Goguryeo's jurisdiction were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejodae and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing Goguryeo's expansion to the north and west. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, stabilizing the royal court. ref062

The expanding Goguryeo kingdom soon entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong Commandery to its west. Around this time, Chinese warlord Gongsun Kang established the Daifang Commandery by separating the southern half from the Lelang commandery. Balgi, a brother of King Sansang of Goguryeo, defected to Kang and asked for Kang's aid to help him take the throne of Goguryeo. Although Goguryeo defeated the first invasion and killed Balgi, ref063

In 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again, seized some of its territory and weakened Goguryeo. ref064 ref065 Pressure from Liaodong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Hwando. ref066

Goguryeo–Wei Wars

Main article: Goguryeo–Wei War

In the chaos following the fall of the Han dynasty, the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created dynasty of Cao Wei in China and sent tribute in 220. In 238, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery.

When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. Thus, Goguryeo initiated the Goguryeo–Wei War in 242, trying to cut off Chinese access to its territories in Korea by attempting to take a Chinese fort. However, the Wei state responded by invading and defeated Goguryeo. The capital at Hwando was destroyed by Wei forces in 244. ref067 . CITE= In 242, under King Tongch'ŏn, they attacked a Chinese fortress near the mouth of the Yalu in an attempt to cut the land route across Liao, in return for which the Wei invaded them in 244 and sacked Hwando.}} It is said that Dongcheon, with his army destroyed, fled for a while to the Okjeo state in the east. ref068 Wei invaded again in 259 but was defeated at Yangmaenggok; ref069 according to the Samguk sagi, Jungcheon assembled 5,000 elite cavalry and defeated the invading Wei troops, beheading 8,000 enemies. ref070

Revival and further expansion (300 to 390)

In only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt its capital Hwando and again began to raid the Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commanderies. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong Peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon in 313, bringing the remaining northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold. ref071 This conquest resulted in the end of Chinese rule over territory in the northern Korean peninsula, which had spanned 400 years. ref072 CITE= Soon after, the Wei fell to the Jin and Koguryŏ grew stronger, until in 313 they finally succeeded in occupying Lelang and bringing to an end the 400 years of China's presence in the peninsula, a period sufficient to ensure that for the next 1,500 it would remain firmly within the sphere of its culture. After the fall of the Jin in 316, the proto-Mongol Xianbei occupied the North of China, of which the Murong clan took the Shandong area, moved up to the Liao, and in 341 sacked and burned the Koguryŏ capital at Hwando. They took away some thousands of prisoners to provide cheap labour to build more walls of their own, and in 346 went on to wreak even greater destruction on Puyŏ, hastening what seems to have been a continuing migration of its people into the north-eastern area of the peninsula, but Koguryŏ, though temporarily weakened, would soon rebuild its walls and continue to expand. ref073

From that point on, until the 7th century, territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Goguryeo met major setbacks and defeats during the reign of Gogukwon in the 4th century. In the early 4th century, the nomadic proto-Mongol Xianbei people occupied northern China; during the winter of 342, the Xianbei of Former Yan, ruled by the Murong clan, attacked and destroyed Goguryeo's capital, Hwando, capturing 50,000 Goguryeo men and women to use as slave labor in addition to taking the Queen Dowager and Queen prisoner, ref074 and forced Gogukwon to flee for a while. The Xianbei also devastated Buyeo in 346, accelerating Buyeo migration to the Korean peninsula. In 371, Geunchogo of Baekje killed Gogukwon in the Battle of Chiyang and sacked Pyongyang, one of Goguryeo's largest cities. ref075 Sosurim, who succeeded the slain Gogukwon, reshaped the nation's institutions to save it from a great crisis. ref076

Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the state religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (Korean: 태학; Hanja: 太學). ref077

Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered at the hands of the Xianbei and Baekje, Sosurim instituted military reforms aimed at preventing such defeats in the future. ref076 ref078 Sosurim's internal arrangements laid the groundwork for Gwanggaeto's expansion. ref077 His successor and the father of Gwanggaeto the Great, Gogukyang, invaded Later Yan, the successor state of Former Yan, in 385 and Baekje in 386. ref079 ref080

Goguryeo used its military to protect and exploit semi-nomadic peoples, who served as vassals, foot soldiers, or slaves, such as the Okjeo people in the northeast end of the Korean peninsula, and the Mohe people in Manchuria, who would later become the Jurchens. ref081

Zenith of Goguryeo's Power (391 to 531 AD)

Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu. ref082 ref083 ref084 ref085

During this period, Goguryeo territories included three fourths of the Korean Peninsula, including what is now Seoul, almost all of Manchuria, ref086 and parts of Inner Mongolia. ref087

There is archaeological evidence that Goguryeo's maximum extent lay even further west in present-day Mongolia, based on discoveries of Goguryeo fortress ruins in Mongolia. ref088 ref089 ref090 Gwanggaeto the Great (r. 391–412) was a highly energetic emperor who is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the realm. ref078

He instituted the era name of Yeongnak or Eternal Rejoicing, affirming that Goguryeo was on equal standing with the dynasties in the Chinese mainland. ref086 ref077 ref091 Gwanggaeto conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages during his campaigns. ref077 ref086 ref092

To the west, he destroyed neighboring Khitan tribes and invaded Later Yan, conquering the entire Liaodong Peninsula; ref077 ref086 ref091 to the north and east, he annexed much of Buyeo and conquered the Sushen, who were Tungusic ancestors of the Jurchens and Manchus; ref093 CITE=quote=He also conquered Sushen tribes in the northeast, Tungusic ancestors of the Jurcid and Manchus who later ruled Chinese "barbarian conquest dynasties" during the twelfth and seventeenth centuries. And to the south, he defeated and subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of Gaya, and vassalized Silla after defending it from a coalition of Baekje, Gaya, and Wa. ref094 Gwanggaeto brought about a loose unification of the Korean Peninsula, ref086 ref095 and achieved undisputed control of most of Manchuria and over two thirds of the Korean Peninsula. ref086

Gwanggaeto's exploits were recorded on a huge memorial stele erected by his son Jangsu, located in present-day Ji'an on the border between China and North Korea.

Jangsu (r. 413–491) ascended to the throne in 413 and moved the capital in 427 to Pyongyang, a more suitable region to grow into a burgeoning metropolitan capital, ref096

CITE= .

which led Goguryeo to achieve a high level of cultural and economic prosperity.

ref097 CITE= Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Songhua River to the north. ref086 He invaded the Khitans, and then attacked the Didouyu, located in eastern Mongolia, with his Rouran allies. ref098

Like his father, Jangsu also achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. ref086 He defeated Baekje and Silla and gained large amounts of territory from both. ref077 ref086 In addition, Jangsu's long reign saw the perfecting of Goguryeo's political, economic and other institutional arrangements. ref077 Jangsu ruled Goguryeo for 79 years until the age of 98, ref096 CITE ref099 ref093 ref100

During the reign of Munja, Goguryeo completely annexed Buyeo, signifying Goguryeo's furthest-ever expansion north, while continuing its strong influence over the kingdoms of Silla and Baekje, and the tribes of Wuji and Khitan.

Internal strife (531 to 551)

Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, however, it began a steady decline. Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed themselves de facto rulers of their areas of control.

Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551.

Conflicts of the late 6th and 7th centuries

In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in military conflict with the Sui and Tang dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northwest were the Eastern Türks which was a nominal ally of Goguryeo.

Goguryeo's loss of the Han River Valley

In 551 AD, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer the Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. After Baekje exhausted themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Incensed by this betrayal, Seong launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border in the following year but was captured and killed.

The war, along the middle of the Korean peninsula, had very important consequences. It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean Peninsula and gave Silla an important resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. Conversely, it denied Goguryeo the use of the area, which weakened the kingdom. It also gave Silla direct access to the Yellow Sea, opening up direct trade and diplomatic access to the Chinese dynasties and accelerating Silla's adoption of Chinese culture. Thus, Silla could rely less on Goguryeo for elements of civilization and could get culture and technology directly from China. This increasing tilt of Silla to China would result in an alliance that would prove disastrous for Goguryeo in the late 7th century.

Goguryeo–Sui War

Main articles: Goguryeo–Sui War and Battle of Salsu

The Sui dynasty's reunification of China for the first time in centuries was met with alarm in Goguryeo, and Pyeongwon of Goguryeo began preparations for a future war by augmenting military provisions and training more troops. ref101 Although Sui was far larger and stronger than Goguryeo, the Baekje-Silla Alliance that had driven Goguryeo from the Han Valley had fallen apart, and thus Goguryeo's southern border was secure. Initially, Goguryeo tried to appease Sui by offering tribute as Korean kingdoms had done under the Tributary system of China. However, Goguryeo continued insistence on an equal relationship with Sui, its reinstatement of the imperial title "Taewang" (Emperor in Korean) of the East and its continued raids into Sui territory greatly angered the Sui Court. Furthermore, Silla and Baekje, both under threat from Goguryeo, requested Sui assistance against Goguryeo as all three Korean kingdoms had desired to seize the others' territories to rule the peninsula, and attempted to curry Sui's favor to achieve these goals.

Goguryeo's expansion and its attempts to equalize the relationship conflicted with Sui China and increased tensions. In 598, Goguryeo made a preemptive attack on Liaoxi which led to the Battle of Linyuguan, but was beaten back by Sui forces. ref102 This caused Emperor Wen to launch a counterattack by land and sea that ended in disaster for Sui. ref103

Sui's most disastrous campaign against Goguryeo was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui dynasty, mobilized 30 division armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao River, a detachment of nine division armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces, who had reinforcements and supplies.

However, Goguryeo was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's nine division armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the supplies for a lengthy siege. Sui troops retreated, but General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring the Sui into an ambush outside of Pyongyang. At the Battle of Salsu, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which split the Sui army and cut off their escape route. Of the original 305,000 soldiers of Sui's nine division armies, it is said that only 2,700 escaped to Sui China.

The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch—the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered a truce and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule and his failed attempts to conquer Goguryeo. They could not attack further because the provinces in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.

Emperor Yang's disastrous defeats in Korea greatly contributed to the collapse of the Sui dynasty. ref103 ref104 ref105

Goguryeo–Silla War, Goguryeo-Tang War and the Silla–Tang alliance

Main articles: Goguryeo–Tang War, First campaign in the Goguryeo–Tang War, and Siege of Ansi

In the winter of 642, King Yeongnyu was apprehensive about Yeon Gaesomun, one of the great nobles of Goguryeo, ref106 and plotted with other officials to kill him. However, Yeon Gaesomun caught news of the plot and killed Yeongnyu and 100 officials, initiating a coup d'état. He proceeded to enthrone Yeongnyu's nephew, Go Jang, as King Bojang while wielding de facto control of Goguryeo himself as the Dae Magniji (Korean: 대막리지; Hanja: 大莫離支, a position equivalent to a modern era dual office of prime minister and generalissimo). At the outset of his rule, Yeon Gaesomun took a brief conciliatory stance toward Tang China. For instance, he supported Taoism at the expense of Buddhism, and to this effect in 643, sent emissaries to the Tang court requesting Taoist sages, eight of whom were brought to Goguryeo. This gesture is considered by some historians as an effort to pacify Tang and buy time to prepare for the Tang invasion Yeon thought inevitable given his ambitions to annex Silla.

However, Yeon Gaesomun took an increasingly provocative stance against Silla Korea and Tang China. Soon, Goguryeo formed an alliance with Baekje and invaded Silla, Daeya-song (modern Hapchon) and around 40 border fortresses were conquered by the Goguryeo-Baekje alliance. ref107

Since the early 7th century, Silla had been forced on the defensive by both Baekje and Goguryeo, which had not yet formally allied but had both desired to erode Sillan power in the Han Valley. During the reign of King Jinpyeong of Silla, numerous fortresses were lost to both Goguryeo and the continuous attacks took a toll on Silla and its people. ref108 During Jinpyeong's reign, Silla made repeated requests beseeching Sui China to attack Goguryeo. ref108 Although these invasions were ultimately unsuccessful, in 643, once again under pressure from the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, Jinpyeong's successor, Queen Seondeok of Silla, requested military aid from Tang. Although Taizong had initially dismissed Silla's offers to pay tribute and its requests for an alliance on account of Seondeok being a woman, he later accepted the offer due to Goguryeo's growing belligerence and hostile policy towards both Silla and Tang. In 644, Tang began preparations for a major campaign against Goguryeo. ref106

In 645, Emperor Taizong, who had a personal ambition to defeat Goguryeo and was determined to succeed where Emperor Yang had failed, personally led an attack on Goguryeo. The Tang army captured a number of Goguryeo fortresses, including the important Yodong/Liaodong Fortress (遼東城, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning). During his first campaign against Goguryeo, Taizong famously showed generously to the defeated inhabitants of numerous Goguryeo fortresses, refusing to permit his troops to loot downs and enslave inhabitants and when faced with protest from his commanders and soldiers, rewarded them with his own money. ref109

Ansi City (in modern Haicheng, Liaoning), which was the last fortress that would clear the Liaodong Peninsula of significant defensive works and was promptly put under siege. Initially, Taizong and his forces achieve great progress, when his numerically inferior force smashed a Goguryeo relief force at the Battle of Mount Jupil. Goguryeo's defeat at Mount Jupil had significant consequences, as Tang forces killed over 20,000 Goguryeo soldiers and captured another 36,800, which crippled Goguryeo's manpower reserves for the rest of the conflict. ref109 However, the capable defense put up by Ansi's commanding general (whose name is controversial but traditionally is believed to be Yang Manchun) stymied Tang forces and, in late fall, with winter fast approaching and his supplies running low, Tang forces under the command Prince Li Daozong attempted to build a rampart to seize the city in a last ditch effort, but was foiled when Goguryeo troops managed to seize control of it. Afterwards, Taizong decided to withdraw in the face of incoming Goguryeo reinforcements, deteriorating weather conditions and the difficult supply situation. The campaign was unsuccessful for the Tang Chinese, ref075 failing to capture Ansi Fortress after a protracted siege that lasted more than 60 days. ref110 Emperor Taizong invaded Goguryeo again in 647 and 648, but was defeated both times. ref105 ref111 ref112 ref113 ref114 ref115

Emperor Taizong prepared another invasion in 649, but died in the summer, possibly due to an illness he contracted during his Korean campaigns. ref111 ref114 His son Emperor Gaozong continued his campaigns. Upon the suggestion of Kim Chunchu, the Silla–Tang alliance first conquered Baekje in 660 to break up the Goguryeo–Baekje alliance, and then turned its full attention to Goguryeo. ref119

However, Emperor Gaozong, too, was unable to defeat Goguryeo led by Yeon Gaesomun; ref119 ref120

One of Yeon Gaesomun's most notable victories came in 662 at the Battle of Sasu (蛇水), where he annihilated the Tang forces and killed the invading general Pang Xiaotai (龐孝泰) and all 13 of his sons. ref121 ref122 Therefore, while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang could not defeat Goguryeo. ref123

Fall

In the summer of 666, Yeon Gaesomun died of a natural cause and Goguryeo was thrown into chaos and weakened by a succession struggle among his sons and younger brother. ref124 ref124 He was initially succeeded as Dae Mangniji, the highest position newly made under the ruling period of Yeon Gaesomun, by his oldest son Yeon Namsaeng. As Yeon Namsaeng subsequently carried out a tour of Goguryeo territory, however, rumors began to spread both that Yeon Namsaeng was going to kill his younger brothers Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan, whom he had left in charge at Pyongyang, and that Yeon Namgeon and Yeon Namsan were planning to rebel against Yeon Namsaeng. When Yeon Namsaeng subsequently sent officials close to him back to Pyongyang to try to spy on the situation, Yeon Namgeon arrested them and declared himself Dae Mangniji, attacking his brother. Yeon Namsaeng sent his son Cheon Heonseong (泉獻誠), as Yeon Namsaeng changed his family name from Yeon (淵) to Cheon (泉) observe naming taboo for Emperor Gaozu, to Tang to seek aid. Emperor Gaozong saw this as an opportunity and sent an army to attack and destroy Goguryeo. In the middle of Goguryeo's power struggles between Yeon Gaesomun's successors, his younger brother, Yeon Jeongto, defected to the Silla side. ref124

In 667, the Chinese army crossed the Liao River and captured Shin/Xin Fortress (新城, in modern Fushun, Liaoning). The Tang forces thereafter fought off counterattacks by Yeon Namgeon, and joined forces with and received every possible assistance from the defector Yeon Namsaeng, ref124 although they were initially unable to cross the Yalu River due to resistance. In spring of 668, Li Ji turned his attention to Goguryeo's northern cities, capturing the important city of Buyeo (扶餘, in modern Nong'an, Jilin). In fall of 668, he crossed the Yalu River and put Pyongyang under siege in concert with the Silla army.

Yeon Namsan and Bojang surrendered, and while Yeon Namgeon continued to resist in the inner city, his general, the Buddhist monk Shin Seong (信誠) turned against him and surrendered the inner city to Tang forces. Yeon Namgeon tried to commit suicide, but was seized and treated. This was the end of Goguryeo, and Tang annexed Goguryeo into its territory, with Xue Rengui being put initially in charge of former Goguryeo territory as protector general. The violent dissension resulting from Yeon Gaesomun's death proved to be the primary reason for the Tang–Silla triumph, thanks to the division, defections, and widespread demoralization it caused. ref020 The alliance with Silla had also proved to be invaluable, thanks to the ability to attack Goguryeo from opposite directions, and both military and logistical aid from Silla. ref020 The Tang established the Andong Protectorate on former Goguryeo lands after the latter's fall. ref125 ref126

However, there was much resistance to Tang rule (fanned by Silla, which was displeased that Tang did not give it Goguryeo or Baekje's territory), and in 669, following Emperor Gaozong's order, a part of the Goguryeo people were forced to move to the region between the Yangtze River and the Huai River, as well as the regions south of the Qinling Mountains and west of Chang'an, only leaving old and weak inhabitants in the original land. Over 200,000 prisoners from Goguryeo were taken by the Tang forces and sent to Chang'an. ref127 Some people entered the service of the Tang government, such as Go Sagye and his son Gao Xianzhi (Go Seonji in Korean), the famed general who commanded the Tang forces at the Battle of Talas. ref128 ref129 CITE=[Talas. July 751. The battle between China and the Muslim Abbasid caliphate at the Talas River, in modernday Khazakhstan, was arguably a turning point in world history. The Chinese defeat at Talas marked the end of Tang advances to the west, and the heavy losses by Abbasid forces despite the victory ended Abbasid designs in the east as well]. ref130 ref131 ref132 Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, which lead to the Silla–Tang Wars, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River. Although the Tang forces were expelled from territories south of Taedong River, Silla failed to regain the former Goguryeo territories north of the Taedong River, which were now under Tang dominion. ref133

Revival movements

Main article: Goguryeo revival movements See also: Balhae

After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several famous generals. The Tang dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.

In 677, Tang crowned Bojang as the "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, Bojang continued to foment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to Sichuan in 681, and died the following year.

The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. It was first put under the control of Tang General Xue Rengui, but was later replaced by Bojang due to the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Bojang's descendants declared independence from Tang during the same period as the An Lushan Rebellion and Li Zhengji (Yi Jeong-gi in Korean)'s rebellion in Shandong. ref134 ref135 The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "Little Goguryeo" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of Seon.

Geom Mojam and Anseung rose briefly at the Han Fortress (한성, 漢城, in modern Chaeryong, South Hwanghae), but failed, when Anseung surrendered to Silla. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. There, Anseung established the State of Bodeok (보덕, 報德), incited a rebellion, which was promptly crushed by Sinmun. Anseung was then forced to reside in the Silla capital, given a Silla bride and had to adopt the Silla Royal surname of "Kim."

Dae Jung-sang and his son Dae Jo-yeong, either a former Goguryeo general or a Mohe chief, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the Kingdom of Jin (진, 震), which was renamed to Balhae after 713. To the south of Balhae, Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, and Manchuria (present-day Northeast China) was conquered by Balhae. Balhae considered itself (particularly in diplomatic correspondence with Japan) a successor state of Goguryeo.

In 901, the general Gung Ye rebelled against Later Silla and founded Later Goguryeo (renamed to Taebong in 911), which considered itself to be a successor of Goguryeo. Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions, including Songak (modern Kaesong), which were the strongholds of Goguryeo refugees. ref136 ref137 Later Goguryeo's original capital was established in Songak, the hometown of Wang Geon, a prominent general under Gung Ye. ref138 Wang Geon was a descendant of Goguryeo and traced his ancestry to a noble Goguryeo clan. ref139 In 918, Wang Geon overthrew Gung Ye and became Taejo of Goryeo. He established Goryeo as the successor of Goguryeo, and laid claim to Manchuria as Goryeo's rightful legacy. ref140 ref141 CITE= ref142 ref143 Wang Geon unified the Later Three Kingdoms in 936, and Goryeo ruled the Korean Peninsula until 1392.

In the 10th century, Balhae collapsed and much of its ruling class and the last crown prince Dae Gwang-hyeon fled to Goryeo. The Balhae refugees were warmly welcomed and included in the ruling family by Wang Geon, who felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, ref141 ref144 ref145 thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. ref146 CITE= "When Parhae perished at the hands of the Khitan around this same time, much of its ruling class, who were of Koguryŏ descent, fled to Koryŏ. Wang Kŏn warmly welcomed them and generously gave them land. Along with bestowing the name Wang Kye ("Successor of the Royal Wang") on the Parhae crown prince, Tae Kwang-hyŏn, Wang Kŏn entered his name in the royal household register, thus clearly conveying the idea that they belonged to the same lineage, and also had rituals performed in honor of his progenitor. Thus Koryŏ achieved a true national unification that embraced not only the Later Three Kingdoms but even survivors of Koguryŏ lineage from the Parhae kingdom."

Government

Early Goguryeo was a federation of five tribes, which later turned into five districts. As the autonomy of these five tribal collectives waned, regional officers were appointed with valley as a unit.As Goguryeo progressed into the 4th century, a regional administration unit arose that centred around fortresses that were built in the newly enlarged areas. From the 4th century to the early 6th century, The gun (roughly translated as counties) system began to be established in most of the regions controlled by Goguryeo, though not all, evidenced by the existence of 16 counties near the Han river and the nickname of a military post called Malyak, nicknamed the gundu (roughly translated as the head of county). The gun subdivision had sub subdivisions which was either a seong (fortress) or chon (village). The official that was governing the whole county was called a susa, though its names changed to Yoksal, Choryogunji and Rucho. Yoksal and Choryogunji had both military and civil capabilities, and its residence often assigned inside fortresses. ref022 ref147

Military

Main article: Military history of Goguryeo

Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state. ref148 Goguryeo has been described as an empire by Korean scholars. ref149 ref150 Initially, there were four partially autonomous districts based on the cardinal directions, and a central district led by the monarch; however, in the first century the cardinal districts became centralized and administered by the central district, and by the end of the 3rd century, they lost all political and military authority to the monarch. ref151 In the 4th century, after suffering defeats against the Xianbei and Baekje during the reign of Gogukwon, Sosurim instituted military reforms that paved the way for Gwanggaeto's conquests. ref076 ref077 During its height, Goguryeo was able to mobilize 300,000 troops. ref152 ref153

Goguryeo often enlisted semi-nomadic vassals, such as the Mohe people, as foot soldiers. ref081 Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of Bojang.

Equipment

The main projectile weapon used in Goguryeo was the bow. ref154 The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with crossbows. To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the cavalry and in open order, were mostly spears. Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged sword with minimal hilt and ring pommel, of eastern Han influence. The helmets were similar to helmets used by Central Asian peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. The cavalry were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士), and similar in type to the Cataphract. ref154

Hwandudaedo

Goguryeo used a sword called Hwandudaedo.

ref155 It looks like the sword drawing in the following picture which is 2000 years old from an old Goguryeo tomb. ref156 As Korean swords changed from Bronze Age to Iron Age, the sword shapes changed. There are many archaeological finds on ancient Korean iron swords particularly the swords with a ring at the end.

Fortifications

See also: Korean fortress and List of Korean fortresses in China

The most common form of the Goguryeo fortress was one made in the shape of the moon, located between a river and its tributary. Ditches and ground walls between the shores formed an extra defense line. The walls were extensive in their length, and they were constructed from huge stone blocks fixed with clay, and even Chinese artillery had difficulty to break through them. Walls were surrounded by a ditch to prevent an underground attack, and equipped with guard towers. All fortresses had sources of water and enough equipment for a protracted siege. If rivers and mountains were absent, extra defense lines were added.

Organization

Two hunts per year, led by the king himself, maneuvers exercises, hunt-maneuvers and parades were conducted to give the Goguryeo soldier a high level of individual training.

There were five armies in the capital, mostly cavalry that were personally led by the king, numbering approximately 12,500. Military units varied in number from 21,000 to 36,000 soldiers, were located in the provinces, and were led by the governors. Military colonies near the boundaries consisted mostly of soldiers and peasants. There were also private armies held by aristocrats. This system allowed Goguryeo to maintain and utilize an army of 50,000 without added expense, and 300,000 through large mobilization in special cases.

Goguryeo units were divided according to major weapons: spearmen, axemen, archers composed of those on foot and horseback, and heavy cavalry that included armored and heavy spear divisions. Other groups like the catapult units, wall-climbers, and storm units were part of the special units and were added to the common. The advantage of this functional division is highly specialized combat units, while the disadvantage is that it was impossible for one unit to make complex, tactical actions.

Strategy

The military formation had the general and his staff with guards in the middle of the army. The archers were defended by axemen. In front of the general were the main infantry forces, and on the flanks were rows of heavy cavalry ready to counterattack in case of a flank attack by the enemy. In the very front and rear was the light cavalry, used for intelligence, pursuit, and for weakening the enemy's strike. Around the main troops were small groups of heavy cavalrymen and infantry. Each unit was prepared to defend the other by providing mutual support.

Goguryeo implemented a strategy of active defense based on cities. Besides the walled cities and fortified camps, this active defense system used small units of light cavalry to continuously harass the enemy, de-blockade units and strong reserves, consisting of the best soldiers, to strike hard at the end.

Goguryeo also employed military intelligence and special tactics as an important part of the strategy. Goguryeo was good at disinformation, such as sending only stone spearheads as tribute to the Chinese court when they were in the Iron Age. Goguryeo had developed its system of espionage. One of the most famous spies, Baekseok, mentioned in the Samguk yusa, was able to infiltrate the Hwarangs of Silla.

Foreign relations

The militaristic nature of Goguryeo frequently drew them into conflicts with the dynasties of China. In the times when they are not in war with China, Goguryeo occasionally sent tributes to some of the Chinese dynasties as a form of trade and nonaggression pact. These activities of exchange promoted cultural and religious flow from China into the Korean peninsula. Goguryeo has also received tribute from other Korean kingdoms and neighboring tribal states, and frequently mobilized Malgal people in their military. Baekje and Goguryeo maintained their regional rivalry throughout their history, although they eventually formed an alliance in their wars against Silla and Tang.

Culture

The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.

Goguryeo lies a thousand li to the east of Liaodong, being contiguous with Joseon and Yemaek on the south, with Okjeo on the east, and with Buyeo on the north. They make their capital below Hwando. With a territory perhaps two thousand li on a side, their households number three myriads. They have many mountains and deep valleys and have no plains or marshes. Accommodating themselves to mountain and valley, the people make do with them for their dwellings and food. With their steep-banked rivers, they lack good fields; and though they plow and till energetically, their efforts are not enough to fill their bellies; their custom is to be sparing of food. They like to build palaces... By temperament the people are violent and take delight in brigandage... As an old saying of the Dongyi would have it, they are a separate branch of the Buyeo. And indeed there is much about their language and other things they share with the Buyeo, but in temperament and clothing there are differences.

Their people delight in singing and dancing. In villages throughout the state, men and women gather in groups at nightfall for communal singing and games. They have no great storehouses, each family keeping its own small store... They rejoice in cleanliness, and they are good at brewing alcohol. When they kneel in obeisance, they extend one leg; in this they differ from the Buyeo. In moving about on foot they all run... In their public gatherings they all wear colorfully brocaded clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver. ref157

— Sanguo Zhi

Goguryeo tombs

The tombs of Goguryeo display the prosperity and artistry of the kingdom of the period. The murals inside many of the tombs are significant evidence of Goguryeo's lifestyle, ceremonies, warfare and architecture. Mostly tombs were founded in Ji'an in China's Jilin province, Taedong river basin near Pyongyang, North Korea and the Anak area in South Hwanghae province of North Korea. There are over 10,000 Goguryeo tombs overall, but only about 90 of those unearthed in China and North Korea have wall paintings. In 2004, Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom located in Ji'an of Jilin Province of China and Complex of Koguryo Tombs located in North Korea became a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Lifestyle

The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses.

Festivals and pastimes

Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.

Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.

Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred.

Religion

Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. ref059

Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. There was even a temple in Pyongyang dedicated to Jumong. At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.

Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The Fenghuang and Loong were both worshipped, while the Sanzuwu, the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.

They also believed in the 'Sasin', which were 4 mythical animals. Chungryong or Chunryonga (blue dragon) guarded the east, baek-ho (white tiger) guarded the west, jujak (red phoenix (bird)) guarded the south, and hyunmu (black turtle, sometimes with snakes for a tail) guarded the north.

Buddhism was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372. ref158 The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to. ref158 Buddhism, a religion originating in what is now India, was transmitted to Korea via China in the late 4th century. ref159 The Samguk yusa records the following 3 monks among first to bring the Buddhist teaching, or Dharma, to Korea: Malananta (late 4th century) – an Indian Buddhist monk who brought Buddhism to Baekje in the southern Korean peninsula, Sundo – a Chinese monk who brought Buddhism to Goguryeo in northern Korea, and Ado monk who brought Buddhism to Silla in central Korea. ref160 Malananta bring Buddhism to Baekje. Xian and Taoists seeking to become immortals were thought to aid in fortune telling and divination about the future. ref161

Cultural linkage

As the Three Kingdoms period emerged, each Korean state sought ideologies that could validate their authority. Many of these states borrowed influences from Chinese culture, sharing a writing system that was originally based on Chinese characters. However the language was different and not mutually intelligible with Chinese. An integral part of Goguryeo's culture, along with other Korean states, was Korean shamanism. In the 4th century, Buddhism gained wide prominence in Baekje and spread rapidly across the peninsula. Buddhism struck a careful balance between shamanism, the Korean people, and the rulers over these states, briefly becoming the official religion of all three kingdoms. Buddhism's foothold in the Korean peninsula would surge up to the Goryeo period and would spread rapidly into Yamato Japan, playing a key role in the neighboring state's development and its relations with the Korean peninsula.

In Baekje, King Onjo founded the kingdom and according to legend, he is the third son of Jumong of Goguryeo and the younger brother of King Yuri, Goguryeo's second king. The Korean Kingdoms of Balhae and Goryeo regarded themselves as successors to Goguryeo, recognized by Tang China and Yamato Japan.

Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour and fine detail of its imagery. Many of the art pieces have an original style of painting, depicting various traditions that have continued throughout Korea's history.

Cultural legacies of Goguryeo are found in modern Korean culture, for example: Korean fortress, Korean dance, ondol (Goguryeo's floor heating system) and the hanbok. ref165 It is also said that moderndays taekwondo originates from Goguryo's ssireum ref162 through Joseon's taekkyeon. ref163 But some researchers are not endorsing this filiation. ref164

Legacy

Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. Some ruins are also still visible in present-day China, for example at Wunü Mountain, suspected to be the site of Jolbon fortress, near Huanren in Liaoning province on the present border with North Korea. Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the Gwanggaeto Stele, which is one of the primary sources for pre-5th-century Goguryeo history.

World Heritage Site

UNESCO added Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China and Complex of Koguryo Tombs in present-day North Korea to the World Heritage Sites in 2004.

Name

The modern English name "Korea" derives from Goryeo (also spelled as Koryŏ) (918–1392), which regarded itself as the legitimate successor of Goguryeo. ref140 ref141 ref142 The name Goryeo was first used during the reign of Jangsu in the 5th century. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo after 520 AD in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources. ref145 ref166 ref167

Language

Main article: Goguryeo language

There have been some academic attempts to reconstruct the Goguryeo words based on the fragments of toponyms, recorded in the Samguk sagi, of the areas once possessed by Goguryeo. However, the reliability of the toponyms as linguistic evidence is still in dispute. ref168

The linguistic classification of the language is difficult due to the lack of historical sources. The most cited source, a body of placename glosses in the Samguk sagi, has been interpreted by different authors as Koreanic, Japonic, or an intermediate between the two. ref026 ref169 ref170 ref171 ref172 ref173 Lee and Ramsey also look broadly to include Altaic and/or Tungusic. ref174

Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while they differed from that of the Malgal (Mohe). ref175 ref176 ref177

Controversies

Main article: Goguryeo controversies

Goguryeo was viewed as a Korean kingdom in premodern China, ref178 CITE= ref179 but in modern times, there is a dispute between China and Korea over whether Goguryeo can be considered part of Chinese history or it is Korean history. ref180 ref181 ref182 In 2002, Chinese government started a five-year research project on the history and current situation of the frontiers of Northeast China which lasted from 2002 to 2007. ref183 It was launched by the Chinese Academy of Social Science (CASS) and received financial support from both the Chinese government and the CASS.

The stated purpose of the Northeast Project was to use authoritative academic research to restore historical facts and protect the stability of Northeast China—a region sometimes known as Manchuria—in the context of the strategic changes that have taken place in Northeast Asia since China's "Reform and Opening" started in 1978. ref184 Two of the project's leaders accused some foreign scholars and institutions of rewriting history to demand territory from China or to promote instability in the frontier regions, hence the necessity of the Project. ref185 The Project has described as applying the contemporary vision of China as a "unified multiethnic state" to ancient ethnic groups, states and history of the region of Manchuria and northern Korea. ref186 ref187

According to this idea, there was a greater Chinese state in the ancient past. ref186 Accordingly, any pre-modern people or state that occupied any part of what is now the People's Republic of China is defined as having been part of Chinese history. ref186 Similar projects have been conducted on Inner Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang, which have been named North Project, Southwest Project and Xinjiang Project respectively. ref188 ref189

Due to its claims on Gojoseon, Goguryeo and Balhae, the project sparked disputes with Korea. ref190 In 2004, this dispute threatened to lead to diplomatic disputes between the People's Republic of China and South Korea, although all governments involved seem to exhibit no desire to see the issue damage relations. ref191

In 2004, the Chinese government made a diplomatic compromise, pledging not to place claims to the history of Goguyreo in its history textbooks. ref191 ref192 ref193 However, online discussion regarding this topic among the general public has since increased. The Internet has provided a platform for a broadening participation in the discussion of Goguryeo in both South Korea and China. Thomas Chase points out that despite the growing online discussion on this subject, this has not led to a more objective treatment of this history, nor a more critical evaluation of its relationship to national identity. ref194 ref195

See also

• History of Korea
• Goryeo
• Balhae
• Later Goguryeo
• Military history of Goguryeo

References

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59. ^ PrideHK 2007.
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63. KBS/Sansang 2015.
64. NONO-64.
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69. Lee Injae 2014, p. 30.
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73. Buswell 1991, p. 3.
74. Buswell 1991, p. 4.
75. ^ EWH7/Three Kingdoms.
76. ^ Kim Jinwung 2012, p. 34.
77. ^ Lee_Ki-baik 1984, p. 38-40.
78. ^ Henthorn 1971, p. 34.
79. NONO-79.
80. KBS/Gogukyang 2015.
81. ^ Tennant 1996, pp. 21–22.
82. Jimoondang 2005, p. 2001.
83. Hall 1988, p. 362.
84. Embree 1988, Koguryo, T=3, p=324-326.
85. Cohen 2000, p. 50.
86. ^ Kim Jinwung 2012, p. 35-36.
87. Tudor 2012, p. 18.
88. Pressian/2014-02-04.
89. Cheng Yuji 1995.
90. Jeong Su-il 2009.
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92. Szczepanski 2011.
93. ^ Walker 2012, p. 137.
94. Lee, Peter H. 1997, p. 25-26.
95. KBS/Ganggwaeto-1 2015.
96. ^ Lee_Ki-baik 1984, pp. 38–40.
97. Kim Jinwung 2012, p. 36.
98. Lee Yun-seop 2014.
99. ref099. sfn error: no target: CITEREFref099 (help)
100. ref100. sfn error: no target: CITEREFref100 (help)
101. Doosan/Pyeongwon.
102. Lee Ki-baik 1984, p. 47.
103. ^ White 2011, p. 78-79.
104. Bedeski 2007, p. 90.
105. ^ Ebrey 2013, p. 106. sfn error: no target: CITEREFEbrey2013 (help)
106. ^ Graff 2003, p. 196.
107. CWHE/Three Kingdoms.
108. ^ Doosan/Jinpyeong.
109. ^ Graff 2003, p. 197.
110. Lee Ki-baik 1984, p. 48.
111. ^ Kim Jinwung 2012, p. 50.
112. ref112. sfn error: no target: CITEREFref112 (help)
113. Tucker 2009, p. 406.
114. ^ Chen Jack Wei 2010, p. 43.
115. Guo 2009, p. 42.
116. Whitfield 2004, p. 110.
117. Baumer 2018, p. 243.
118. Grenet 2004, p. 1066, Fig. C.
119. ^ Ring et al. 2012, p. 486.
120. Lee Injae 2014, p. 29.
121. Lee Heejin 2013, p. 348.
122. NONO-122.
123. Kim Yongman 1998, p. 486.
124. ^ Lee Ki-baik 1984, p. 67.
125. Wang 2013, p. 81.
126. Xiong 2008, p. 43.
127. Lewis 2009, p. 34.
128. Graff 2003, p. 213.
129. Grant 2011, p. 118.
130. Starr 2015, p. 38.
131. Connolly 2016, p. 263.
132. Neelis 2010, p. 176.
133. Fuqua 2007, p. 40.
134. Zizhi Tongjian/225.
135. Zizhi Tongjian/227.
136. Lee Sang-Gak 2014, p. 25.
137. NHCC/Taebong Founding.
138. Seong Gi-hwan 2008, p. 6.
139. Park Jong-gi 2015, p. 59.
140. ^ Lee Ki-baik 1984, p. 103.
141. ^ Rossabi 1983, p. 323.
142. ^ Kim Djun-kil 2014, p. 57.
143. ^ Grayson 2013, p. 79.
144. Park Jong-gi 2015, p. 66.
145. ^ Yu Seok-jae (Chosun) 2006.
146. Lee_Ki-baik 1984, p. 103.
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148. Lee Ki-baik 1984, pp. 23–24.
149. Sin Hyeon-sik 2003, p. 56.
150. Lee Deok-il 2007, p=unknown.
151. KHC/Five Bu.
152. Han Jeong-ju 2010.
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154. ^ Yun Myeong-cheol 2014, # 9.
155. Heritage/Hwandusaedo.
156. Mural Tomb/sword.
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158. ^ VPI 2001.
159. MET/TOAH.
160. Samguk Yusa 2016, p. 178-179.
161. Amore 2010, p. 278.
162. NONO-165.
163. KBS World 2021.
164. KTA 2008.
165. Capener 2016.
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167. Im Ki-hwan 2004.
168. JIEAS 2005, p=unknown.
169. Lee & Ramsey 2011, p. 44.
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171. Pozzi 2006, p. 257.
172. Whitman 2011, p=unknown.
173. Unger 2009, p=unknown.
174. Lee & Ramsey 2011, p. 43.
175. ref175. sfn error: no target: CITEREFref175 (help)
176. Book of Wei/100.
177. Northern Dynasties/94.
178. Byington op.ed.
179. Han Myung-gi 2006.
180. Bae Young-dae (JoongAng) 2004.
181. Klinger (Asia Time) 2004.
182. Staines (Korea Times) 2004.
183. CASS 2012.
184. Yoon 2004, p. 108.
185. Yoon 2004, pp. 108–109.
186. ^ Yoon 2004, p. 103.
187. Mohan 2011.
188. Jin Se-geun 2006.
189. NMGASS 2020.
190. Chosun Ilbo & 2006-09-06.
191. ^ Seo Hyun-jin 2004.
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193. Chen Dingding, paywall.
194. Chase 2011, p. 61-82.
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Further reading

• Asmolov, V. Konstantin. (1992). The System of Military Activity of Koguryo, Korea Journal, v. 32.2, 103–116, 1992.
• Byeon, Tae-seop (1999). 韓國史通論 (Outline of Korean history) (4th ed.). Unknown Publisher. ISBN 978-89-445-9101-3.
• Sun, Jinji (1986), Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research), Heilongjiang People's Publishing House
• Unknown Author (2005), "Korea", Columbia Encyclopedia, Bartleby.com, retrieved 2007-03-12

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picture ref156: https://m.cafe.daum.net/gimadea/G2os/15 https://arca.live/b/novelchannel/43276981

Goguryo tombs: http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/features.php?searchterm=011_murals.inc&issue=011 Shared Heritage Sites: The Mural Tombs of Gaogouli-Koguryo CHINA HERITAGE QUARTERLY China Heritage Project, The Australian National University ISSN 1833-8461 --- No. 11, September 2007 http://www.chinaheritagequarterly.org/editorial.php?issue=011

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External links

• Encarta (Archived 2009-10-31)
• Columbia Encyclopedia
• (in Korean) Information about the ancient kingdom

Categories

41°02′24″N 126°40′12″E / 41.04000°N 126.67000°E / 41.04000; 126.67000

NONO

quotations without a full reference. To be replaced or ousted. Deadline = 2023-11-11

• Cho Sang-heon (1997), A theory about the population of Goguryeo [조상헌 (1997). 고구려 인구에 관한 시론] NONO-04 ref004

• 《汉书·地理志》：玄菟、乐浪，武帝时置，皆朝鲜、濊貉、句骊蛮夷。 ["Hanshu Geography": Xuantu and Lelang were placed during the reign of Emperor Wu, and they were all barbarians from Korea, Hao raccoon dog, and Gouli.] NONO-05 ref005

• 《享太庙乐章·钧天舞》：高皇迈道，端拱无为。化怀獯鬻，兵赋勾骊。 ["Enjoy the Ancestral Temple Movement·Juntian Dance": Emperor Gao stepped forward, arching his head and doing nothing. It transforms into the Huai Mao vanda, and the soldiers are endowed with Gou Li.] NONO-06 ref006

• NONO-08 고려의 국호 Institute of the Korean Language. 2023-02-04.] NONO-08 : this wiki-article is not even achieved !!! ref008

• NONO-35 [In the year 11 AD, he (Wang Mang) ordered the Koguryo people to attack the Hsiung-nu. When they refused, their ruler was murdered by the Han governor of Liao-hsi and 'so the Maek people raided the frontier even more'.], NONO-35 : source not given ref035

• NONO-36: 先是，莽發高句驪兵，當伐胡，不欲行，郡強迫之，皆亡出塞，因犯法為寇。遼西大尹田譚追擊之，為所殺。州郡歸咎於高句驪侯騶。 莽不尉安，穢貉遂反，詔尤擊之。尤誘高句驪侯騶至而斬焉，傳首長安。 於是貉人愈犯邊，東北與西南夷皆亂云。
  Book of Han, Chapter 99. [First, Gaoguli soldiers were sent out recklessly to attack the Hu, but they did not want to do so. The county forced them to leave the fortress, and they all died and became bandits for violating the law. Dayin Tiantan of western Liaoning pursued him and killed him. The prefectures and counties were blamed on the Marquis of Gaoguli. The reckless raccoon dog rebelled against Wei's safety, and the imperial edict was issued to attack him. You especially lured Gaogouli Hou's disciples to arrive and beheaded Yan, and sent the message to Chang'an. As a result, the raccoon dogs invaded the borders more and more, and the barbarians in the northeast and southwest were in chaos (google translate).] NONO-36 : so what ? ref036

• NONO-58: 《三国史记》：六年 秋八月 神雀集宫庭 冬十月 王命乌伊扶芬奴 伐太白山东南人国 取其地为城邑。十年 秋九月 鸾集于王台 冬十一月 王命扶尉 伐北沃沮灭之 以其地为城邑. [Historical Records of the Three Kingdoms: In the autumn of the sixth year, in the eighth month, the divine birds gathered in the palace, and in the winter of the tenth month, the king ordered Wuyi Fufennu to attack the people in the southeast of Taibai Mountain and take the land for the city. In the autumn of the tenth year, in the ninth month, the luan gathered in Wangtai, and in the winter of the eleventh month, the king ordered Fufen When Wei attacked Beiwoju and destroyed it, he made the land his city.] NONO-58 : so what ? ref058

• Chen Shou, NONO-64: Records of the Three Kingdoms, 建安中，公孫康出軍擊之，破其國，焚燒邑落。拔奇怨爲兄而不得立，與涓奴加各將下戶三萬餘口詣康降，還住沸流水。 [During Jian'an, Gongsun Kang sent out troops to attack him, destroyed his country and burned the towns. Ba Qi complained that he was his brother but could not stand up. He and Juan Nujia each had their subordinates with more than 30,000 people surrendered to Kang, and they still lived in Boliushui (google translated).], vol. 30 NONO-64 : so what ? ref064

• "NONO-79: 국양왕" [King Gukyang], KOCCA, Korea Creative Content Agency, retrieved 11 October 2016 NONO-79 : to be fixed ref079

• "통일기". 한국콘텐츠진흥원. Korea Creative Content Agency. Retrieved 4 November 2016. NONO-122, 403, Forbidden

• Brown (2006). no title given. p. 18. NONO-165, no title given ref165

• Lim, Byung-joon (1999), A Study on the borrowed writings of the dialect of Koguryo Dynasty in Ancient Korean (MA), Konkuk University not referenced !!! ref027

Not so Sources

• Nuriwiki, 고대 고구려의 단어 [Goguryeo language]
  wiki . From Study Goguryeo research, 2004-07-10 in Japanese ref023

• "高句麗" [Goguryo], Wiktionary, 2023-06-24, retrieved 2023-06-25
  another wiki ref024

• Rhee, Song-nai (1992). "Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State.". In Aikens, C. Melvin (ed.). Pacific northeast Asia in prehistory: hunter-fisher-gatherers, farmers, and sociopolitical elites. WSU Press. ISBN 978-0-87422-092-6.
  unavailable ref041

• Tudor,Daniel (2012). Korea: The Impossible Country. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 978-1462910229.
  rather a travel guide ; only to prove "Inner Mongolia" ref087

• about: Szczepanski, Kallie (2011). "Inscription from Gwanggaeto the Great's Stele". Archived from on 2011-10-16. Retrieved 2011-09-18.
  please, find a better ref ! found = {{sfn|De Bary|1997|p=24}} ref092

• Walker, Hugh Dyson (November 2012). East Asia: A New History. AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1477265161.
  self-published ; only p.137 ... ref093, ref100

• 이윤섭 (Lee Yun-seop) (2014). 한나절에 읽는 백제의 역사 [Read the history of Baekje in half a day]. ebookspub(이북스펍). ISBN 979-1155191965. Retrieved 16 November 2016.
  not a source at all ref098

• 이윤섭 (Lee Yunseop) (2014-03-07). 고구려와 수나라의 전쟁 [War between Goguryeo and Sui Dynasty] (in Korean). 이북스펍 (ebookspub). ISBN 979-1155191330. Retrieved 21 November 2016. not a source at all ref153

• White, Matthew (2011-11-07). Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393081923.
  not a R.S. ref103

• Guo, Rongxing (2009). Intercultural Economic Analysis: Theory and Method. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-1441908490.
  p=42 says: from http://www.asianinfo.org/asianinfo/korea/history/three_kingdoms.htm, which says: from Ambassy !!! ref115

• Grenet, Frantz (2004). "Maracanda/Samarkand, une métropole pré-mongole. Sources écrites et archéologie". Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales (in French). 59 (5/6): 1043–1067.
  this paper only says "Coréens" instead of Goguryeo ref118

• Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle; Schellinger, Paul (2012). International Dictionary of Historic Places, vol 5: Asia and Oceania. Routledge. p. 486. ISBN 978-1136639791.
  rather a travel guide ; nothing *centered* on Goguryeo ref119

• Lewis, Mark Edward (2009). China's cosmopolitan empire: The Tang dynasty. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674033061.
  circular: note 9 page 34 points to ref127

• 이상각 (Lee Sang-Gak) (2014). 고려사 – 열정과 자존의 오백년 [Goryeo History – 500 years of passion and pride]. 들녘 (Deulnyeok). ISBN 979-1159250248.
  not a R.S. ref136

• 성기환 (Seong Gi-hwan) (2008). 생각하는 한국사 2: 고려시대부터 조선·일제강점까지 [Thinking about Korean History 2: From the Goryeo Dynasty to Joseon and Japanese Occupation]. 버들미디어 (Beodeul Media). ISBN 978-8986982923.
  not a RS + not using "Thinking about Korean History 1: From Gojoseon to the Unified Silla period" is rather ridiculous !!! ref138

• 박종기 (Park Jong-gi) (2015). 고려사의 재발견: 한반도 역사상 가장 개방적이고 역동적인 500년 고려 역사를 만나다 [Rediscovery of Goryeo History : meet the 500 years of Goryeo history]. 휴머니스트 (Humanist). ISBN 978-8958629023.
  not a R.S. ref139, ref144

• "고구려 5부 (高句麗 五部)" [Goguryeo five Bu]. 한국사 콘텐츠 (Korean history content). National Institute of Korean History. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 21 November 2016. A better source is needed ref151

• 한정주 (Han Jeong-ju) (2010). 한국사 전쟁의 기술: 한국사의 판도를 바꿔 놓은 36가지 책략 [The Art of War in Korean History : 36 Strategies That Changed the Game of Korean History]. Dasan Books. p. 61. ISBN 978-8963704067. Retrieved 21 November 2016. A better source is needed ref152

• "[윤명철 교수의 고구려 이야기] 9: 보병-기병, 최첨단 무기 무장… 고구려군은 동아시아 최강" [ 9: Infantry and cavalry, armed with cutting-edge weapons... Goguryeo army is the strongest in East Asia]. April 2014.
  part of the series = listed at search@donga ref154

• "Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms", Virtual Project Island, 2001, archived from the original on 2006-08-22 not a source. read the introduction ! ref158

• which is which ? related or not with Encyclopedia of World History ?

• Cartwright, Mark (2016-10-05). "Goguryeo". Cartwright World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2019-04-14.<> unreliable ? and useless ref013
• Cartwright, Mark (2016-10-05). "Three_Kingdoms_Period_in_Korea". Cartwright World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2021-02-28.
  unreliable ? ref107
• Marsha E. Ackermann; Michael J. Schroeder; et al., eds. (2008-01-01). "Vol I, Three Kingdoms, Korea". Encyclopedia of World History (7 Volumes Set). p. 464. ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4.
  ref075

---

• KBS a series encompassing all Goguryeo Kings. 4000-4045

• "KBS History: King Sansang". 2015-03-09. Retrieved 30 August 2023., 63
• "KBS History: King Gogukyang". 2015-05-11. Retrieved 30 August 2023., 80
• "KBS History: King Ganggwaeto (1)". 2015-05-18. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 7 October 2016., 95

• 이희진 (Lee Heejin) (2013). 옆으로 읽는 동아시아 삼국지 1 [East Asian Romance of the Three Kingdoms read sideways 1]. EastAsia. ISBN 978-8962620726. Retrieved 4 November 2016., 121 RS or not ? ; one line about Salsu battle

Sources

Usuals

• Britannica "Koguryo". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2007-02-12. Retrieved June 27, 2017., ref003, ref009

• Wechsler, Howard J. (1979). "T'ai-tsung (reign 626–49) the consolidator". In Twitchett, Denis (ed.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 3, Sui and T'ang China, AD 589–906, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9. ref012

• Hall, John Whitney (1988). The Cambridge History of Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521223522. Retrieved 29 July 2016. ref083

• Graff, David (2003). Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134553532. Retrieved 6 November 2016. ref020 ref106 ref109 ref128

• Lee, Peter H.; De Bary, Theodore (1997). Sources of Korean Tradition (Tome 1: origins through 16th century). Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231105675., ref042, ref048, ref094

• Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne; Palais, James B. (2013). East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Volume I: To 1800. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1111808150. ref105, ref112 (only page 106 is used !!!)

• Kim, Jinwung (2012). A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00078-1. ref076, ref086, ref097, ref111 (only pages 34-36 et 50 are used !!!)

• Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A New History of Korea. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674615762. ref061, ref062, ref071, ref077, ref096, ref099, ref102, ref110, ref124, ref140, ref146, ref148

• Li, Narangoa; Cribb, Robert (2014). Historical Atlas of Northeast Asia, 1590–2010: Korea, Manchuria, Mongolia, Eastern Siberia. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-16070-4.
  Great usual. But Goguryeo doesn't belongs to 1590-2010 ! ref011

• Barnes, Gina (2013). State Formation in Korea: Historical and Archaeological Perspectives. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-84104-0., ref010, ref032, ref060, ref066, ref068

• Lee, Injae; Miller, Owen; Park, Jinhoon; Yi, Hyun-Hae (2014). Korean History in Maps. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1107098466., ref069, ref120

• The National Folk Museum of Korea (South Korea), ed. (2014). Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Literature: Encyclopedia of Korean Folklore and Traditional Culture Vol. III. ISBN 978-8928900848. Retrieved 10 September 2017.
  a whole set of usuals can be downloaded at Folkency Dictionaries ref047

• 조현설 (Cho Hyeonseol). "유화부인" [Lady Yuhwa]. Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture. Retrieved 30 April 2018. ref052

secondary sources in Korean

• "한국의 건국 신화 읽기" [Korean History by subject]. 국사편찬위원회 (National History Compilation Committee). ref002

• "11권-III.3: 후고구려의 건국" [Vol11-III.3: Founding of Later Goguryeo (Taebong)]. 국사편찬위원회 (National History Compilation Committee). Retrieved 23 March 2018. ref137

• "고구려 (高句麗)" [Goguryeo, search EncyKor]. Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies. ref007, ref023, ref025

• "고구려 (高句麗)" [Goguryeo]. Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies., ref021

• "연타발 (延陀勃)" [Yeon Tabal]. Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies., ref055 Yeon Tabal

• "소서노 (召西奴)" [Soseono]. Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies., ref056

• "하백 (河伯)" [Habaek]. Encykor, Academy of Korean Studies., ref051

• "유화부인 (柳花夫人)" [Lady Yuwha]. Doosan Encyclopedia., ref049

• "하백 (河伯)" [Habaek]. Doosan Encyclopedia., ref050

• "평원왕 (平原王)" [King Pyeongwon]. Doosan Encyclopedia., 101

• "진평왕 (眞平王)" [King Jinpyeong]. Doosan Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2011-06-10., 108

• 신형식 (Sin Hyeon-sik) (2003). ko:高句麗史 [Goguryeo History]. 427 p. Ewha Womans University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-8973005284. Retrieved 12 September 2017., 149

Primary sources of the past

• Ban Gu (60CE), "高句驪，上殷台，西蓋馬" [Three Counties: Gaoguli, Shangyintai, Xigeima], Book of the Former Han {{citation}}: Check date values in: |date= (help), ref045

• Fan Ye (c. 450), "夫餘國 挹婁 高句麗 東沃沮 濊 三韓 倭" [Manchuria, Buyeo, Goguryeo, Dongwoju, Dongye, Samhan, Japan], Book of the Later Han, ref046, ref175

• Sima Guang (1084), "zh:s:資治通鑑 卷二百二十五 唐紀四十一" [Vol 225, Tang Ji 41], Zizhi Tongjian, ref134

• Sima Guang (1084), "zh:s:資治通鑑 卷二百二十七 唐紀四十三" [Vol 227, Tang Ji 43], Zizhi Tongjian, ref135

• Wei Shou (c. 550), "高句麗　百濟　勿吉　失韋　豆莫婁　地豆于　庫莫奚　契丹　烏洛侯" [Goguryeo, Baekje, Wuji, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didouyu, Kumoxi, Khitan, Uluohou], Book of Wei, ref176

• Li Dashi (c. 650), "高麗 百濟 新羅 勿吉 奚 契丹 室韋 豆莫婁 地豆幹 烏洛侯 流求 倭" [Goryeo, Baekje, Silla, Wuji, Xi, Khitan, Shiwei, Doumolou, Didougan, Wuluohou, Liuqiu, Japan], History of Northern Dynasties, ref177

Samguk Sagi

• see Samguk Sagi for the en:wp description of this key document.
• access the raw primary source using Kim Bu-sik. National Historical Compilation Committe (ed.). 삼국사기 [Samguk Sagi].
• should be fixed (Google translations don't replace secondary sources !!!):

• should be #13 Goguryeo (Sage King Dongmyeong) [秋八月，王命鳥伊烏伊、摩離，領兵二萬，西伐梁貊，滅其國，進兵襲取漢高句麗縣。(縣屬玄菟郡) == In the eighth month of autumn, the king ordered Niaoyiwuyi and Moli to lead 20,000 troops to attack Liangqi from the west, destroy his country, and advance to attack Han Dynasty's Goguryeo County. (The county belongs to Xuantu County)], ref044

• should be #17 Goguryeo (King Jungcheon) [十二年冬十二月王畋于杜訥之谷魏將尉遲楷名犯長陵諱將兵來伐王簡精騎五千戰於梁貊之谷敗之斬首八千餘級 == In the winter of the 12th year of the twelfth year, in the twelfth month of the year, Wang Tian went to the Valley of Dune. Wei general Wei Chikai, who was famous for his crime, led the army to attack Chang Lingba.], ref070

• should be #28 Baekje (King Uija) [秦、漢亂離之時，中國人多竄海東。== When the Qin and Han Dynasties were in chaos, many Chinese people fled to the east of the sea.], ref043

• should be #37 Monographies (Geography of Goguryeo and Baekje) [高句麗始居中國北地，則漸東遷于浿水之側 == Goguryeo first settled in northern China, then gradually moved eastward to the side of the Xishui River], ref040

Samguk Yusa

• Iryŏn (c. 1200). Samguk Yusa. Translated by Ha Tae-hung; Mintz, Grafton K. 456p. (2016 ed.). Yonsei University. ISBN 9788971410172., ref053, ref054, ref057, ref160

Promising, but poorly used

• Bedeski, Robert (2021). Dynamics Of The Korean State: From The Paleolithic Age To Candlelight Democracy. WSPC. p. 133. Retrieved 18 July 2023. About Russia v. Korea ref015

• Matray, James (2016). Crisis in a Divided Korea: A Chronology and Reference Guide. ABC-CLIO. Retrieved 18 July 2023.
  Pages 1-22 are giving a great overview of Korean history. Deserves more than being used to prove the geographical proximity of Russia and Korea !!! ref016

• 馬淵 和夫 (Mabuchi Kazuhito) (March 1979). "『三国史記』記載の百済地名より見た古代百済語の考察" [A study of ancient Baekje language from the perspective of Baekje place names mentioned in Samguk sagi] (PDF). 文藝言語研究. 言語篇 (Literary Language Research. Language Series). 6: 73–127.
  Page 79 compares 내 / 납 / 냇 . So what ? ref030

• Henthorn, William E. (1971). A History of Korea. 256 p. Macmillan. ISBN 9780029144602., ref078

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (December 2005). "Ethnolinguistic history of Korea" (PDF). Journal of Inner and East Asian Studies. 2 (2): 34–64. unused as of now

• Rossabi, Morris (1983). China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries. University of California Press. p. 323. ISBN 978-0520045620. ref141

• Kim, Djun Kil (2014). The History of Korea (2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610695824., ref091, ref142

• Grayson, James H. (2013). Korea – A Religious History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1136869259. ref143

Others

• "Panorama of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". Ministry of Foreign Affairs DPRK. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2022. ref001

• Gardner, Hall (2007). Averting Global War: Regional Challenges, Overextension, and Options for American Strategy. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0230608733., ref018

• Beckwith, Christopher I. (2007). Koguryo: The Language of Japan's Continental Relatives: An Introduction to the Historical-Comparative Study of the Japanese-Koguryoic Languages, with a Preliminary Description of Archaic Northeastern Middle Chinese (Second ed.). Brill. ISBN 978-90-474-2028-6. ref031

• Byington, Mark (2002), "The Creation of an Ancient Minority Nationality: Koguryo in Chinese Historiography" (PDF), Embracing the Other: The Interaction of Korean and Foreign Cultures: Proceedings of the 1st World Congress of Korean Studies, III, Songnam, Republic of Korea: The Academy of Korean Studies

• Byington, Mark (2003). A History of the Puyo State, its People, and its Legacy (PhD). Havard University.

• Jimoondang - Yi, Hyŏn-hŭi; Pak, Sŏng-su; Yun, Nae-hyŏn (2005). New history of Korea. Jimoondang. ISBN 978-8988095850.

• Tennant, Charles Roger (1996). A history of Korea (illustrated ed.). Kegan Paul International. ISBN 978-0-7103-0532-9. Only page=22 is used !!!!! ref067,072,081

• Zhang, Xuefeng (2010). "The Formation of East Asian World during the 4th and 5th Centuries: A Study Based on Chinese Sources". Frontiers of History in China. 5 (4): 525–548. doi:10.1007/s11462-010-0110-z. S2CID 154743659., ref034

• Wang, Zhenping (2013). Tang China in Multi-Polar Asia: A History of Diplomacy and War. University of Hawaii Press., ref125

• Xiong, Victor (2008). Historical Dictionary of Medieval China. United States: Scarecrow Press, Inc. ISBN 978-0810860537., ref126

• 김용만 (Kim Yongman) (1998). 고구려의발견: 새로쓰는고구려문명사 [Discovery of Goguryeo: A new history of Goguryeo civilization]. 바다출판사. ISBN 978-8987180212. Retrieved 4 November 2016., only used to prove an obvious assertion (p=486) ref123

• Mohan, Pankaj (2016). "Goguyreo". In MacKenzie, John M (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe104. ISBN 978-1118455074. Retrieved 25 February 2021., ref033

• "보물 환두대도 (環頭大刀) : 국가문화유산포털 – 문화재청" [Treasure: Hwandu Daedo: National Cultural Heritage Portal – Cultural Heritage Administration]. ref155

• "Mural Tomb painting of an Hwando Sword". ref156

• "Ssireum (Traditional Korean Wrestling) in N. Korea". KBS World. 2021-12-16. ref162

Sources about language

• Vovin, Alexander (2013). "From Koguryo to Tamna: Slowly riding to the South with speakers of Proto-Korean". Korean Linguistics. 15 (2): 222–240. doi:10.1075/kl.15.2.03vov. paywall ...and no pages given... ref026, ref170

• Tranter, Nicholas (2012). The Languages of Japan and Korea. 516 p. Abingdon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415462877. ref028

• 유석재 (Yu Seok-jae) (2006-06-16). "'고구려'와 '고려'는 같은 나라였다 – 조선닷컴". www.chosun.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-11. Retrieved 2010-01-09., ref145, ref166

『고려의 고구려계승에 대한 종합적 검토』 : 박용운, 2006, 일지사

『Comprehensive Review of Goryeo’s Succession to Goguryeo』: Park Yong-un, 2006, Iljisa

• 임기환 (Im Ki-hwan) (2004-07-01). "고구려란 이름" [The name Goguryeo]. Archived from the original on 2008-08-29., ref167 (Goguryeo Research Foundation) ... part 3 of a series of 4.

• "Special Issue: The Language(s) of Koguryŏ" (PDF). www.historyfoundation.or.kr. December 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2022., ref168

• Lee, Ki-Moon; Ramsey, Robert S. (2011). A History of the Korean language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66189-8., ref169

• Whitman, John (2011). "Northeast Asian Linguistic Ecology and the Advent of Rice Agriculture in Korea and Japan". Rice. 4 (3–4): 149–158. doi:10.1007/s12284-011-9080-0., ref 172

• Unger, J. Marshall (2009). The role of contact in the origins of the Japanese and Korean languages. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3279-7., ref173

• Pozzi, Alessandra; Janhunen, Juha Antero; Weiers, Michael, eds. (2006). Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary. Vol. 20 of Tunguso Sibirica. Giovanni Stary (Contributor). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3447053785. Retrieved 1 April 2013.

Sources about Wrestling

• "Historical Background Of Taekwondo". Korea Taekwondo Association. 2008. Archived from the original on 2014-10-19., ref163

• Capener, Steven D. (March 2016). "The Making of a Modern Myth: Inventing a Tradition for Taekwondo". Korea Journal. 56 (1): 61–92. doi:10.25024/kj.2016.56.1.61. ref164

Sources about the Chinese Controversy

• "The Pride History of Korea". Archived from the original on 2007-05-28.,
  wiki ref059

• 김운회 (Kim Wonhoe) (4 February 2014). "한국과 몽골, 그 천년의 비밀을 찾아서" [Korea and Mongolia, in search of their thousand-year secrets]. Pressian, ko:프레시안. Korea Press Foundation. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  From a serial about the "Empress Ki" TV series See Google or Koreanology for a small bio about the author --- ref088

• 成宇濟 (Cheng Yuji) (1995-08-10). "고고학자 손보기 교수" [Archaeologist Professor Son Bogi]. 시사저널. Archived from the original on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  a research paper is needed ref089

• 정수일 (Jeong Su-il) (19 August 2009). "[초원 실크로드를 가다](14)초원로가 한반도까지" [ (14) Grassland Road to the Korean Peninsula]. 경향신문 (Kyunghyang Shinmun). Retrieved 11 October 2016.
  a research paper is needed ! ref090

• 이덕일 (Lee Deok-il); 김병기 (Kim Byeong-gi); 박찬규 (Park Chan-gyu) (2007). 고구려 는 천자 의 제국 이었다 [Goguryeo was the empire of the Son of Heaven]. 우리 역사 바로잡기 (Correcting our history). 511 p. 역사의아침 (Morning of History). ISBN 978-8995884973. Retrieved 12 September 2017. ref150

• Byington, Mark (2004b). "Koguryo part of China ?". koreanstudies koreaweb. Archived from the original on 2007-04-23.
  mailing list ; should be described as such ref178

• Byington, Mark. "The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided". History News Network. Columbian College of Arts & Sciences. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
  op ed ; no date on the web page ref178

• Han, Myung-gi (2006). "조선시대 韓中 지식인의 高句麗 인식" [Korean and Chinese Intellectuals' recognitions of Koguryo in Choson dynasty]. Korean Culture. 38. Kyujanggak Institute for Korean Studies: 337–366. ISSN 1226-8356., ref179

• Bae, Young-dae; Lee, Min-a (September 16, 2004). "Korea finds some allies in Goguryeo history spat". Korea JoongAng Daily. ref180, a small breve !!!

• Klingner, Bruce (2004-09-11). "China shock for South Korea". Asia Times. Archived from the original on 2012-02-03., ref181

• Z-making-Wiki/Goguryeo/Controversy/Harold-IeodoMetaphorGrowing-2012.pdf
• https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/shambaugh.pdf

• Staines, Reuben (2004-08-30). "China's Nationalism Warps Koguryo History". The Korea Times at Naver News. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29., ref182

naver (2023) says : This article has been deleted at the request of the media.

• "东北工程简介" [Brief introduction to the Northeast Project]. 中国边疆史地研究中心 (Research Center for Chinese Borderland History and Geography) Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. Archived from the original on 2012-08-11. Retrieved 11 January 2013., ref183

• Yoon, Hwy-tak (2004), "China's Northeast Project: Defensive or Offensive Strategy?" (PDF), East Asian Review, 16 (4): 99–121, archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-11-14, retrieved 2013-01-10, ref 186

• Mohan, Pankaj (2011), "Contending Perspectives on Koguryo: A Fresh Look at China's Northeast Project", The Dong Gook Sa Hak, 50: 53–93, ref187

• 진세근 (Jin Se-geun) (2006-09-14). "중국 동북공정에 앞서 '서남공정'은 어떻게" [How was the "Southwest Project" that preceded the Chinese Northeast Project?]. JoongAng Ilbo. Retrieved 2007-04-20., ref188

• "zh:北部边疆历史与现状综合研究项目" [Comprehensive research project on the history and current situation of the northern frontier]. inner mongolia academy of social science. 2020-03-30., ref189

• "China Co-Opts More Old Korean Kingdoms". Chosun Ilbo. 2006-09-06. Archived from the original on 2007-11-28. Retrieved 2007-05-30., ref190

• Seo, Hyun-jin (2004-08-24). "Skepticism Lingers over History Issue". The Korea Herald. Archived from the original (Reprint) on 2004-08-24. Retrieved 2012-01-08., ref191

• Chen, Dingding (February 2012). "Domestic Politics, National Identity, and International Conflict: the case of the Koguryo controversy". Journal of Contemporary China. 21 (74): 227–241. doi:10.1080/10670564.2012.635928. S2CID 145079682., ref193

• Chase, Thomas (2011). "Nationalism on the Net: Online discussion of Goguryeo history in China and South Korea". China Information. 25 (1): 61–82. doi:10.1177/0920203X10394111. Archived from the original on 2012-05-13. Retrieved 2012-08-23., ref194

Large hammer for so small a nail

sorted by ref number

• Kim, Hakjoon (1995). Rediscovering Russia in Asia: Siberia and the Russian Far East. Routledge. p. 303.
  only one line about old-Russia -- old-Korea ref014

• Roberts, John Morris; Westad, Odd Arne (2013). The History of the World. 1260 p. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199936762. Retrieved 15 July 2016.,
  A 1260 pages book only to prove that "Goguryeo was a great power" !!! ref017

• International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind (1994). Laet, Sigfried J. de; et al. (eds.). History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century. seven tomes, circa 4000 p. UNESCO. ISBN 978-9231028137.
  1. Prehistory and the beginnings of civilization
  2. From the third millennium to the seventh century B.C.
  3. From the seventh century B.C. to the seventh century A.D.
  4. From the seventh to the sixteenth century
  5. From the sixteenth to the eighteenth century
  6. The nineteenth century
  :7. The twentieth century
  such a large book only to prove that "Goguryeo was a great power" !!! ref019

• Shiratori, Kurakichi (1896), "朝鮮古代王號考" [An Examination of Ancient King's Titles in Korea], 史學雜誌 (Journal of History), 7,
  Shiratori was a notable Japanese historian and Sinologist.
  Quoting him only about the world "castle" is rather strange !!! ref029

• de Crespigny, Rafe (2006-12-28). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms. xxxvi + 1312 pp. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-15605-0.,
  1312 pages, but only p=988 is used to prove "in 209, Kang invaded Goguryeo again" ref065

• Embree, Ainslie Thomas (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian history. Scribner. ISBN 978-0684188997. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  v.1. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0001unse/page/n5/mode/2up
  v.2. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0002unse/page/n5/mode/2up
  v.3. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0003unse/page/n5/mode/2up
  v.4. -- https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofas0004unse/page/n5/mode/2up
  such a large book only to prove that "Goguryeo experienced a golden age under Gwanggaeto" !!! ref084

• Cohen, Warren I. (2000). East Asia at the Center: Four Thousand Years of Engagement with the World. 528 p. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231502511.
  only to prove "Koguryo's golden age" ref085

• Bedeski, Robert (2007). Human Security and the Chinese State: Historical Transformations and the Modern Quest for Sovereignty. Routledge. ISBN 978-1134125975.
  only to prove the defeat of Sui ref104

• Tucker, Spencer C. (2009). A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East [6 volumes]: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. 2777 p. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1851096725.
  2777 pages, but only p=406 is used ref113

• Grant, Reg G. (2011). 1001 Battles That Changed the Course of World History. 960 p. Universe Pub. p. 118. ISBN 978-0789322333. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  ref129 only one line, about Talas (Tang v. Abassid)

• Starr, S. Frederick (2015). Xinjiang: China's Muslim Borderland. Routledge. ISBN 978-1317451372. Retrieved 29 July 2016., ref130

• Connolly, Peter; Gillingham, John; Lazenby, John (2016). The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ancient and Medieval Warfare. Routledge. ISBN 978-1135936815. Retrieved 29 July 2016., ref131

• Neelis, Jason (2010). Early Buddhist Transmission and Trade Networks: Mobility and Exchange Within and Beyond the Northwestern Borderlands of South Asia. Brill. ISBN 978-9004181595. Retrieved 29 July 2016., ref132

• Fuqua, Jacques L. (2007). Nuclear endgame: The need for engagement with North Korea. Westport: Praeger Security International. ISBN 9780275990749., ref133

• Amore, Roy C.; Ching, Julia (2010). "IV. The Buddhist Tradition". In Oxtoby, Willard Gurdon (ed.). World Religions: Eastern Traditions. 532p. (3rd ed.). Donn Mills, Ontario: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-542676-2., ref161
  only one line about Koguryo

• Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History (ed.). "Korean Buddhist Sculpture (5th–9th Century)". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-01-18.,
  only to prove "in the late 4th century"
  see also chronology ref159

• Chinul (1991). Buswell, Robert E. (ed.). Tracing Back the Radiance: Chinul's Korean Way of Zen (abridged ed.). University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0824814274.
  ref73, ref74 not used about Buddhism !

• Chen, Jack Wei (2010). The Poetics of Sovereignty: On Emperor Taizong of the Tang Dynasty. Harvard University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0674056084. Retrieved 4 August 2016.
  ref114 why not - but not too convincing

• Susan Whitfield, ed. (2004). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. Serindia Publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-932476-13-2.
  ref116 great catalogue ; but only two lines about the painting and nothing about Goguryeo

• Baumer, Christoph (18 April 2018). History of Central Asia, The: 4-volume set. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-83860-868-2.
  ref117 nothing about Goguryeo found at p=243 (nor in the index)

Categories:

• Goguryeo
• States and territories established in the 1st century BC
• History of Korea
• Former countries in Korean history
• Former countries in East Asia
• 1st-century BC establishments
• 668 disestablishments
• Three Kingdoms of Korea
• 30s BC establishments
• 37 BC
• States and territories disestablished in the 7th century
• History of Manchuria
• Tributaries of Imperial China