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{{Short description|Series of wars through the 16th to 19th centuries}} {{Short description|Major war in Central Europe (1618–1648)}}
{{Other uses|Thirty Years War (disambiguation)}}
{{For|all conflicts between Turkic states and Persian states|Turco-Persian Wars}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Thirty Years' War
| width =
| partof = the ] and ]
| image = Thirty Years War Collage.jpg
| image_size = 300px
| alt =
| caption = Left to right: {{flatlist|
* The ] (23 May 1618)
* The ] (16 November 1632)
* Dutch warships prior to the ] (21 October 1639)
* The ] (19 May 1643)}}
| date = 23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648<br/>(30 years, 5 months and 1 day)
| place = ]
| result = ]
| territory = {{Bulletlist
| France annexes the ], and ]{{Sfn|Croxton|2013|pp=225–226}}
| Sweden gains ], ], ], and ]{{Sfn|Heitz|Rischer|1995|p=232}}
| ] obtains ]{{Sfn|Heitz|Rischer|1995|p=232}}
| ] gains independence from the ]
}}
| combatant1 = '''Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635'''{{Efn|States that fought against the Emperor at some point between 1618 and 1635}}{{Plainlist|
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Bohemia}}
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of The Electoral Palatinate (1604).svg}} ]
* {{flagicon|Duchy of Savoy}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Transylvania|1615}} ]
* {{Flagcountry|Dutch Republic}}
* {{Flagcountry|Denmark–Norway}}
* ] ]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Hesse.svg}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Pabellon de Brandeburgo (c. 1684).svg}} ]
* {{Flagcountry|Electorate of Saxony|Saxony}}
}}
| combatant1a = '''Post-1635 ]'''{{Plainlist|
* {{Flagcountry|Kingdom of France|France}}
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagcountry|Dutch Republic}}
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of Hesse.svg}} ]
}}
| combatant2 = '''Imperial alliance prior to 1635'''{{Efn|States that allied at some point between 1618 and 1635}}{{Plainlist|
* {{Flag|Habsburg Monarchy}}
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagcountry|Electorate of Bavaria}}
* {{Flagicon image|Catholic League (Germany).svg|22px}} ]
}}
| combatant2a = '''Post-1635 ]'''{{Plainlist|
* {{Flag|Holy Roman Empire}}
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagcountry|Denmark–Norway}}
}}
| commander1 = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]{{Abbr|{{KIA}}|KIA}}
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Sweden|1562}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Kingdom of France}} ]
* {{flagicon|Kingdom of France}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Dutch Republic}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Dutch Republic}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Dutch Republic}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of The Electoral Palatinate (1604).svg}}{{Flagicon|Bohemia}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of The Electoral Palatinate (1604).svg}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Bohemia}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Flag of The Electoral Palatinate (1604).svg}} {{Flagicon|Bohemia}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Denmark–Norway}} ]
* {{flagicon|Denmark–Norway}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Electorate of Saxony}} ]
* ] ]
* {{Coat of arms|Brunswick-Lüneburg|text=]}}
* {{Flagicon|Transylvania|1615}} ]
* {{Flagicon image|Pabellon de Brandeburgo (c. 1684).svg}} ]
}}
| commander2 = {{Plainlist|
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]{{Abbr|{{Assassinated}}|Assassinated}}
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]{{Abbr|{{KIA}}|KIA}}
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Spain|1506}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Electorate of Bavaria}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]{{Abbr|{{KIA}}|KIA}}
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]{{Abbr|{{KIA}}|KIA}}
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]{{Abbr|{{KIA}}|KIA}}
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
* {{Flagicon|Holy Roman Empire}} ]
}}
| strength1 = '''Maximum actual'''{{Efn|Since officers were paid for each man "present", the numbers ''Reported'' frequently differed from ''Actual'', or those available for duty. Variances between ''Reported'' and ''Actual'' are estimated as averaging up to 25% for the Dutch, 35% for the French and 50% for the Spanish.{{Sfn|Parrott|2001|p=8}} Most battles of the period were fought between opposing forces of 13,000 to 20,000 men, so the numbers reflect ''Maximum'' at any one time, and exclude citizen militia, who often formed a large proportion of garrisons.}}{{Efn|These figures show numbers "In Service of", rather than ethnicity, since all armies were multinational. An estimated 60,000 Scottish, English or Irish individuals fought on one side or the other during the period, while a high proportion were German. Based on an analysis of a mass grave discovered in 2011, a high proportion of "Swedish" forces at ] were ethnic Germans, while less than 50% even came from ].{{Sfn|Nicklisch|Ramsthaler|Meller|Others|2017}}}}{{Plainlist|
* 100,000–140,000 Swedish{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=484}}{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=40}}
* 27,000 Danes (1626){{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=387}}
* 70,000–80,000 French{{Sfn|Parrott|2001|pp=164–168}}
* 80,000–90,000 Dutch{{Sfn|Van Nimwegen|2014|p=166}}{{Efn|Approved 120,000, actual 80,000 to 90,000{{Sfn|Van Nimwegen|2014|p=166}}}}
}}
| strength2 = '''Maximum actual'''{{Plainlist|
* 110,000 ]{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=395}}
* 90,000 Spanish{{Sfn|Parker|2004|p=231}}{{Efn|1640 figures for the ], when it was at its maximum strength; these are Reported numbers, so as mentioned elsewhere, the actual number of soldiers would have been considerably lower.{{Sfn|Parker|2004|p=231}} The Spanish army officially had more than 200,000 soldiers in 1640, but most were second line troops in garrisons elsewhere in Europe, not facing the Dutch.{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=39}}}}
* 20,500 Bavarians{{Sfn|Clodfelter|2008|p=39}}
}}
| casualties1 = '''Combat deaths:'''{{efn|Wilson estimates a total of 450,000 combat deaths on all sides, the vast majority of whom were German. By one calculation, four times as many Germans died fighting for Sweden as Swedes, and so casualties are referred to as being "In service", rather than by nationality{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=791}}}} <br> 110,000 in Swedish service{{Sfn|Parker|1997|p=173}} <br> 80,000 in French service{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}}{{efn|France lost another 200,000 to 300,000 killed or wounded in the related ]{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}}}} <br> 30,000 in Danish service{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}} <br> 50,000 other{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}}
| casualties2 = '''Combat deaths:'''<br> 120,000 in Imperial service{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}} <br> 30,000 in Bavarian service{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}} <br> 30,000 other{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=790}}
| casualties3 = '''Military deaths from disease''': 700,000–1,350,000{{efn|Wilson estimates that three soldiers died of disease for every one killed in combat.{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=791}}}} <br />'''Total civilian dead''': 3,500,000–6,500,000{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|p=787}}<br />'''Total dead:''' 4,500,000–8,000,000{{Sfn|Outram|2002|p=248}}{{Sfn|Wilson|2009|pp=4, 787}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Thirty Years' War}}
{{Campaignbox Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)}}


The '''Thirty Years' War'''{{efn|{{Lang-de|Dreißigjähriger Krieg}}, {{IPA-de|ˈdʁaɪ̯sɪçˌjɛːʁɪɡɐ kʁiːk|pron|De-Dreißigjähriger Krieg.ogg}}}} was one of the longest and ] in ], lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in ], an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of present-day ] reported population declines of over 50%.{{Sfn|Parker|1997|p=189}} Related conflicts include the ], the ], the ], the ], the ], and the ].
{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Persian Wars |state=expanded}}
The '''Ottoman–Persian Wars''' or '''Ottoman–Iranian Wars''' were a series of wars between ] and the ], ], ], and ] dynasties of Iran (]) through the 16th–19th centuries. The Ottomans consolidated their control of what is today ] in the 15th century, and gradually came into conflict with the emerging neighboring Iranian state, led by ] of the ]. The two states were arch rivals, and were also divided by religious grounds, the Ottomans being staunchly ] and the Safavids being ]. A series of military conflicts ensued for centuries during which the two empires competed for control over eastern ], the ], and ].


The war was traditionally viewed as a continuation of the ] initiated by the 16th-century ] within the ]. The 1555 ] attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into ] and ] states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of ] beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and ] authority were important factors in causing the war, most contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the ] for European dominance between ]-ruled ] and ], and the French ].{{Sfn|Sutherland|1992|pp=589–590}}
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
! Name of the war
! Sultan of Ottoman Empire
! Shah of Persian Empire
! Treaty at the end of the war
!Victorious Empire
|-
| ] (1514)<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi II'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 339-340</ref>
|]
|]
|None
|The Ottoman Empire
|-
| ]<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi II'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 277-281</ref>
|]
|]
|] (1555)
|The Ottoman Empire <ref>Gábor Ágoston-Bruce Masters:Encyclopaedia of the Ottoman Empire, {{ISBN|978-0-8160-6259-1}}, p.280</ref>
|-
| ]<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi III'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 21-25</ref>
|]
|], ]
|] (1590)
|The Ottoman Empire
|-
|], first stage<br />
|]
|]
|] (1612)
|The Persian Empire
|-
| ], second stage<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi III'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 43-45</ref>
'']'' (1614–1617)
|], ], ]
|]
|] (1618)
|The Persian Empire
|-
| ]<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi III'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 78-82</ref>
|]
|], ]
|] (1639)
|The Ottoman Empire
|-
| ], first stage<br />'']''
'']''
|], ]
|]
|] (1732)
|The Ottoman Empire<ref>{{cite book|last1=Erewantsʻi|first1=Abraham|last2=Bournoutian|first2=George|title=History of the wars: (1721-1736)|date=1999|publisher=Mazda Publishers|isbn=978-1568590851|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FpugAAAAMAAJ&q=tahmasp+1731+lost+war|quote=(...) against Nader's advice, Shah Tahmasp marched against the Turks to force their withdrawal from Transcaucasia. The Ottomans routed the Persian forces in 1731, and in January 1732, the Shah concluded an agreement that left eastern Armenia, eastern Georgia, Shirvan, and Hamadan in Turkish hands.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Tucker|first1=Spencer C.|title=A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East : From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East|date=23 December 2009|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1851096725|page=729|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h5_tSnygvbIC&q=treaty+of+ahmet+pasha+1732|quote=Pursued by the Turks, Tahmasp is decisively defeated in the second Battle of Hamadan. In order to prevent a general Turkish invasion, he agrees to cede the territory conquered by Nadir in 1730 and recognizes all Turkish acquisitions}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=A ́goston|first1=Ga ́bor|last2=Masters|first2=Bruce Alan|title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire|date=2010|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1438110257|pages=415–416|quote=But while Nadir pursued conquests in the east, Shah Tahmasp reopened hostilities with the Ottomans in an effort to regain his lost territories. He was defeated and agreed to a treaty that restored Tabriz but left Kermanshah and Hamadan in Ottoman hands. Nadir was incensed at the treaty (...)}}</ref>
|-
| ], second stage<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi IV'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 1-8</ref>
|]
|]
|] (1736)
|The Persian Empire
|-
| ]<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi IV'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 22-25</ref>
|]
|]
|] (1746)
|Indecisive<ref>Selcuk Aksin Somel (2010), ''The A to Z of the Ottoman Empire'', quote: "''This indecisive military conflict resulted in the preservation of the existing borders.''", The Scarecrow Press Inc., p. 170</ref>
|-
| ]<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/karim-khan-zand |title = KARIM KHAN ZAND – Encyclopaedia Iranica}}</ref>
| ]
| ]
|None
|The Persian Empire. ] captured by Persia.<ref name=HMF>{{cite book|last=Fattah|first=Hala Mundhir|title=The Politics of Regional Trade in Iraq, Arabia, and the Gulf: 1745-1900|year=1997|publisher=]|isbn=9781438402376|page=34}}</ref>
|-
| ]<ref>Prof.Yaşar Yücel-Prof Ali Sevim:''Türkiye tarihi IV'', AKDTYKTTK Yayınları, 1991, pp 193-195</ref>
|]
|]
|] (1823)
|The Persian Empire
|}


Its outbreak is generally traced to ],{{Efn|Some commentators argue it began with the ] in 1609}} when ] was deposed as king of ] and replaced by the Protestant ]. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the ], his participation expanded the ], whose strategic importance drew in the ] and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. Rulers like ] and ] of ] also held territories within the Empire, giving them and other foreign powers an excuse to intervene. The result was to turn an internal dynastic dispute into a broader European conflict.
Among the numerous treaties, the ] of 1639 is usually considered as the most significant, as it fixed present ]–] and ]–] borders. In later treaties, there were frequent references to the Treaty of Zuhab.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}}

The first phase from 1618 until 1635 was primarily a ] between German members of the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After ], the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between ], supported by Sweden, and ], allied with Spain. This concluded with the 1648 ], whose provisions included greater autonomy within the empire for states like ] and ], as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the ] in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of ] which dominated Europe for the next sixty years


==See also== ==See also==

Revision as of 16:26, 18 April 2024

Major war in Central Europe (1618–1648) For other uses, see Thirty Years War (disambiguation).

Thirty Years' War
Part of the European wars of religion and French–Habsburg rivalry

Left to right:
Date23 May 1618 – 24 October 1648
(30 years, 5 months and 1 day)
LocationCentral Europe
Result Peace of Westphalia
Territorial
changes
Belligerents
Anti-Imperial alliance prior to 1635 Imperial alliance prior to 1635
Post-1635 Peace of Prague Post-1635 Peace of Prague
Commanders and leaders
Strength
Maximum actual
  • 100,000–140,000 Swedish
  • 27,000 Danes (1626)
  • 70,000–80,000 French
  • 80,000–90,000 Dutch
 Maximum actual
  • 110,000 Imperial
  • 90,000 Spanish
  • 20,500 Bavarians
Casualties and losses
Combat deaths:
110,000 in Swedish service
80,000 in French service
30,000 in Danish service
50,000 other		 Combat deaths:
120,000 in Imperial service
30,000 in Bavarian service
30,000 other
Military deaths from disease: 700,000–1,350,000
Total civilian dead: 3,500,000–6,500,000
Total dead: 4,500,000–8,000,000
Thirty Years' War
Bohemian Revolt (1618–1620)
Palatinate campaign (1620–1623)
Transylvanian invasions of Hungary (1619–1621, 1623–1624, 1626)
Danish intervention (1625–1629)
Swedish intervention (1630–1635)
Swedish-French Period (1635–1648)
Naval battles
Treaties
Franco-Spanish War
(1635–1659)
Flanders and Northern France
Northern Spain and Southern France
Italy
France hinterland
Franche-Comté and Germany
Caribbean
Naval battles

The Thirty Years' War was one of the longest and most destructive conflicts in European history, lasting from 1618 to 1648. Fought primarily in Central Europe, an estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of battle, famine, or disease, while parts of present-day Germany reported population declines of over 50%. Related conflicts include the Eighty Years' War, the War of the Mantuan Succession, the Franco-Spanish War, the Torstenson War, the Dutch-Portuguese War, and the Portuguese Restoration War.

The war was traditionally viewed as a continuation of the religious conflict initiated by the 16th-century Reformation within the Holy Roman Empire. The 1555 Peace of Augsburg attempted to resolve this by dividing the Empire into Catholic and Lutheran states, but over the next 50 years the expansion of Protestantism beyond these boundaries destabilised the settlement. However, while differences over religion and Imperial authority were important factors in causing the war, most contemporary commentators suggest its scope and extent were driven by the contest for European dominance between Habsburg-ruled Spain and Austria, and the French House of Bourbon.

Its outbreak is generally traced to 1618, when Emperor Ferdinand II was deposed as king of Bohemia and replaced by the Protestant Frederick V of the Palatinate. Although Imperial forces quickly suppressed the Bohemian Revolt, his participation expanded the fighting into the Palatinate, whose strategic importance drew in the Dutch Republic and Spain, then engaged in the Eighty Years' War. Rulers like Christian IV of Denmark and Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden also held territories within the Empire, giving them and other foreign powers an excuse to intervene. The result was to turn an internal dynastic dispute into a broader European conflict.

The first phase from 1618 until 1635 was primarily a civil war between German members of the Holy Roman Empire, with support from external powers. After 1635, the empire became one theatre in a wider struggle between France, supported by Sweden, and Emperor Ferdinand III, allied with Spain. This concluded with the 1648 Peace of Westphalia, whose provisions included greater autonomy within the empire for states like Bavaria and Saxony, as well as acceptance of Dutch independence by Spain. The conflict shifted the balance of power in favour of France, and set the stage for the expansionist wars of Louis XIV which dominated Europe for the next sixty years

See also

References

  1. Croxton 2013, pp. 225–226. sfn error: no target: CITEREFCroxton2013 (help)
  2. ^ Heitz & Rischer 1995, p. 232. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHeitzRischer1995 (help)
  3. Parrott 2001, p. 8. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParrott2001 (help)
  4. Nicklisch et al. 2017. sfn error: no target: CITEREFNicklischRamsthalerMellerOthers2017 (help)
  5. Wilson 2009, p. 484. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  6. Clodfelter 2008, p. 40. sfn error: no target: CITEREFClodfelter2008 (help)
  7. Wilson 2009, p. 387. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  8. Parrott 2001, pp. 164–168. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParrott2001 (help)
  9. ^ Van Nimwegen 2014, p. 166. sfn error: no target: CITEREFVan_Nimwegen2014 (help)
  10. Wilson 2009, p. 395. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  11. ^ Parker 2004, p. 231. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker2004 (help)
  12. ^ Clodfelter 2008, p. 39. sfn error: no target: CITEREFClodfelter2008 (help)
  13. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 791. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  14. Parker 1997, p. 173. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker1997 (help)
  15. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 790. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  16. Wilson 2009, p. 787. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  17. Outram 2002, p. 248. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOutram2002 (help)
  18. Wilson 2009, pp. 4, 787. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWilson2009 (help)
  19. Parker 1997, p. 189. sfn error: no target: CITEREFParker1997 (help)
  20. Sutherland 1992, pp. 589–590. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSutherland1992 (help)

Sources

  • Yves Bomati and Houchang Nahavandi,Shah Abbas, Emperor of Persia, 1587–1629, 2017, ed. Ketab Corporation, Los Angeles, ISBN 978-1595845672, English translation by Azizeh Azodi.
  • Sicker, Martin (2001). The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 027596891X.
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