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Introduction

Translanguaging is a concept in applied linguistics which was coined in the 1980s by Cen Williams (applied in Welsh as trawsieithu) in his unpublished thesis titled "An Evaluation of Teaching and Learning Methods in the Context of Bilingual Secondary Education". Williams initially used the term to describe the practice of using two languages in the same lesson in a Welsh classroom, which differed from many previous methods of bilingual education that tried to separate languages by class, time, or day. But now its meaning has evolved far beyond the pedagogical framework (social, cultural contexts….). It now refers to a wide linguistic repertoire (composed of different languages) a speaker resorts to, in order to make himself or herself understood from other speakers. It is not to be confused with other concepts such as code-switching, which implies the use of languages alternatively.

In education, translanguaging is used to help multilingual students bridge their home languages and the language of instruction, improving comprehension and fostering inclusivity. It also plays a significant role in higher education and digital spaces, where multilingual communication is becoming more and more common. Despite its popularity, translanguaging has sparked debates, particularly about its impact on linguistic standardization and the dominance of certain global languages like English. Advocates of translanguaging view it as a way to promote equity in education and preserve cultural identities. As a transformative approach, it continues to influence how language, identity, and culture are understood in a multilingual world. This article provides an overview of translanguaging through its historical background, major debates, and a focus on pedagogical methods in multicultural educational settings.

Historical Background

The concept of translanguaging was first introduced by Cen Williams in the 1980s to describe bilingual practices in his classrooms in Wales. For example, in Welsh schools, students were often encouraged to read a passage in Welsh and discuss it in English, or vice versa, as a means to strengthen comprehension and linguistic flexibility in both languages. In “Translanguaging: origins and development from school to street and beyond” (Gwyn Lewis , Bryn Jones & Colin Baker), the approach demonstrated how alternating between languages could enhance comprehension, foster critical thinking, and strengthen both languages simultaneously.

Translanguaging as a focus of study first emerged in Bangor, Wales, in the 1980s. It is based on François Grosjean's idea that bilinguals are not two monolinguals in one. Cen Williams and his colleagues were researching strategies of using both Welsh and English in a single lesson in a classroom setting. Cen Williams' Welsh term trawsieithu was translated into English as translanguaging by their colleague Colin Baker. However, the dissemination of the term, and of the related concept, gained traction decades later due in part to published research by Ofelia García, among others. In this context, translanguaging is an extension of the concept of languaging, the discursive practices of language speakers, but with the additional feature of using multiple languages, often simultaneously. It is a dynamic process in which multilingual speakers navigate complex social and cognitive demands through strategic employment of multiple languages. The boundaries between languages have been reshaped and languages are not considered as separate entities anymore.

Theoretical Frameworks

The study of translanguaging, a concept central to multilingualism, has evolved significantly over time through three primary theoretical frameworks: the Dual Competence Model, the Unitary Model, and the Integrated Model. Each of these models represents a distinct approach to understanding how multilingual individuals process and use language.

The dual Competence Model

The first model, also called “the Dual Competence Model”, designs the separation of linguistic systems in multilingual speakers, who switch from one language to another (what is called “code-switching”). This implies each language is a separate and independent linguistic system. This model became known through works like Uriel Weinreich's Languages in Contact (1953) and Noam Chomsky's Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965). But this system was criticized for being too rigid: it missed the fact multilingual speakers naturally switch from one language to another, which led to the appearance of another model: the unitary model.

The Unitary Model

The Unitary Model was born as a response to the limitations and critiques of the Dual Competence Model: multilingual speakers manage a unified linguistic system (grammatical, lexical, phonological, and semantic). This model became known through Sinfree Makoni and Alastair Pennycook (2007). It is based on theories like François Grosjean's (1982) assertion that "bilinguals are not two monolinguals in one person". It reflects how language is used and experienced in real-world contexts.

The Integrated Model

The integrated model emerged lately as an in-between model. It bridges the gap between the two previous models: It acknowledges the existence of distinct linguistic systems while emphasizing their interactive link. It was developed by scholars like Colin Baker (2006) and Ofelia García (2009) who included data to prove their point.

Practical Applications

In Education

Translanguaging was first observed in Welsh-English classrooms in the 1980s by Cen Williams. This approach allowed students to read content in one language and discuss or write about it in the other language, and this approach has widespread internationally. Translanguaging can also be used in group activities where students combine their linguistic resources to understand and be understood (they explain concepts in their first language while presenting in the second or read documents in one language and explain in the second etc) in different skills.

As for teachers and their role, making use of translanguaging in the classroom does not require them to be bilingual; however, it does require the teacher to be a co-learner.Monolingual teachers working with bilingual or multilingual students can successfully use this teaching practice; however, they must rely on the students, their parents, the community, texts, and technology more than the bilingual teacher, in order to support the learning and leverage the students' existing resources.As translanguaging allows the legitimization of all varieties, teachers can participate by being open to learning the varieties of their students, and by incorporating words from unfamiliar languages into their own use, serving as a model for their students to begin working with their non-native languages.

In Higher Education

Many students will use translanguaging in higher education where they are attending a university that does not have their first language as the medium of instruction. The students use their multiple languages as resources in their learning and understanding of subjects and ideas. An environment of multiple languages spoken with various repertoires allows a greater multilingual competence of subjects taught and reviewed in each language available. Bilingual or multilingual students in higher education who study in their native tongue and the medium of instruction used at their institutions are studied to determine how to reform primary and secondary education. This creates room for discussion of primary and secondary school systems and their language(s) of instruction. Translanguaging in higher education has been seen mostly within North America and in the United Kingdom. There are certain countries that are accepting of multilingual policies : In « Les effets du translanguaging et du transculturing dans la société sri lankaise : un problème éducatif ? »Indiwaree Ethpatiyawe Gedara explores the effects of translanguaging and transculturing in Sri Lankan society through a multimodal and longitudinal study. It combines insights from linguistics, sociology, and psychology to understand these phenomena and their implications in education and social interaction. There is a plethora of educational contexts worldwide: This systematic review analyzes 233 studies published between 2011 and 2021, examining translanguaging as a pedagogical tool across different educational contexts.

In Digital and Social Spaces

The concept of "space" in translanguaging has evolved significantly over time. In its early conceptions, it meant separate systems in separate mental spaces. Then Ofelia García began to question these “boundaries”, arguing that multilingual speakers draw from a unified linguistic repertoire, blurring the boundaries between "spaces" of individual languages. The concept of a translanguaging space, introduced by Li Wei (2011), goes beyond the rigid and separate views of language systems. It is emphasizing the integration of linguistic and cultural resources to create meaning and negotiate identity.

Nowadays, with the social media and virtual classes online, which also developed since the covid19 pandemic, enable multilingual users to integrate languages across digital platforms too.

In Deaf Culture

Translanguaging in Deaf culture focuses on sensorial accessibility, as translanguaging still exists in Deaf culture; it is just different than translanguaging in non-Deaf speakers. Translanguaging can be used prescriptively and descriptively and uses a speaker's entire linguistic range with disregard to the social and political sphere of languages. It also can be seen as the language practices of bilingual speakers. An ongoing issue in the Deaf community is the push for signed languages to be considered minority languages, since deaf speakers have a "sensorial inaccessibility to spoken languages." There is also an issue of access to signed languages for deaf children, as for many, this access is compromised. Deaf speakers also face sensorial asymmetries, and theories like translanguaging may threaten the political discourse for sign language rights as signed languages were seen as merely gestures fifty years ago, but not as real languages.Since deaf children use a variation of both signed and spoken languages, they share experiences similar to that of other bilingual children. Translanguaging in the Deaf community is thus unique because they use both visual and gestural, as well as spoken and written language modality. Translanguaging, as described by Dan Hoffman, helps deaf people understanding new concepts by connecting what someone already knows with what they're trying to learn. For example, in a study by Swanwick in 2015, translanguaging was found to assist in both language and content learning. In another study involving deaf readers, Ausbrooks asked deaf individuals to use translanguaging while reading English text and explaining it in American Sign Language (ASL). They discovered a strong link between the readers' comprehension of English text and their skills in ASL, including vocabulary, language structure, and meaning.

Cultural and Identity Implications

Preservation of Heritage

Translanguaging is seen as a way to support heritage languages and cultural traditions, contributing to their intergenerational transmission. By allowing individuals to use their entire linguistic repertoire, translanguaging fosters stronger connections between older and younger generations, preserving stories, customs, and values that are rooted in ancestral languages. Families in multilingual societies often use translanguaging to ensure that younger members remain connected to their cultural roots while adapting to the dominant language of their environment. For example, in the Sámi communities of Northern Europe, translanguaging practices have been instrumental in revitalizing Sámi languages, which are classified as endangered.

Multilingual Identity

Through translanguaging, individuals create hybrid identities that reflect their sociocultural experiences. This practice allows them to navigate and negotiate between different cultural and linguistic spheres, creating a sense of belonging in diverse environments. For instance, a multilingual student might express academic ideas in English while incorporating cultural idioms from their heritage language, showcasing a unique and fluid identity that bridges multiple worlds.

Literary Examples

Authors such as Giannina Braschi and Junot Díaz have been noted for their use of translanguaging in literature. Braschi’s Yo-Yo Boing! seamlessly blends English, Spanish, and Spanglish, reflecting the experiences of bilingual individuals navigating cultural and linguistic hybridity in the United States. A common argument against incorporating translanguaging into academic contexts is the notion that speakers of International Englishes would have difficulty communicating with one another because of the immense variety of Englishes spoken. Critics argue that translanguaging complicates language standardization, particularly for global lingua francas like English. However, advocates argue that speakers of International Englishes can communicate with relative ease because they have a variety of tools for making sense of the language varieties with which they engage. Some researchers suggest the development of corpora of "nonstandard" English varieties to facilitate the study of translanguaging. Advocates also emphasize potential to decolonize language practices, challenge monolingual ideologies, and advance linguistic equity

Major Debates

Critics argue that translanguaging complicates language standardization, particularly for global lingua francas like English. Concerns about linguistic purity and the dominance of certain varieties are also prevalent. Some scholars highlight translanguaging’s potential to decolonize language practices, challenge monolingual ideologies, and promote linguistic equity.. Additionally, proponents highlight the adaptability of speakers of International Englishes, who leverage a variety of tools to communicate effectively despite diverse language varieties. In "Translanguaging in Bilingual Education", (Ofelia GarcíaAngel LinAngel Lin), the article situates translanguaging within key debates about globalization, linguistic equity, and educational transformation. It provides a critical lens to analyze the double-edged nature of translanguaging as both an empowering and potentially hegemonic tool.

Conclusion

Translanguaging has been described as a significant development in understanding language, education, and identity. By challenging traditional notions of languages as separate systems, translanguaging allows individuals to draw on their entire linguistic repertoire, supporting communication and understanding, promoting diversity and equity.

See also • Linguistic imperialism • Raciolinguistics • Translingualism • Multilingualism • Spanglish

References 1. Wei, L. (2017). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx039

2. García, O., & Wei, L. (2015). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education (1st ed.). Palgrave Pivot London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765

3. Fuster, C., & Bardel, C. (2024). Translanguaging in Sweden: A critical review from an international perspective. System, 121, 103241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103241

4. Moreno-Fernández, F. (2020). Yo-Yo Boing! Or Literature as a Translingual Practice. In Aldama, F. L., & Stavans, I. (Eds.), Poets, Philosophers, Lovers. U Pittsburgh. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv16x2b5b

5. Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging: Origins and development from school to street and beyond. Educational Research and Evaluation, 18(7), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.718488

6. Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020). Pedagogical translanguaging: An introduction. System, 92, 102269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102269

7. Vogel, S., & García, O. (2017). Translanguaging. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.181

8. García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Blackwell.

9. García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan.

10. Mazzaferro, G. (2018). Translanguaging as Everyday Practice. Cham: Springer.

11. Wei, L. (2017). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx039

12. García, O., & Wei, L. (2015). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Pivot London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137385765

13. Fuster, C., & Bardel, C. (2024). Translanguaging in Sweden: A critical review from an international perspective. System, 121, 103241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103241

14. Moreno-Fernández, F. (2020). Yo-Yo Boing! Or Literature as a Translingual Practice. In Aldama, F. L., & Stavans, I. (Eds.), Poets, Philosophers, Lovers. U Pittsburgh. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv16x2b5b

15. Lewis, G., Jones, B., & Baker, C. (2012). Translanguaging: Origins and development from school to street and beyond. Educational Research and Evaluation, 18(7), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803611.2012.718488

16. Cenoz, J., & Gorter, D. (2020). Pedagogical translanguaging: An introduction. System, 92, 102269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102269

17. Vogel, S., & García, O. (2017). Translanguaging. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Education. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190264093.013.181

18. García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Blackwell.

19. García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan.

20. Mazzaferro, G. (2018). Translanguaging as Everyday Practice. Cham: Springer.

21. Cavalli, M., & Egli Cuenat, M. (2024). Translanguaging – effet de mondialisation ou de domination? Recherches en didactique des langues et des cultures, 22(2). https://doi.org/10.4000/11qab

• Bilingualism
• Code-switching
• Sociolinguistics