| Revision as of 23:59, 30 September 2008 editVedicScience (talk | contribs)361 editsm Fixed tons of grammar and substance issues here...← Previous edit | Revision as of 11:10, 1 October 2008 edit undoPaul Barlow (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Pending changes reviewers93,539 edits Undid revision 242116707 by VedicScience (talk) what a load of povNext edit → | ||
| Line 17: | Line 17: | ||
| ===Hinduism=== | ===Hinduism=== | ||
| {{SectOR|date=September 2008}} | {{SectOR|date=September 2008}} | ||
| Hinduism, |
Hinduism, more correctly termed "sanatana dharma", or "eternal religion", in its present form, is that religion which is based upon the writings of Veda], dating from the third millenium B.C.E. This religion most closely corresponds to the concept of henotheism. In , ] tells Arjuna, the son of the demigod Indra, "Aham sarvasya prabhava...", "Everything comes from me..." These teachings depict an unchallenged, transcendental Supreme Being, who, it is explained elsewhere in the Vedic literatures, has many expansions of Himself, also divine, and a second category of deity, the "devas", or "demigods", who are supernatural powers within the material nature, and authorities over mankind, but who are neither supreme, nor, in their current forms, eternal. That being said, all living beings are eternal, and that "jiva", or soul, who takes birth as an animal or human could also take birth as a demigod, and vice versa. The demigods Brahma and Siva are special cases. They are predominating controllers of material nature, and may be said to be eternal, although this particular, current manifestation of the universe is not.<br /> | ||
| ⚫ | There are many prominent misconceptions among Hindus concerning these teachings, because the Vedas and Puranas take the form of self-referential aphorisms. The "rishi", or "knowledgable one" must therefore know substantially ''all'' the "Vedas", or books of knowledge before being competant to derive the implied inferences. The jiva soul is already at a disadvantage due to his tendency to enjoy the illusory, temporary material nature. The supremacy of the "Purusha", or "All-powerful Enjoyer", and His personal nature, are therefore often overlooked philosophically, and a faulty impersonal line of approach adopted. The concept of the santana dharma as groping toward a series of awkward clarifications is explicitly rejected from the start by Vyasadeva himself, under the tutelage of his "guru", or spiritual master, Narada muni. Such speculations are subsequent displays of intellectual inadequacy overlying the original divine revelation. | ||
| It is difficult to clearly characterise ], which can take the form of polytheism, as in some of the ], or monotheism, as in ] Hinduism. In popular form it appears sometimes as polytheism, or as inclusive monotheism admitting multiple deities as manifestations of a single being. However, the ] (undeveloped early Hinduism), was the basis for Max Müller's beliefs about henotheism. In the four ], Müller saw a striving towards One being aimed at by the worship of different cosmic principles, such as ] (fire), ] (wind), ] (rain, thunder, the sky), etc. each of which was variously, by clearly different writers, hailed as supreme in different sections of the books. Indeed, however, what was confusing was an early idea of Rita, or supreme order, that bound all the gods. Other phrases such as ''Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti'' (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) led to understandings that the Vedic people admitted to fundamental oneness. From this mix of ], monotheism and naturalist polytheism Max Müller decided to name the early Vedic religion henotheistic. | |||
| The second category of is that of the celestial gods, the "]" (or demigods), who are supernatural powers within material nature, but are neither supreme, nor eternal. That said, all souls are eternal, and a ] who takes birth as an animal or human could also take birth as a demigod, and vice versa. Note that the celestial gods, the "]", are not be confused with divine forms of God worshiped by the Hindus. ] and ] of the ] are expansions or aspects of the ].<br/> | |||
| However, unprecedented and hitherto unduplicated ideas of pure ] are to be found even in the early Rig Veda ], notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheist movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the ]. One such example of early Vedic monism is the Nasadiya hymn of the Rig Veda: "That One breathed by itself without breath, other than it there has been nothing." To collectively term the Vedas henotheistic, and thus further leaning towards polytheism, rather than monotheism, may play down the clearly monist bent of the Vedas that were thoroughly developed as early as ] in the first ]s and ]. However, to deny that a form of polytheism is also present may equally be to ignore aspects of the early Vedic texts. Whether the concept of "henotheism" adequately addresses these complexities or simply obscures them is a matter of debate. | |||
| ⚫ | There are many prominent misconceptions |
||
| ⚫ | As for classical Hinduism, it evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into being with the ascendancy of aspects of God like ] and ] in the Puranic and post-Puranic developments. Many sects of monotheistic ] (loving devotion) worshippers came into vogue who, while admitting other deities, saw them as clearly emanating from one principal source. Extreme monists within the Advaita Vedanta movement, Yoga philosophy and certain non-dual Tantra schools of Hinduism preclude a broad categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic, what with the conception of Brahman, a formless non-being-being that is posited to be pure consciousness, beyond attributes, the Divine Ground from which all else that is limited and temporal sprang. The fundamental Hindu trinity, ], ] and ] are seen as many as being creation, preservation and destruction subsumed in one cycle of being that is ultimately transcended with the attainment of ]. Nevertheless, different devotional traditions have disputed the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and ''vice versa''. Again "henotheism" is a loose term covering complex traditions and disputes. The period of Hinduism that most closely corresponded to henotheism as Müller understood it was the early Vedic period (before ] within the four preliminary Vedas) and even that is disputed by some scholars, most notably the great Hindu mystic ]. | ||
| There is clear evidence not just of monotheistic but even more so of ] thought in the Vedas. In the four ], Max Müller did see a striving towards The One through reverence of various cosmic principles. Rig Veda also talks about an early idea of ], or cosmic order, that binds all the celestial gods. Other phrases such as "''Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti''" - "Truth is One, though the sages know it as many", led to the understanding that the Vedic people were at the core monists. But from this apparent mix of monism, monotheism, and naturalist polytheism, ] thought that the early Vedic religion was henotheistic. A deep understanding of the ] shows that it was ] and transcended dry monotheism. Unprecedented and hitherto unduplicated ideas of pure ] are found even in the early Rig Veda ]. One such example of early Vedic monism is the ] hymn of the ]: "That One breathed by itself without breath, other than that, there was nothing". Monist and monotheist movements of Hinduism further developed during the period of the ]. The Western bent on portraying it as henotheistic, and further leaning towards polytheism, plays down the clear monist intent of the ], and even more so of the ] and ], which were thoroughly developed around ]. Whether the term henotheism adequately addresses these complexities or simply obscures them is a matter of debate. | |||
| As for classical Hinduism, it evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into being with the ascendancy of divine forms of God like ] and ] in the Puranic and post-Puranic periods. Many sects of monotheistic ] (loving devotion) came into vogue who saw deities as expansions of the divine. Not just the absolute monists of the ] movement, but even ] monotheistic monists, and followers of ] philosophy and other non-dualist ] schools of Hinduism -- all preclude a blanket categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic. The Advaita concept of ] is a formless being-non-being posited as pure consciousness, beyond attributes, the divine ground from which all else that is limited and temporal sprang from. To ], Brahman means The Absolute possessing infinite attributes. It is difficult to clearly characterize ], which can take the form of ] ] monotheism, as in ] schools of thought, to soft polytheism, as in ] ] sect of Hinduism. In its popular form, it appears as inclusive monotheism to soft polytheism with multiple deities seen as as divine descents, aspects, incarnations, or manifestations of ]. | |||
| ⚫ | The Hindu trinity |
||
| ===Christianity=== | ===Christianity=== | ||
Revision as of 11:10, 1 October 2008
| Part of a series on | ||||||
| Theism | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Types of faith | ||||||
| Specific conceptions | ||||||
In particular religions
|
||||||
| Attributes | ||||||
|
||||||
| Related topics | ||||||
 | This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Henotheism" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Henotheism (Greek Template:Polytonic heis theos "one god") is a term coined by Max Müller, to mean devotion to a single primary god while accepting the existence or possible existence of other deities. Müller made the term central to his criticism of Western theological and religious exceptionalism (relative to Eastern religions), focusing on a cultural dogma which held "monotheism" to be both fundamentally well-defined and inherently superior to differing conceptions of God.
Variations on the term have been inclusive monotheism and monarchical polytheism, designed to differentiate differing forms of the phenomenon. Related terms are monolatrism and kathenotheism, which are typically understood as sub-types of henotheism. The latter term is an extension of "henotheism", from Template:Polytonic (kath' hena theon) —"one god at a time". Henotheism is similar but less exclusive than monolatry because a monolator worships only one god, while the henotheist may worship any within the pantheon, depending on circumstances. In some belief systems, the choice of the supreme deity within a henotheistic framework may be determined by cultural, geographical, historical or political reasons.
Henotheism in various religions
Classical Greco-Roman
While Greek and Roman religion began as polytheism, during the Classical period, under the influence of philosophy, differing conceptions emerged. Often Zeus (or Jupiter) was considered the supreme, all-powerful and all-knowing, king and father of the Olympian gods. According to Maijastina Kahlos "monotheism was pervasive in the educated circles in Late Antiquity" Maximus Tyrius (2nd century A.D.), stated:
- "In such a mighty contest, sedition and discord, you will see one according law and assertion in all the earth, that there is one god, the king and father of all things, and many gods, sons of god, ruling together with him."
The Neoplatonist philosopher Plotinus taught that above the gods of traditional belief was "The One" and Maximus of Madauros even stated that only a mad person would deny the existence of a single God.
Hinduism
 | This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (September 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) |
Hinduism, more correctly termed "sanatana dharma", or "eternal religion", in its present form, is that religion which is based upon the writings of Vedavyasa, dating from the third millenium B.C.E. This religion most closely corresponds to the concept of henotheism. In Bhagavad Gita, Krishna tells Arjuna, the son of the demigod Indra, "Aham sarvasya prabhava...", "Everything comes from me..." These teachings depict an unchallenged, transcendental Supreme Being, who, it is explained elsewhere in the Vedic literatures, has many expansions of Himself, also divine, and a second category of deity, the "devas", or "demigods", who are supernatural powers within the material nature, and authorities over mankind, but who are neither supreme, nor, in their current forms, eternal. That being said, all living beings are eternal, and that "jiva", or soul, who takes birth as an animal or human could also take birth as a demigod, and vice versa. The demigods Brahma and Siva are special cases. They are predominating controllers of material nature, and may be said to be eternal, although this particular, current manifestation of the universe is not.
There are many prominent misconceptions among Hindus concerning these teachings, because the Vedas and Puranas take the form of self-referential aphorisms. The "rishi", or "knowledgable one" must therefore know substantially all the "Vedas", or books of knowledge before being competant to derive the implied inferences. The jiva soul is already at a disadvantage due to his tendency to enjoy the illusory, temporary material nature. The supremacy of the "Purusha", or "All-powerful Enjoyer", and His personal nature, are therefore often overlooked philosophically, and a faulty impersonal line of approach adopted. The concept of the santana dharma as groping toward a series of awkward clarifications is explicitly rejected from the start by Vyasadeva himself, under the tutelage of his "guru", or spiritual master, Narada muni. Such speculations are subsequent displays of intellectual inadequacy overlying the original divine revelation.
It is difficult to clearly characterise Hinduism, which can take the form of polytheism, as in some of the Vedas, or monotheism, as in Smarta Hinduism. In popular form it appears sometimes as polytheism, or as inclusive monotheism admitting multiple deities as manifestations of a single being. However, the Rig Veda (undeveloped early Hinduism), was the basis for Max Müller's beliefs about henotheism. In the four Vedas, Müller saw a striving towards One being aimed at by the worship of different cosmic principles, such as Agni (fire), Vayu (wind), Indra (rain, thunder, the sky), etc. each of which was variously, by clearly different writers, hailed as supreme in different sections of the books. Indeed, however, what was confusing was an early idea of Rita, or supreme order, that bound all the gods. Other phrases such as Ekam Sat, Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti (Truth is One, though the sages know it as many) led to understandings that the Vedic people admitted to fundamental oneness. From this mix of monism, monotheism and naturalist polytheism Max Müller decided to name the early Vedic religion henotheistic.
However, unprecedented and hitherto unduplicated ideas of pure monism are to be found even in the early Rig Veda Samhita, notwithstanding clearly monist and monotheist movements of Hinduism that developed with the advent of the Upanishads. One such example of early Vedic monism is the Nasadiya hymn of the Rig Veda: "That One breathed by itself without breath, other than it there has been nothing." To collectively term the Vedas henotheistic, and thus further leaning towards polytheism, rather than monotheism, may play down the clearly monist bent of the Vedas that were thoroughly developed as early as 1000 BC in the first Aranyakas and Upanishads. However, to deny that a form of polytheism is also present may equally be to ignore aspects of the early Vedic texts. Whether the concept of "henotheism" adequately addresses these complexities or simply obscures them is a matter of debate.
As for classical Hinduism, it evolved within the Vedic line but truly came into being with the ascendancy of aspects of God like Shiva and Vishnu in the Puranic and post-Puranic developments. Many sects of monotheistic bhakti (loving devotion) worshippers came into vogue who, while admitting other deities, saw them as clearly emanating from one principal source. Extreme monists within the Advaita Vedanta movement, Yoga philosophy and certain non-dual Tantra schools of Hinduism preclude a broad categorization of Hinduism as henotheistic, what with the conception of Brahman, a formless non-being-being that is posited to be pure consciousness, beyond attributes, the Divine Ground from which all else that is limited and temporal sprang. The fundamental Hindu trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are seen as many as being creation, preservation and destruction subsumed in one cycle of being that is ultimately transcended with the attainment of moksha. Nevertheless, different devotional traditions have disputed the primacy of Shiva over Vishnu and vice versa. Again "henotheism" is a loose term covering complex traditions and disputes. The period of Hinduism that most closely corresponded to henotheism as Müller understood it was the early Vedic period (before 1000 BC within the four preliminary Vedas) and even that is disputed by some scholars, most notably the great Hindu mystic Aurobindo Ghosh.
Christianity
Many Christians believe in a pantheon of angels, demons, and/or Saints that are inferior to the Trinity. Christians do not label these beings as gods per se, although they are sometimes the object of prayer and some signs of honor. Mainline Christian churches which permit prayer to saints, however, insist that such prayer is only proper when limited to asking for the angel or saint's intercession to God. They are adamant that saints possess no powers of their own, and any miracle able to be attributed to their intercession is the product of the power of God and not any supernatural power of the saint. Were there to be any aspect of worship toward these angelic or saintly figures, then the matter would reflect polytheism, rather than henotheism, monolatry, or monotheism. This stance and use of the acknowledgment of other heavenly beings (Saints, most often) during prayer is primarily practiced in traditional Catholicism, whereas the vast majority of Protestant denominations hold the God being as the only appropriate object of worship.
Such practices could be construed, however, as acts reflecting monolatrism rather than henotheism, and it is thusly important to note that, within a religious belief system, the acknowledgement of angels, saints, or any other spiritual entities does not immediately imply their worship nor their worthiness of receiving worship.
When Christianity was adopted by Greco-Roman pagans or African slaves, the new converts often attributed to these saints features of their previous polytheistic figures. In some cases, these beliefs have developed out of the Catholic Church and form syncretisms like Santeria. These beliefs are somewhat similar to modern Hinduism which distinguishes between God in the form of Vishnu or Shiva, and devas which are subordinate to God and who supervise forces of nature such as Agni (i.e., fire) or Vayu (i.e., wind).
Some non-trinitarian Christian denominations have also been labeled henotheistic:
- Gnosticism is generally henotheistic.
- Although most Latter Day Saints adamantly label themselves as monotheists, some lay claim to henotheism. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (colloquially known as the LDS Church or Mormon church) considers the members of the Christian Godhead as three distinct beings, where God the Father is supreme, yet all three beings are defined collectively as "God". Though not mentioned in canonical scripture, some Latter-day Saints infer the possible existence of other gods and goddesses outside of our God's realm. However, they are neither known nor acknowledged, nor do they have any relevance to this Earth or humanity (see Godhead (Mormonism)). Another supposition not discussed in canonical scripture is the concept of a Heavenly Mother.
Latter-day Saints worship one god, which belief is most easily described as worshiping God the Father through the conduit of the Son, Jesus Christ. Whereas other Christians speak of "One God in Three Persons", LDS scripture speaks instead of three persons in one god. See the Book of Mormon's Mosiah 15:4 ("they are one God"), and LDS interpretation of John 17:11 (Jesus asks the Father in prayer that his disciples "may be one, as we are"). - Jehovah's Witnesses are viewed as henotheistic because they worship the god Jehovah while viewing Jesus, Satan and angels as lesser gods. Satan in particular is referred to as "god of this system of things", that is, the invisible spirit having control over governments and other institutions of the secular and religious world, a position he has held since Adam and Eve's defection in Eden, with its implicit change of allegiance from God (Jehovah) to Satan. Jesus is referenced as sitting at the right hand of God, assisting in all acts of Creation aside from his own, hence his status as "only begotten" (cf. John 1:14, 18). It should be noted that no "god" aside from Jehovah is an appropriate object of worship for Jehovah's Witnesses. Jesus alone is accepted as an intercessor between God and man, but even he is not worshiped as such. Thus, the belief system may more appropriately be described as monolatristic rather than henotheistic, though both appellations would likely be disputed by adherents.
Israelite beliefs and Judaism
It is generally uncontroversial that many of the Iron Age religions found in the land of Israel were henotheistic in practice. For example, the Moabites worshipped the god Chemosh, the Edomites, Qaus, both of whom were part of the greater Canaanite pantheon, headed by the chief god, El. The Canaanite pantheon consisted of El and Asherat as the chief deities, with 70 sons who were said to rule over each of the nations of the earth. These sons were each worshiped within a specific region. K. L. Noll states that "the Bible preserves a tradition that Yahweh used to 'live' in the south, in the land of Edom" and that the original god of Israel was El Shaddai.
Several Biblical stories allude to the belief that the Canaanite gods all existed and possessed the most power in the lands that worshiped them or in their sacred objects; their power was real and could be invoked by the people who patronised them. There are numerous accounts of surrounding nations of Israel showing fear or reverence for the Israelite God despite their continued polytheistic practices. For instance, in 1 Samuel 4, the Philistines fret before the second battle of Aphek when they learn that the Israelites are bearing the Ark of the Covenant, and therefore Yahweh, into battle. In 2 Kings 5, the Aramean general Naaman insists on transporting Israelite soil back with him to Syria in the belief that only then will Yahweh have the power to heal him. The Israelites were forbidden to worship other deities, but according to some interpretations of the Bible, they were not fully monotheistic before the Babylonian Captivity. Mark S. Smith refers to this stage as a form of monolatry. Smith argues that Yahweh underwent a process of merging with El and that acceptance of cults of Asherah was common in the period of the Judges. 2 Kings 3:27 has been interpreted as describing a human sacrifice in Moab that led the invading Israelite army to fear the power of Chemosh.
According to the Five Books of Moses, Abraham is revered as the one who overcame the idol worship of his family and surrounding people by recognizing the Hebrew God and establishing a covenant with him and creating the foundation of what has been called by scholars "Ethical Monotheism". The first of the Ten Commandments can be interpreted to forbid the Children of Israel from worshiping any other god but the one true God who had revealed himself at Mount Sinai and given them the Torah, however it can also be read as henotheistic, since it states that they should have "no other gods before me." The commandment itself does not affirm or deny the existence of other deities per se. Nevertheless, as recorded in the Tanakh ("Old Testament" Bible), in defiance of the Torah's teachings, the patron god YHWH was frequently worshipped in conjunction with other gods such as Baal, Asherah, and El. Over time, this tribal god may have assumed all the appellations of the other gods in the eyes of the people. The destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem and the exile to Babylon was considered a divine reprimand and punishment for the mistaken worship of other deities. By the end of the Babylonian captivity of Judah in the Tanakh, Judaism is strictly monotheistic. There are nonetheless seeming elements of "polytheism" in certain biblical books, such as God's reference to himself as "us" in Genesis 1:26 and 3:22, in Daniel's frequent use of the honorific "God of gods" and especially in the Psalms. Jewish scholars were aware of this, and expressed the opinion that although the verse can be understood wrongly, God was not afraid to write it in the Torah. However, the word God in Hebrew (Elohim) is also a plural, meaning "powerful ones" or "rulers". This is true in Hebrew as well as other related Canaanite languages. So "Elohim" could refer to any number of "rulers", such as angels, false gods (as defined by Torah), or even human holders of power including rulers or judges within Israel, as described in Exodus 21:6; 22:8-8, without violating the parameters of monotheism. Some scholars believe that Exodus 3:13-15 describes the moment when YHWH first tells Moses that he is the same god as El, the supreme being. This could be the recounting, in mythical form, of Israel's conversion to monotheism.
Henotheism and monolatry
Henotheism is closely related to the theistic concept of Monolatry, which is also the worship of one god among many. The primary difference between the two is that Henotheism is the worship of one god, not precluding the existence of others who may also be worthy of praise, while Monolatry is the worship of one god who alone is worthy of worship, though other gods are known to exist. Henotheism thus supposes to know less about divine matters, and Monolatry more.
See also
References
- Müller, Max. (1878) Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion: As Illustrated by the Religions of India. London:Longmans, Green and Co.
- ^ Maijastina Kahlos, Debate and Dialogue: Christian and Pagan Cultures C. 360-430, Ashgate Publishing, 2007, p.145; p.160
- Encyclopedia Britannia, 11th edition, Maximus Tryius.
- Catholic Encyclopedia: Intercession
- [http://atheism.about.com/library/FAQs/religion/blrel_theism_heno.htm Varieties of Theism: What are Henotheism and Monolatry?
- K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction, Continuum, 2002, p.123
- David Bridger, Samuel Wolk et al, The New Jewish Encyclopedia, Behrman House, 1976, pp.326-7
- ^ Mark S. Smith, The Early History of God: Yahweh and the Other Deities in Ancient Israel, Eerdmans Publishing, 2002, pp.58, 183
- Gregory A. Boyd, God at War: The Bible & Spiritual Conflict, InterVarsity Press, 1997, p.118
- Varieties of Theism: What are Henotheism and Monolatry?
