| Revision as of 17:09, 20 October 2009 editNewman Luke (talk | contribs)3,500 editsm re-order sentences slightly for slightly improved explanation← Previous edit | Revision as of 18:19, 20 October 2009 edit undoNewman Luke (talk | contribs)3,500 edits split material not relating to the court official known as a "Eunuch", into spadone, to avoid confusing two quite different but overlapping topicsNext edit → | ||
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| A '''eunuch''' ({{pron-en|ˈjuːnək}}) is a political rank often found in ancient courts. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as: ]s or equivalent ], ], ] specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of ] or ] servants. | A '''eunuch''' ({{pron-en|ˈjuːnək}}) is a political rank often found in ancient courts. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as: ]s or equivalent ], ], ] specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of ] or ] servants. | ||
| Eunuchs were often - but not always - ] |
Eunuchs were often - but not always - ]s, especially when they guarded women. Such spadones were usually of the castrated variety, and such castration would usually occur early enough to have had major hormonal consequences. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the ]ian city of ] in the twenty first century BC.<ref>Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Animal and human castration in Sumer, Part II: Human castration in the Ur III period. Zinbun , pp. 1–56.</ref><ref>Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Female Weavers and Their Children in Lagash – Presargonic and Ur III. Acta Sumerologica 2:81–125.</ref> | ||
| In modern times the term is almost always used |
In modern times the term is almost always used as a synonym for spadone, and has little connection with the historic use as a reference to specific court officials. Hence, some translations of ancient texts identify individuals as eunuchs when they were simply men who were ] with women, or were merely ]. | ||
| ==Etymology and origins== | ==Etymology and origins== | ||
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| ===Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium=== | ===Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium=== | ||
| The practice was also well established in Europe among the Greeks and Romans, although more rarely as court functionaries than in Asia |
The practice was also well established in Europe among the Greeks and Romans, although more rarely as court functionaries than in Asia. In late Rome, emperors such as ] were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, hair cutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact. Eunuchs were believed loyal and dispensable.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | ||
| At the ] court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in ], under the ].<ref> {{1728}} </ref> Under ] in the fifth century, the eunuch ] functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns. | At the ] court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in ], under the ].<ref> {{1728}} </ref> Under ] in the fifth century, the eunuch ] functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns. | ||
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| ===India=== | ===India=== | ||
| ====Eunuchs in Indian royalty==== | |||
| Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial Indian palaces as servants for female royalty, and often attained high-status positions in Indian society. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or chief eunuch ("Khwaja Saras") directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength, to provide protection for the ladies palaces, and their trustworthiness, allowing eunuchs to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants, and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/txt_akbar_birbal.html|title=Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes|accessdate=2008-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mssmi/ch9.htm|title=Ghilmans and Eunuchs|accessdate=2008-11-02}}</ref> | Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial Indian palaces as servants for female royalty, and often attained high-status positions in Indian society. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or chief eunuch ("Khwaja Saras") directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength, to provide protection for the ladies palaces, and their trustworthiness, allowing eunuchs to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants, and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00urduhindilinks/txt_akbar_birbal.html|title=Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes|accessdate=2008-11-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bharatvani.org/books/mssmi/ch9.htm|title=Ghilmans and Eunuchs|accessdate=2008-11-02}}</ref> | ||
| As a result of the number of high-status job openings available for eunuchs, poor families often converted one of their sons into a eunuch and had him work in the imperial palaces to create a steady source of revenue for the family and ensure a comfortable lifestyle for the son. This practice of castration was banned throughout the Empire in 1668 by Aurangzeb, but continued covertly. | As a result of the number of high-status job openings available for eunuchs, poor families often converted one of their sons into a eunuch and had him work in the imperial palaces to create a steady source of revenue for the family and ensure a comfortable lifestyle for the son. This practice of castration was banned throughout the Empire in 1668 by Aurangzeb, but continued covertly. | ||
| ====The hijra of India==== | |||
| {{Main|Hijra (South Asia)}} | |||
| The ]n ] refers to people of a "]" (''triteeyaprakrti''), who can be dressed either in men's or in women's clothes and perform ] on men. The term has been translated as "eunuchs" (as in ]'s translation of the book), but these persons have also been considered to be the equivalent of the modern ] of India.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} | |||
| Hijra, a ] term traditionally translated into English as "eunuch", actually refers to what modern Westerners would call male-to-female ] people and ] homosexuals (although some of them reportedly identify as belonging to a ]). Some of them undergo ritual castration, but the majority do not. They usually dress in ]s (traditional Indian garb worn by women) and wear heavy make-up. They typically live in the margins of society, face discrimination<ref>''Ravaging the Vulnerable: Abuses Against Persons at High Risk of HIV Infection in Bangladesh'', ], August 2003. .<br>See also: Peoples Union of Civil Liberties (Karnataka) Report on Human Rights Violations Against the Transgender Community, released in September 2003. Reported in , By Siddarth Narrain, for Frontline, ] ].</ref> and earn their living in various ways, e.g., by coming uninvited at weddings, births, new shop openings and other major family events and singing until they are paid or given gifts to go away.<ref> Eunuchs 'cut off man's penis'. By Baldev Chauhan | |||
| BBC correspondent in Himachal Pradesh. BBC News. Thursday, ], ]. | |||
| </ref> | |||
| The ceremony is supposed to bring good luck and fertility, while the curse of an unappeased hijra is feared by many. Other sources of income for the hijra are begging and prostitution. The begging is accompanied by singing and dancing and the hijras usually get the money easily. Some Indian provincial officials have used the assistance of hijras to collect taxes in the same fashion; they knock on the doors of shopkeepers, while dancing and singing, and embarrass them into paying.<ref>] 2006.] </ref> Recently, hijras have started to found organizations to improve their social condition and fight discrimination. There has even been a wave of hijra entering politics and being elected to high political positions. The American transsexual activist and computer expert Anne Ogborn is an initiated member of the hijra community. She travelled to India and was accepted into the community. | |||
| When I grow up I want to be a real life man-girl | |||
| In the epic Mahabaratha of India, Arjuna, one of the 5 heroes who is originally a handsome man, warrior and great archer becomes ], a eunuch when they spend their last year of exile in the kingdom of Virata. Brihannala/Arjuna lived among the palace women as a teacher of song and dance.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} | |||
| ==Religious castration== | |||
| Castration as part of religious practice, and eunuchs occupying religious roles have been established prior to classical antiquity. Archaeological finds at ] in ] indicate worship of a 'Magna Mater' figure, a forerunner of the ] goddess found in later ] and other parts of the near East.<ref name = "Cybele"/> Later Roman followers of Cybele, were called ], who practiced ritual self-castration, known as ''sanguinaria''.<ref name = "Cybele">{{Citation | last= Roller | first= Lynn | title= In search of god the mother | publisher= University of California Press | year= 1999 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=e9r2semlxPwC&q=castration}}</ref> | |||
| The practice of religious castration continued into the Christian era, with members of the early church castrating themselves for religious purposes,<ref name = "Caner">{{Citation | last= Caner | first= Daniel | title= The Practice and Prohibition of Self-Castration in Early Christianity | journal= Vigiliae Christianae | volume= 51 | issue= 4 | publisher= Brill | year= 1997 | url= http://www.jstor.org/pss/1583869}}</ref> although the extent and even the existence of this practice among Christians is subject to debate.<ref name = "Hester">{{Citation | last= Hester | first= David | title= Eunuchs and the Postgender Jesus: Matthew 19:12 and Transgressive Sexualities | journal= Journal for the Study of the New Testament | publisher= Sage Publications | volume= 28 | issue= 1 | pages= 13–40 | year= 2005}}</ref> The early theologian ] found scriptural justification for the practice in {{bibleverse||Matthew|19:12|NRSV}},<ref> ], ''The Rise of Christianity'', Fortress Press, Philadelphia, 1984, p. 374, which in footnote 45 cites Eusebius, '']'' VI.8.2</ref>. where ] says, "For there are eunuchs who have been so from birth, and there are eunuchs who have been made eunuchs by others, and there are eunuchs who have made themselves eunuchs for the sake of the kingdom of heaven. Let anyone accept this who can." ''(NRSV)'' | |||
| Tertullian, a second century Church Father, described Jesus himself and Paul of Tarsus as spadones, which is translated as "eunuchs" in some contexts.<ref name = "Moxnes">{{Citation | last= Moxnes | first= By Halvor | title= Putting Jesus in his place | publisher= Westminster John Knox Press | year= 2004 | page= 85 | url= http://books.google.com/books?id=zV0jVQK0K14C&q=spadones}}</ref> The meaning of ''spado'' in late antiquity can be interpreted as a metaphor for celibacy, however Tertullian's specifically refers to St. Paul as being ''castrated''.<ref name = "Moxnes"/> | |||
| Eunuch priests have served various goddesses from India for many centuries. Similar phenomena are exemplified by some modern Indian communities of the ] type, which are associated with a deity and with certain rituals and festivals – notably the devotees of ], or ''jogappa''s, who are not castrated<ref></ref> and the Ali of southern India, of whom at least some are.<ref></ref> | |||
| The eighteenth-century ]n ] (''скопцы'') sect was an example of a ], where its members regarded castration as a way of renouncing the ]s of the flesh.<ref name = "Skoptsy">{{Citation | first= Lane | last= Christel | title= Christian religion in the Soviet Union | publisher= State University of New York Press | year= 1978 | page= 94 | url= http://books.google.com/books?id=VSmdHtacha8C&q=castration}}</ref> Several members of the twentieth century ] cult were found to have been castrated, apparently voluntarily and for the same reasons.<ref name = "HeavensGate">[http://www.cnn.com/US/9703/28/mass.suicide.pm/ Some members of suicide cult castrated, CNN, March 28, 1997}}</ref> | |||
| ==Castrato singers== | |||
| {{Main|Castrato}} | |||
| Eunuchs castrated before ] were also valued and trained in several cultures for their exceptional voices, which retained a childlike and other-worldly flexibility and treble pitch. Such eunuchs were known as ]. Unfortunately the choice had to be made at an age when the boy would not yet be able to consciously choose whether to sacrifice his sexual potency, and there was no guarantee that the voice would remain of musical excellence after the operation. | |||
| As women were sometimes forbidden to sing in Church, their place was taken by castrati. The practice, known as ''castratism'', remained popular until the eighteenth century and was known into the nineteenth century. The last famous Italian castrato, ], died 1861. The sole existing recording of a castrato singer documents the voice of ], the last eunuch in the ] choir, who died in 1922. Unfortunately, the early twentieth century recording is of poor quality. | |||
| ==Non-castrated eunuchs==<!-- This section is linked from ] --> | |||
| According to ] historian Kathryn Ringrose,<ref> {{cite web|url=http://omega.cohums.ohio-state.edu/mailing_lists/BMCR-L/2004/0046.php|title=Wells, Collin. Review of ''The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium'', 2003 by Kathryn M. Ringrose|accessdate=2006-10-21}}. | |||
| </ref> while the ]s of ] based their notions of gender in general and eunuchs in particular on physiology (the ]), the Byzantine Christians based them on behaviour and more specifically procreation. Hence, by ] the term "eunuch" had come to be applied not only to castrated men, but also to a wide range of men with comparable behavior, who had "chosen to withdraw from worldly activities and thus refused to procreate".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galva108.org/thirdgender.html|title=Review of Herdt, Gilbert (ed.) (1994) ''Third Sex, Third Gender: Beyond Sexual Dimorphism in Culture and History''|accessdate=2006-10-21}}</ref> The broad sense of the term "eunuch" is reflected in the compendium of ] created by ] in the sixth century known as the Digest or ]. That text distinguishes between two types of eunuchs – ''spadones'' (a general term denoting "one who has no generative power, an impotent person, whether by nature or by castration",<ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2344853 | |||
| |title=Charlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, ''A Latin Dictionary''|accessdate=2006-10-21}}.</ref> D 50.16.128) and ''castrati'' (castrated males, physically incapable of procreation). ''Spadones'' are eligible to marry women (D 23.3.39.1), institute posthumous heirs (D 28.2.6), and adopt children (Institutions of Justinian 1.11.9), '''unless''' they are ''castrati''. | |||
| == Eunuchs in the Contemporary World == | |||
| There may be more castrated men in the world today than ever before in human history.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} Most of these men would not consider themselves to be eunuchs, but they fit all of the characteristics other than acceptance of the label. | |||
| The hijra of India (see above) may number as many as 2,000,000,<ref>Reddy, Gayatri, With Respect to Sex: Negotiating Hijra Identity in South India, 310 pp., University of Chicago Press, 2005 ISBN 0226707555 (see p. 8)</ref> and are usually described as eunuchs, although they may be closer to male-to-female ] people, but have surgical castration instead of ], but seldom have access to hormones. The loss of ] and lack of ] means their bodies take on the characteristics of post-pubertal eunuchs. | |||
| The most commonly castrated men are advanced ] patients. In the United States alone there are more than 200,000 new cases of prostate cancer diagnosed each year. It is estimated that over 80,000 of these men will be surgically or chemically castrated within six months of diagnosis.<ref>Shaninian, Vahakn B., et al. (2006), Determinants of Androgen Deprivation Therapy Use for Prostate Cancer: Role of the Urologist. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, vol. 98, pp. 839–45</ref> With the average life expectancy after castration, there are approximately a half million chemically or surgically castrated prostate cancer patients at any time in the U.S. alone. While most of these men would deny the term “eunuch,” they meet all physiological characteristics of post-pubertal eunuchs. Some do, however, embrace the term for the historic and psychological grounding that it gives them.<ref>Wassersug, Richard J. (2007 ), Disfiguring Treatment? No, It Was Healing. The New York Times, March 27 http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/27/health/27case.html</ref><ref>Wassersug, Richard J. (2003). Castration anxiety. OUT, September 2003, pp. 66–72. http://www.eunuch.org/Alpha/C/ea_195222castrati.htm</ref> | |||
| While treatment of ] frequently involves removal of one testicle, it seldom requires removal of both. Accidents involving the loss of both testicles are also rare. In the case of both testicular cancer patients and accident victims, testosterone replacement therapy prevents the individuals from experiencing the hormone loss that characterizes true eunuchs.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}{{Dubious|date=September 2009}} | |||
| Convicted sex offenders who have been castrated are rare; a lack of testosterone and the consequent ability to better control their own libido does result in negligible recidivism.<ref>Wille, Reinhard & Klaus M. Beier (1989), Castration in Germany. Annals of Sex Research, vol. 2, pp. 103–33</ref> | |||
| The most common group that actually embraces the term “eunuch” are the contemporary voluntary eunuchs, who number 7,000 to 10,000 in North America, with many more around the world.<ref>Johnson, Thomas W, et al. (2007). Eunuchs in contemporary society: Characterizing men who are voluntarily castrated (Part I). Journal of Sexual Medicine, vol. 4, pp. 930–945 </ref><ref>Brett, Michelle A, et al. (2007). Eunuchs in contemporary society: Expectations, consequences, and adjustments to castration (Part II). Journal of Sexual Medicine, vol. 4, pp. 946–955</ref><ref>Roberts, Lesley F, et al. (2008). A passion for castration: Characterizing men who are fascinated with castration, but have not been castrated. Journal of Sexual Medicine, vol. 5, pp. 1669–1680</ref> | |||
| Many of these are males who have a Male-to-Eunuch ]. While they are born with male genetalia, their brain tells them that they are not male, but neither are they female. They seek castration to align their bodies with their brain sex. A second large group of the contemporary eunuchs have a ]. This occurs when the brain does not accept the presence of some specific body part. Surgery is often the only way to effect a cure. The balance of contemporary voluntary eunuchs are scattered across a wide variety of ]s.{{Clarify|date=August 2009}}{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} | |||
| A gathering place on the Internet for contemporary voluntary eunuchs, and for those interested in castration, is the Eunuch Archive, a web site with 3,500 registered members, but visited by hundreds of thousands of unique IP addresses each month.<ref> </ref> | |||
| ==Notable eunuchs== | ==Notable eunuchs== | ||
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| * Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century BC), described in The Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). It's a section, which prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, and Philip witnesses to the eunuch about the fulfillment of the prophecy. The eunuch is baptized shortly thereafter. It's the first recorded case of the conversion of someone who had possibly been marginalized for gender reasons. | * Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century BC), described in The Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). It's a section, which prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, and Philip witnesses to the eunuch about the fulfillment of the prophecy. The eunuch is baptized shortly thereafter. It's the first recorded case of the conversion of someone who had possibly been marginalized for gender reasons. | ||
| * ] – Ts'ai Lun in the old romanization (1st/2nd century AD) Reasonable evidence exists to suggest that he was truly the inventor of ]. At the very least, he established the importance of paper and standardized its manufacture in the Chinese empire. | * ] – Ts'ai Lun in the old romanization (1st/2nd century AD) Reasonable evidence exists to suggest that he was truly the inventor of ]. At the very least, he established the importance of paper and standardized its manufacture in the Chinese empire. | ||
| * ] – early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the ] 19:12 (''For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it.''). |
* ] – early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the ] 19:12 (''For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it.''). However, Origen's self-castration is not attested by anyone other than ]. | ||
| * ] (5th century AD) Only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished and very influential position of Roman ]. | * ] (5th century AD) Only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished and very influential position of Roman ]. | ||
| * ] – chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor ], architect of imperial policy towards the Huns. | * ] – chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor ], architect of imperial policy towards the Huns. | ||
| * ] (478–573) General of Byzantine Emperor, ], responsible for destroying the ]s in 552 at the ] in Italy and saving Rome for the empire. | * ] (478–573) General of Byzantine Emperor, ], responsible for destroying the ]s in 552 at the ] in Italy and saving Rome for the empire. | ||
| * ] (799–877). Twice ] during troubled political times . First absolutely unquestioned eunuch saint, recognized by both the Orthodox and Roman Churches. (There are a great many early saints who were probably eunuchs, though few either as influential nor unquestioned as to their castration.) | |||
| * ] (1019–1105), general during the ] in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero. | * ] (1019–1105), general during the ] in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero. | ||
| * ] (1079–1142), French scholastic philosopher and theologian. Forcibly castrated while in bed by his lover's uncle. | |||
| * ] (fl. 1296 - 1316), was a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of ], ruler of the ]. | * ] (fl. 1296 - 1316), was a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of ], ruler of the ]. | ||
| * ] (1371–1433), famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean. | * ] (1371–1433), famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean. | ||
| * ] (late sixteenth century) A Spanish eunuch who became the head of the Moroccan invasion force into the ]. | |||
| * ], called ] (1705–82), the most famous Italian ]. | |||
| * ], one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is now the subject of a popular historical drama currently airing in South Korea. | * ], one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is now the subject of a popular historical drama currently airing in South Korea. | ||
| * ], was the chief of the Qajar tribe. He became the King/Shah of Persia in 1794 and established the Qajar dynasty. | |||
| * ] Intrigant eunuch who was responsible of a successor civil war in the feudal ] | * ] Intrigant eunuch who was responsible of a successor civil war in the feudal ] | ||
| * ] Favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against ] (died 210 BC) | * ] Favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against ] (died 210 BC) | ||
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| * ] Eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period | * ] Eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period | ||
| * ] A loyal and trusted friend of ] emperor ] | * ] A loyal and trusted friend of ] emperor ] | ||
| * ] Famous eighteenth century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (not a |
* ] Famous eighteenth century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (he was not however a spadone, being born a hermaphrodite) | ||
| * ] The ] eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule | * ] The ] eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule | ||
| * ] ] eunuch who began his "career" as army supervisor | * ] ] eunuch who began his "career" as army supervisor | ||
| * ] First ] eunuch with much power, see ] | * ] First ] eunuch with much power, see ] | ||
| * ] Patron Saint of Eunuchs in China who castrated himself to demonstrate his loyalty to emperor ] | |||
| * ] Admiral in charge of expeditions down the ] under the ] and ]s | * ] Admiral in charge of expeditions down the ] under the ] and ]s | ||
| * ] Another "famous" eunuch ] | * ] Another "famous" eunuch ] | ||
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| * ] Another despotic eunuch of the ] | * ] Another despotic eunuch of the ] | ||
| * ] (1902–1996) last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history | * ] (1902–1996) last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history | ||
| * ], who killed ], castrated himself to avoid temptation from prostitutes | |||
| ==See also== | ==See also== | ||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| ==Notes== | ==Notes== | ||
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| * | * | ||
| * | * | ||
| * | |||
| * | * | ||
| {{Sexual identities}} | |||
| ] | ] | ||
Revision as of 18:19, 20 October 2009
For other uses, see Eunuch (disambiguation).
A eunuch (Template:Pron-en) is a political rank often found in ancient courts. Over the millennia since, they have performed a wide variety of functions in many different cultures such as: courtiers or equivalent domestics, treble singers, religious specialists, government officials, military commanders, and guardians of women or harem servants.
Eunuchs were often - but not always - spadones, especially when they guarded women. Such spadones were usually of the castrated variety, and such castration would usually occur early enough to have had major hormonal consequences. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the twenty first century BC.
In modern times the term is almost always used as a synonym for spadone, and has little connection with the historic use as a reference to specific court officials. Hence, some translations of ancient texts identify individuals as eunuchs when they were simply men who were impotent with women, or were merely celibate.
Etymology and origins
The English word eunuch is from the Greek eune ("bed") and ekhein ("to keep"), effectively "bed keeper".
Servants or slaves were usually castrated in order to make them safer servants of a royal court where physical access to the ruler could wield great influence. Seemingly lowly domestic functions such as making the ruler's bed, bathing him, cutting his hair, carrying him in his litter or even relaying messages could in theory give a eunuch "the ruler's ear" and impart de facto power on the formally humble but trusted servant. Similar instances are reflected in the humble origins and etymology of many high offices (e.g., chancellor began as a servant guarding the entrance to an official's study). Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty'. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards.
Eunuchs by region and epoch
Ancient Middle East
Eunuchs were familiar figures in the Assyrian Empire (ca. 850 till 622 B.C.), in the court of the Egyptian Pharaohs (down to the Lagid dynasty known as Ptolemies, ending with Cleopatra). Political eunuchism became a fully established institution among the Achamenide Persians
China
In ancient China castration was both a traditional punishment (until the Sui Dynasty) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. At the end of the Ming Dynasty there were about 70,000 eunuchs (宦官 huànguān, or 太監 tàijiàn) employed by the emperor, with some serving inside the Imperial palace. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of prime ministers. Self-castration was commonplace and half-hearted attempts were sometimes made to make it illegal. The number of eunuchs in Imperial employ had fallen to 470 in 1912, when the practice of using them ceased.
It is said that the justification of the employment of eunuchs as high-ranking civil servants was that, since they were incapable of having children, they would not be tempted to seize power and start a dynasty. In many cases, eunuchs were considered more reliable than the scholar officials. A similar system existed in Vietnam.
The tension between eunuchs in the service of the emperor and virtuous Confucian officials is a familiar theme in Chinese history. In his History of Government, Samuel Finer points out that reality was not always that clear-cut. There were instances of very capable eunuchs, who were valuable advisors to their emperor, and the resistance of the "virtuous" officials often stemmed from jealousy on their part. Ray Huang argues that in reality, eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternate political will of the bureaucracy. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda.
European Jesuit priest Matteo Ricci was the first European to reach China with a musical instrument, who presented a Harpsichord to the Ming imperial court in 1601. He trained four eunuchs to play it.
Ancient Greece, Rome and Byzantium
The practice was also well established in Europe among the Greeks and Romans, although more rarely as court functionaries than in Asia. In late Rome, emperors such as Constantine were surrounded by eunuchs for such functions as bathing, hair cutting, dressing, and bureaucratic functions, in effect acting as a shield between the emperor and his administrators from physical contact. Eunuchs were believed loyal and dispensable.
At the Byzantine imperial court, there were a great number of eunuchs employed in domestic and administrative functions, actually organized as a separate hierarchy, following a parallel career of their own. Archieunuchs—each in charge of a group of eunuchs—were among the principal officers in Constantinople, under the emperors. Under Justinian in the fifth century, the eunuch Narses functioned as a successful general in a number of campaigns.
Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
The Ottoman court harem—within the Topkapı Palace (1465–1853) and later the Dolmabahçe Palace (1853–1909) in Istanbul—was under the administration of the eunuchs. These were of two categories: Black Eunuchs and White Eunuchs. Black Eunuchs were Africans who served the concubines and officials in the Harem and together with chamber maidens of low rank. The White Eunuchs were Europeans from the Balkans. They served the recruits at the Palace School and were from 1582 prohibited from entering the Harem. An important figure in the Ottoman court was the Chief Black Eunuch (Kızlar Ağası or Harem Ağası). In control of the Harem and a perfect net of spies in the Black Eunuchs, the Chief Eunuch was involved in almost every palace intrigue and could thereby gain power over either the sultan or one of his viziers, ministers or other court officials.
India
Eunuchs were frequently employed in Imperial Indian palaces as servants for female royalty, and often attained high-status positions in Indian society. Eunuchs in Imperial palaces were organized in a hierarchy, often with a senior or chief eunuch ("Khwaja Saras") directing junior eunuchs below him. Eunuchs were highly valued for their strength, to provide protection for the ladies palaces, and their trustworthiness, allowing eunuchs to live amongst women with fewer worries. This enabled eunuchs to serve as messengers, watchmen, attendants, and guards for palaces. Often, eunuchs also doubled as part of the King's court of advisers.
As a result of the number of high-status job openings available for eunuchs, poor families often converted one of their sons into a eunuch and had him work in the imperial palaces to create a steady source of revenue for the family and ensure a comfortable lifestyle for the son. This practice of castration was banned throughout the Empire in 1668 by Aurangzeb, but continued covertly.
Notable eunuchs
- See also: Category: Eunuchs
In chronological order.
- Aspamistres or Mithridates (5th century BC) Bodyguard of Xerxes I of Persia, and (with Artabanus) his murderer.
- Artoxares: An envoy of Artaxerxes I and Darius II of Persia.
- Bagoas (4th century BC) Prime minister of king Artaxerxes III of Persia, and his murderer. (Bagoas is an old Persian/Farsai word meaning Eunuch.)
- Bagoas (4th century BC) A favorite of Alexander the Great. Influential in changing Alexander's attitude toward Persians and therefore in the king's policy decision to try to integrate the conquered peoples fully into his Empire as loyal subjects. He thereby paved the way for the relative success of Alexander's Seleucid successors and greatly enhanced the penetration of Greek culture to the East.
- Philetaerus (4th/3rd century BC): founder of the Attalid dynasty of Pergamum
- Sima Qian – old romanization: Ssu-ma Chi'en (2nd/1st century BC) Was the first person to have practiced modern historiography – gathering and analyzing both primary and secondary sources in order to write his monumental history of the Chinese empire.
- Ganymedes (1st century BC) Highly capable adviser and general of Cleopatra VII's sister and rival, Princess Arsinoe. Unsuccessfully attacked Julius Caesar three times at Alexandria.
- Pothinus (1st century BC) Regent for pharaoh Ptolemy XII.
- Unidentified eunuch of the Ethiopian court (1st century BC), described in The Acts of the Apostles (chapter 8). Philip the Evangelist, one of the original seven deacons, is directed by the Holy Spirit to catch up to the eunuch's chariot and hears him reading from the Book of Isaiah (chapter 53). It's a section, which prophesies Jesus' crucifixion, and Philip witnesses to the eunuch about the fulfillment of the prophecy. The eunuch is baptized shortly thereafter. It's the first recorded case of the conversion of someone who had possibly been marginalized for gender reasons.
- Cai Lun – Ts'ai Lun in the old romanization (1st/2nd century AD) Reasonable evidence exists to suggest that he was truly the inventor of paper. At the very least, he established the importance of paper and standardized its manufacture in the Chinese empire.
- Origen – early Christian theologian, allegedly castrated himself based on his reading of the Gospel of Matthew 19:12 (For there are eunuchs, who were born so from their mother's womb: and there are eunuchs, who were made so by men: and there are eunuchs, who have made themselves eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven. He that can take, let him take it.). However, Origen's self-castration is not attested by anyone other than Tertullian.
- Eutropius (5th century AD) Only eunuch known to have attained the highly distinguished and very influential position of Roman Consul.
- Chrysaphius – chief minister of Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II, architect of imperial policy towards the Huns.
- Narses (478–573) General of Byzantine Emperor, Justinian I, responsible for destroying the Ostrogoths in 552 at the Battle of Taginae in Italy and saving Rome for the empire.
- Ly Thuong Kiet (1019–1105), general during the Ly Dynasty in Vietnam. Penned what is considered the first Vietnamese declaration of independence. Regarded as a Vietnamese national hero.
- Malik Kafur (fl. 1296 - 1316), was a eunuch slave who became a general in the army of Alauddin Khilji, ruler of the Delhi sultanate.
- Zheng He (1371–1433), famous admiral who led huge Chinese fleets of exploration around the Indian Ocean.
- Kim Cheo Son, one of the most famous eunuchs in Korean dynasty, ably served kings in the Joseon dynasty. His life is now the subject of a popular historical drama currently airing in South Korea.
- Shu Diao Intrigant eunuch who was responsible of a successor civil war in the feudal state of Qi
- Zhao Gao Favourite of Qin Shihuangdi, who plotted against Li Si (died 210 BC)
- Zhang Rang Head of the infamous "10 Changshi" (Ten attendants) of Eastern Han Dynasty
- Huang Hao Eunuch in the state of Shu; also appears in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms
- Cen Hun Eunuch in the state of Wu during the Three Kingdoms Period
- Gao Lishi A loyal and trusted friend of Tang emperor Xuanzong
- Le Van Duyet Famous eighteenth century Vietnamese eunuch, military strategist and government official (he was not however a spadone, being born a hermaphrodite)
- Li Fuguo The Tang eunuch who began another era of eunuch rule
- Yu Chao'en Tang eunuch who began his "career" as army supervisor
- Wang Zhen First Ming eunuch with much power, see Tumu Crisis
- Yishiha Admiral in charge of expeditions down the Amur River under the Yongle and Xuande Emperors
- Liu Jin Another "famous" eunuch despot
- Wei Zhongxian Most infamous eunuch in Chinese history
- An Dehai Corrupt eunuch of Qing Dynasty – Favorite of Empress Dowager Cixi
- Li Lianying Another despotic eunuch of the Qing Dynasty
- Sun Yaoting (1902–1996) last surviving imperial eunuch of Chinese history
See also
Notes
- Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Animal and human castration in Sumer, Part II: Human castration in the Ur III period. Zinbun , pp. 1–56.
- Maekawa, Kazuya (1980). Female Weavers and Their Children in Lagash – Presargonic and Ur III. Acta Sumerologica 2:81–125.
- Orlando Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 511 pp., Harvard University Press, 1982 ISBN 067481083X, 9780674810839 (see p.315)
- For an extended discussion see Mitamura Taisuke,Chinese Eunuchs: The Structure of Intimate Politics tr.Charles A.Pomeroy,Tokyo 1970, a short, condensed version of Mitamura's original book =三田村泰助, 宦官, Chuko Shinsho, Tokyo 1963
- Huang, Ray (1981). 1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02518-1..
- Jones. Andrew F. (2001). Yellow Music — CL: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age. Duke University Press. ISBN 0822326949.
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This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chambers, Ephraim, ed. (1728). Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Missing or empty|title=(help) - Lad, Jateen. "Panoptic Bodies. Black Eunuchs in the Topkapi Palace", Scroope: Cambridge Architecture Journal, No.15, 2003, pp.16–20.
- "Akbar-Birbal Anecdotes". Retrieved 2008-11-02.
- "Ghilmans and Eunuchs". Retrieved 2008-11-02.
Sources and references
External links
- The Perfect Servant: Eunuchs and the Social Construction of Gender in Byzantium
- Eunuchs in Pharaonic Egypt
- Hidden Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China
- The Eunuchs of Ming dynasty china