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John F. Kennedy
35th President of the United States
In office January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963
Vice President	Lyndon B. Johnson
Preceded by	Dwight D. Eisenhower
Succeeded by	Lyndon B. Johnson
United States Senator from Massachusetts
In office January 3, 1953 – December 22, 1960
Preceded by	Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.
Succeeded by	Benjamin A. Smith
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 11th district
In office January 3, 1947 – January 3, 1953
Preceded by	James Michael Curley
Succeeded by	Thomas P. O'Neill, Jr.
Personal details
Born	John Fitzgerald Kennedy (1917-05-29)May 29, 1917 Brookline, Massachusetts
Died	November 22, 1963(1963-11-22) (aged 46) Dallas, Texas
Political party	Democratic
Spouse	Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Kennedy
Children	Arabella Kennedy Caroline Bouvier Kennedy John Fitzgerald Kennedy, Jr. Patrick Bouvier Kennedy
Parents	Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr. (father) Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy (mother)
Alma mater	Harvard University, (S.B.) London School of Economics
Occupation	Newspaper correspondent, author
Awards	Navy and Marine Corps Medal Purple Heart American Defense Service Medal American Campaign Medal Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 3 bronze stars World War II Victory Medal
Signature
Military service
Allegiance	United States of America
Branch/service	United States Navy
Years of service	1941–1945
Rank	Lieutenant
Unit	Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109
Battles/wars	World War II Solomon Islands campaign

Template:Infobox heraldic achievement

John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29, 1917 – November 22, 1963), often referred to by his initials JFK, was the 35th President of the United States, serving from 1961 until his assassination in 1963.

After Kennedy's military service as commander of the Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 during World War II in the South Pacific, his aspirations turned political. With the encouragement and grooming of his father, Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., Kennedy represented Massachusetts's 11th congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1947 to 1953 as a Democrat, and served in the U.S. Senate from 1953 until 1960. Kennedy defeated then Vice President and Republican candidate Richard Nixon in the 1960 U.S. presidential election, one of the closest in American history. He was the second-youngest President (after Theodore Roosevelt), the first President born in the 20th century, and the youngest elected to the office, at the age of 43. Kennedy is the first and only Catholic and the first Irish American president, and is the only president to have won a Pulitzer Prize. Events during his administration include the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis, the building of the Berlin Wall, the Space Race, the African American Civil Rights Movement and early stages of the Vietnam War.

Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. Lee Harvey Oswald was charged with the crime but was shot and killed two days later by Jack Ruby before he could be put on trial. The FBI, the Warren Commission, and the House Select Committee on Assassinations concluded that Oswald was the assassin, with the HSCA allowing for the probability of conspiracy based on disputed acoustic evidence. The event proved to be an important moment in U.S. history because of its impact on the nation and the ensuing political repercussions. Today, Kennedy continues to rank highly in public opinion ratings of former U.S. presidents.

Early life and education

John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born at 83 Beals Street in Brookline, Massachusetts on Tuesday, May 29, 1917, at 3:00 p.m., the second son of Joseph P. Kennedy, Sr., and Rose Fitzgerald; Rose, in turn, was the eldest child of John "Honey Fitz" Fitzgerald, a prominent Boston political figure who was the city's mayor and a three-term member of Congress. Kennedy lived in Brookline for the first ten years of his of life. He attended Brookline's public Edward Devotion School from kindergarten through the beginning of 3rd grade, then Noble and Greenough Lower School and its successor, the Dexter School, a private school for boys, through 4th grade. In September 1927, Kennedy moved with his family to a rented 20-room mansion in Riverdale, Bronx, New York City, then two years later moved five miles (8 km) northeast to a 21-room mansion on a six-acre estate in Bronxville, New York, purchased in May 1929. He was a member of Scout Troop 2 at Bronxville from 1929 to 1931 and was to be the first Boy Scout to become President. Kennedy spent summers with his family at their home in Hyannisport, Massachusetts, also purchased in 1929, and Christmas and Easter holidays with his family at their winter home in Palm Beach, Florida, purchased in 1933. In his primary school years, he attended Riverdale Country School, a private school for boys in Riverdale, for 5th through 7th grade.

For 8th grade in September 1930, the 13-year old Kennedy was sent fifty miles away to Canterbury School, a lay Catholic boarding school for boys in New Milford, Connecticut. In late April 1931, he had appendicitis requiring an appendectomy, after which he withdrew from Canterbury and recuperated at home.

In September 1931, Kennedy was sent to The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall), an elite boys boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, for his 9th through 12th grade years. His older brother Joe Jr., was already at Choate, two years ahead of him, a football star and leading student in the school. Jack spent his first years at Choate in his brother's shadow, and compensated for this with rebellious behavior that attracted a coterie. Their most notorious stunt was to explode a toilet seat with a powerful firecracker. In the ensuing chapel assembly, the strict headmaster, George St. John, brandished the toilet seat and spoke of certain "muckers" who would "spit in our sea." The defiant Jack Kennedy took the cue and named his group "The Muckers Club." Kennedy remained close friends to the end of his life with several of his Choate fellows, including especially Kirk LeMoyne "Lem" Billings. Throughout his years at Choate, Kennedy was beset by health problems, culminating in 1934 with his emergency hospitalization at Yale-New Haven Hospital from January until March. In June 1934 he was admitted to the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota and diagnosed with colitis. When Kennedy graduated from Choate in June 1935 his superlative in The Brief, the school yearbook (of which he had been business manager), was "Most likely to Succeed."

In September 1935, on his first trip abroad, with his parents and his sister Kathleen, he sailed on the SS Normandie to London, with the intent of studying for a year with Professor Harold Laski at the London School of Economics (LSE) as his older brother Joe had done. Mystery surrounds his time at LSE and there is uncertainty about how long he spent there before returning to America. In October 1935, Kennedy enrolled late and spent six weeks at Princeton University. He was then hospitalized for two months of observation for possible leukemia at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston in January and February 1936. He continued to convalesce at the Kennedy winter home in Palm Beach in March and April, then spent May and June working as a ranch hand on a 40,000-acre (160 km²) cattle ranch outside Benson, Arizona, and in July and August raced sailboats at the Kennedy summer home in Hyannisport.

In September 1936 he enrolled as a freshman at Harvard College, where he produced that year's annual Freshman Smoker, called by a reviewer "an elaborate entertainment, which included in its cast outstanding personalities of the radio, screen and sports world." He tried out for the football, golf, and swim teams. He succeeded in earning a spot on the varsity swim team. He resided in Winthrop House during his sophomore through senior years, again following two years behind his elder brother, Joe. In early July 1937, Kennedy took his convertible, sailed on the SS Washington to France, and spent ten weeks driving with a friend through France, Italy, Germany, Holland, and England. In late June 1938, Kennedy sailed with his father and brother Joe on the SS Normandie to spend July working with his father, recently appointed U.S. Ambassador to the Court of St. James's by President Roosevelt, at the American embassy in London, and August with his family at a villa near Cannes. From February through September 1939, Kennedy toured Europe, the Soviet Union, the Balkans, and the Middle East to gather background information for his Harvard senior honors thesis. He spent the last ten days of August in Czechoslovakia and Germany before returning to London on September 1, 1939, the day Germany invaded Poland. On September 3, 1939, Kennedy and his family were in attendance at the Strangers Gallery of the House of Commons for speeches in support of the United Kingdom's declaration of war on Germany. Kennedy was sent as his father's representative to help with arrangements for American survivors of the SS Athenia, before flying back to the U.S. on Pan Am's Dixie Clipper from Foynes, Ireland to Port Washington, New York on his first transatlantic flight at the end of September.

In 1940, Kennedy completed his thesis, "Appeasement in Munich," about British participation in the Munich Agreement. He initially intended his thesis to be private, but his father encouraged him to publish it. He graduated cum laude from Harvard with a degree in international affairs in June 1940, and his thesis was published in July 1940 as a book entitled Why England Slept, and became a bestseller. From September to December 1940, Kennedy was enrolled and audited classes at the Stanford Graduate School of Business. In early 1941, he helped his father complete the writing of a memoir of his three years as an American ambassador. In May and June 1941, Kennedy traveled throughout South America.

Military service

In the spring of 1941, Kennedy volunteered for the U.S. Army, but was rejected, because of his chronic lower back problems. Nevertheless, in September of that year, the U.S. Navy accepted him, because of the influence of the director of the Office of Naval Intelligence (ONI), a former naval attaché to Joseph Kennedy. As an ensign, Kennedy served in the office which supplied bulletins and briefing information for the Secretary of the Navy. It was during this assignment that the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred. He attended the Naval Reserve Officer Training Corps and Motor Torpedo Boat Squadron Training Center before being assigned for duty in Panama and eventually the Pacific theater. He participated in various commands in the Pacific theater and earned the rank of lieutenant, commanding a patrol torpedo (PT) boat.

On August 2, 1943, Kennedy's boat, the PT-109, along with PT-162 and PT-169, were ordered to continue nighttime patrol near New Georgia in the Solomon Islands when it was rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri. Kennedy was thrown across the deck, injuring his already-troubled back. Nonetheless, Kennedy gathered his men together and swam, towing a badly burned crewman by using a life jacket strap he clenched in his teeth. He towed the wounded man to an island and later to a second island from where his crew was subsequently rescued. For these actions, Kennedy received the Navy and Marine Corps Medal with the following citation:

For extremely heroic conduct as Commanding Officer of Motor Torpedo Boat 109 following the collision and sinking of that vessel in the Pacific War Theater on August 1–2, 1943. Unmindful of personal danger, Lieutenant (then Lieutenant, Junior Grade) Kennedy unhesitatingly braved the difficulties and hazards of darkness to direct rescue operations, swimming many hours to secure aid and food after he had succeeded in getting his crew ashore. His outstanding courage, endurance and leadership contributed to the saving of several lives and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.

However, General Douglas MacArthur had a different opinion about the event: "Those PT boats carried only one torpedo [sic]. They were under orders to fire it and then get out. They were defenseless. Kennedy hung around, however, and let a Japanese destroyer mow him down. When I heard about it, I talked to his superior officer. He should have been court-martialed."

In October 1943, Kennedy took command of Motor Torpedo Boat PT-59 which was converted from a torpedo boat into a gunboat. On the night of November 2, 1943, the PT-59 and PT-236 took part in the rescue of ambushed Marines on Choiseul Island. Later, Kennedy was honorably discharged in early 1945, just a few months before Japan surrendered. Kennedy's other decorations in World War II included the Purple Heart, American Defense Service Medal, American Campaign Medal, Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with three bronze service stars, and the World War II Victory Medal.

The incident of the PT-109 was popularized when he became president and was the subject of several magazine articles, books, comic books, TV specials, and a feature length movie, making the PT-109 one of the most famous U.S. Navy ships of the war. Scale models and even a G.I. Joe figure based on the incident were still being produced in the 2000s. The coconut Kennedy used to scrawl a rescue message given to Solomon Islander scouts who found him was kept on his presidential desk and is still at the John F. Kennedy Library.

During his presidency, Kennedy privately admitted to friends that he didn't feel that he deserved the medals he had received because the PT-109 incident had been the result of a botched military operation that had cost the lives of two members of his crew. When later asked by a reporter how he became a war hero, Kennedy (known for a sense of humor) joked: "It was involuntary. They sank my boat."

In May 2002, a National Geographic expedition led by Robert Ballard, found what is believed to be wreckage of the PT-109 in the Solomon Islands.

Early political career

After World War II, Kennedy considered becoming a journalist before deciding to run for political office. Prior to the war, he had not strongly considered becoming a politician because his family, especially his father, had already pinned their political hopes on his elder brother. Joseph, however, was killed in World War II, giving John seniority. In 1946, U.S. Representative James Michael Curley vacated his seat in an overwhelmingly Democratic district to become mayor of Boston, and Kennedy ran for the seat, beating his Republican opponent by a large margin. He was a congressman for six years but had a mixed voting record, often diverging from President Harry S. Truman and the rest of the Democratic Party. In 1952, he defeated incumbent Republican Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr. for the U.S. Senate.

Kennedy married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier on September 12, 1953. Charles L. Bartlett, a journalist, introduced the pair at a dinner party. Kennedy underwent several spinal operations over the following two years, nearly dying (in all he received the Catholic Church's last rites four times during his life) and was often absent from the Senate. During his convalescence in 1956, he published Profiles in Courage, a book describing eight instances in which U.S. Senators risked their careers by holding firm to their personal beliefs. The book was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Biography in 1957. From the time of publication, there have been rumors that this work was actually coauthored by his close adviser Ted Sorensen, who had joined his Senate office staff in 1953 and would serve as a speechwriter for Kennedy until his death. In May 2008, Sorensen confirmed these rumors in his autobiography.

In the 1956 presidential election, presidential nominee Adlai Stevenson left the choice of a Vice Presidential nominee to the Democratic convention, and Kennedy finished second in that balloting to Senator Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Despite this defeat, Kennedy received national exposure from that episode that would prove valuable in subsequent years. His father pointed out that it was just as well that John did not get that nomination, as some people sought to blame anything they could on Catholics, even though it was privately known that any Democrat would have trouble running against Eisenhower in 1956.

The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was promoted by President Eisenhower but he "conceded" there were aspects of it he didn't understand. This led Southern senators to "emasculate" his bill. Kennedy voted against letting the bill bypass the Senate Judiciary Committee, which was led by Senator James Eastland, a segregationist from Mississippi. Kennedy argued procedure should be followed and the bill could be voted on in the full Senate after a motion to discharge by the committee, but his vote was seen by some as appeasement of Southern opponents. Kennedy voted for Title III of the proposed act, which would have given the Attorney General powers to enjoin, but Lyndon Johnson agreed to let the provision die as a compromise measure. After consulting two Harvard legal scholars, Kennedy voted for Title IV, the "Jury Trial Amendment", which in cases of criminal contempt called for conviction by jury. Many civil rights advocates at the time criticized the vote as one that would lead to rendering the Act too weak. A final compromise bill which Kennedy supported was passed in September. Staunch segregationist senators, including James Eastland and John McClellan and Mississippi Governor James P. Coleman were early supporters of Kennedy's presidential campaign. In 1958, Kennedy was re-elected to a second term in the United States Senate, defeating his Republican opponent, Boston lawyer Vincent J. Celeste, by a wide margin.

Senator Joseph McCarthy was a friend of the Kennedy family; Joseph Kennedy, Sr. was a leading McCarthy supporter, Robert F. Kennedy worked for McCarthy's subcommittee, and McCarthy dated Patricia Kennedy. In 1954, when the Senate was poised to condemn McCarthy, John Kennedy drafted a speech calling for McCarthy's censure but never delivered it. When the Senate rendered its highly publicized decision to censure McCarthy on December 2, 1954, Kennedy was in the hospital. Though absent, he could have "paired" his vote against that of another senator, but did not do so. He never indicated then nor later how he would have voted. The episode damaged Kennedy's support in the liberal community, especially with Eleanor Roosevelt, as late as the 1956 and 1960 elections.

1960 presidential election

On January 2, 1960, Kennedy publicly declared his intent to run for President of the United States. In the Democratic primary election, he faced challenges from Senator Hubert Humphrey of Minnesota and Senator Wayne Morse of Oregon. Kennedy defeated Humphrey in Wisconsin and West Virginia and Morse in Maryland and Oregon, although Morse's candidacy is often overlooked by historians. He also defeated token opposition (often write-in candidates) in New Hampshire, Indiana, and Nebraska. In West Virginia, Kennedy visited a coal mine and talked to mine workers to win their support; most people in that conservative, mostly Protestant state were deeply suspicious of Kennedy's Roman Catholicism. His victory in West Virginia cemented his broad popular appeal. At the Democratic Convention, he gave the well-known "New Frontier" speech, which represented the changes America and the rest of the world would be going through: "For the problems are not all solved and the battles are not all won—and we stand today on the edge of a New Frontier ... But the New Frontier of which I speak is not a set of promises—it is a set of challenges. It sums up not what I intend to offer the American people, but what I intend to ask of them."

With Humphrey and Morse out of the race, Kennedy's main opponent at the convention in Los Angeles was Senator Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Adlai Stevenson, the Democratic nominee in 1952 and 1956, was not officially running but had broad grassroots support inside and outside the convention hall. Senator Stuart Symington of Missouri was also a candidate, as were several favorite sons. On July 13, 1960, the Democratic convention nominated Kennedy as its candidate for President. Kennedy asked Johnson to be his Vice Presidential candidate, despite opposition from many liberal delegates and Kennedy's own staff, including brother Robert. He needed Johnson's strength in the South to win what was considered likely to be the closest election since 1916. Major issues included how to get the economy moving again, Kennedy's Roman Catholicism, Cuba, and whether the Soviet space and missile programs had surpassed those of the U.S. To address fears that his being Catholic would impact his decision-making, he famously told the Greater Houston Ministerial Association on September 12, 1960, "I am not the Catholic candidate for President. I am the Democratic Party candidate for President who also happens to be a Catholic. I do not speak for my Church on public matters — and the Church does not speak for me." Kennedy questioned rhetorically whether one-quarter of Americans were relegated to second-class citizenship just because they were Catholic, and once stated that, "No one asked me my religion in the South Pacific."

In September and October, Kennedy debated Republican candidate Richard Nixon, then Vice President, in the first televised U.S. presidential debates in U.S. history. During these programs, Nixon, with a sore injured leg and his "five o'clock shadow", looked tense and uncomfortable, while Kennedy appeared relaxed, leading the huge television audience to favor Kennedy as the winner. Radio listeners, however, either thought Nixon had won or that the debates were a draw. Nixon did not wear make-up during the initial debate, unlike Kennedy. The debates are now considered a milestone in American political history—the point at which the medium of television began to play a dominant role in politics. After the first debate Kennedy's campaign gained momentum and he pulled slightly ahead of Nixon in most polls. On Tuesday, November 8, Kennedy defeated Nixon in one of the closest presidential elections of the twentieth century. In the national popular vote Kennedy led Nixon by just two-tenths of one percent (49.7% to 49.5%), while in the Electoral College he won 303 votes to Nixon's 219 (269 were needed to win). Another 14 electors from Mississippi and Alabama refused to support Kennedy because of his support for the civil rights movement; they voted for Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr. of Virginia. He was the youngest man elected president, succeeding Eisenhower who was the oldest.

Presidency

John F. Kennedy was sworn in as the 35th President at noon on January 20, 1961. In his inaugural address he spoke of the need for all Americans to be active citizens, famously saying, "Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country." He also asked the nations of the world to join together to fight what he called the "common enemies of man: tyranny, poverty, disease, and war itself." He added: "All this will not be finished in the first one hundred days. Nor will it be finished in the first one thousand days, nor in the life of this Administration, nor even perhaps in our lifetime on this planet. But let us begin." In closing, he expanded on his desire for greater internationalism: "Finally, whether you are citizens of America or citizens of the world, ask of us here the same high standards of strength and sacrifice which we ask of you."

Kennedy brought to the White House a stark contrast in organization compared to the military style decision making structure of the former general, Eisenhower; and he wasted no time in dismantling it. Kennedy preferred the organizational structure of a wheel, with all the spokes leading to the president. He was ready and willing to make the increased number of quick decisions required in such an environment. He did a monumental job of quickly selecting his cabinet and other appointments, some experienced and some not. In those cases of inexperience, he stated, "we can learn our jobs together". There were a couple instances where the president got ahead of himself, as when he announced in a cabinet meeting, without prior notice, that Edward Lansdale would be Ambassador to South Vietnam, after being impressed with the CIA man's report on the country. Secretary of State Rusk later succeeded in suggesting a more appropriate alternative. And there was also the rapid appointment of Harris Wofford as a liason to the Civil Rights Commission in response to the urgings of a Commission member, Fr. Edward Hesburgh. When Wofford was summoned and arrived at the White House, he was met by William Hopkins with bible in hand. Hopkins asked him to raise his right hand to be sworn in as Special Assisitant, but was unable to tell Wofford for what purpose he was being made Special Assistant.

Kennedy also demonstrated his decision making agility with Congress. Much to the chagrin of his economic advisors who wanted him to reduce taxes, he quickly agreed to a balanced budget pledge when it became apparent that this was needed in exchange for votes to expand the membership of the House Rules Committee which gave the Democrats a clear majority in setting the legislative agenda.

The president insisted on a focus upon immediate and specific issues facing the administration, and quickly voiced his impatience with hypothetical statements or ponderings of deeper meanings. A deputy national security advisor, Walt Whitman Rostow, once began a diatribe about the growth of communism and Kennedy abruptly cut him off, asking, "What do you want me to do about that today?"

Foreign policy

President Kennedy's foreign policy was dominated by American-Soviet relations. Foreign policy in large part revolved around proxy interventions in the context of the early stage Cold War. In 1961 Kennedy anxiously anticipated a summit with Nikita Khruschev. On the way to the summit was a stop in Paris in June to meet Charles de Gaulle, whose advice to Kennedy was to expect and ignore the abrasive style of Khruschev. Otherwise, the French Prime Minister was, as always, disdainful of the United States with its presumed influence in Europe. de Gaulle saw no reason why France should play a secondary role in foreign policy, including nuclear armament, and expressed this to Kennedy. Nevertheless de Gaulle was quite impressed with the young president and his wife and children. Kennedy picked up on this in his speech in Paris, saying he would be remembered as "the man who accompanied Jackie Kennedy to Paris."

Later that June, the president met with Khruschev in Vienna. He left the meetings angry and disappointed that he had allowed the Premier to bully him through much of the conversations, despite all the warnings about the bluster of the communist. Khruschev for his part was impressed with the president's intelligence but thought him weak. Kennedy did succeed in conveying the bottom line to Khruschev on the most sensitive issue before them, a proposed treaty between Moscow and East Berlin. He made it clear that any such treaty which interfered with U.S access rights in West Berlin would be regarded as an act of war.

Shortly after returning home Kennedy learned of the U.S.S.R.'s formal announcement of intent to treat with East Berlin, regardless of any third party occupation rights in either sector of the city. A depressed and angry president then assumed his obligation was to prepare the country for nuclear war, considered to be the only U.S. option if the Soviets' intent was acted upon, and which he then personally thought had a one in five chance of occurring.

In the weeks immediately after the Vienna summit, more than 20 thousand people fled from East Berlin to the western sector in reaction to statements from the U.S.S.R. Kennedy began intensive meetings on the Berlin issue, where Dean Acheson took the lead in recommending a military buildup with NATO allies as the appropriate response. In a July 1961 speech, Kennedy announced his decision to add $3.25 billion to the defense budget, along with over 200 thousand additional troops for the military, saying an attack on West Berlin would be taken as an attack on the U.S. The speech received an 85% approval rating. The following month, the U.S.S.R. and East Berlin officials began blocking any further passage of East Berliners into West Berlin, erecting barbed wire fences across the city. Kennedy's initial reaction was to ignore this, as long as free access from West to East Berlin continued. This course was altered when it was learned that the West Berliners had lost confidence in the defense of their position by the United States. Kennedy then sent V.P. Johnson, along with a host of other military personnel, in convoy through West Berlin to demonstrate the continued commitment of the U.S. to West Berlin.

Africa

John F. Kennedy gave a speech at Saint Anselm College on May 5, 1960, regarding America's conduct in the new realities of the emerging Cold War. Kennedy's speech detailed how American foreign policy should be conducted towards African nations, noting a hint of support for modern African nationalism by saying that "For we, too, founded a new nation on revolt from colonial rule".

Cuba and the Bay of Pigs Invasion

Prior to Kennedy's election to the presidency, the Eisenhower Administration created a plan to overthrow the Fidel Castro regime in Cuba. Central to the plan, led by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with help from the US Military but with no covert help from the United States, was the arming of a counter-revolutionary insurgency composed of anti-Castro Cuban exiles U.S.-trained Cuban insurgents, led by CIA paramilitary officers from the Special Activities Division, were to invade Cuba and instigate an uprising among the Cuban people in hopes of removing Castro from power. On April 17, 1961, Kennedy ordered the previously planned invasion of Cuba to proceed. In what is known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, 1,500 U.S.-trained Cubans, called "Brigade 2506," returned to the island in the hope of deposing Castro. However, in keeping with prior plans, no U.S. air support was provided. By April 19, 1961, the Cuban government had captured or killed the invading exiles, and Kennedy was forced to negotiate for the release of the 1,189 survivors. The failure of the plan originated in a lack of covert U.S. naval or air support in the face of organized artillery troops on the island who easily incapacitated the exile force as it landed on the beach. After twenty months, Cuba released the captured exiles in exchange for $53 million worth of food and medicine. Furthermore, the incident made Castro wary of the U.S. and led him to believe that another invasion would occur. According to biographer Richard Reeves, Kennedy primarily focused on the political repercussions of the plan rather than the military considerations; when it failed, he was convinced the plan was a set up by the Joint Chiefs to make him look bad.

Late in 1961 the White House formed the "Special Group (Augmented)", headed by brother Robert and including Edward Lansdale, Sec. McNamara and others; the group's objective was the overthrow of Castro via espionage, sabotage and other covert tactics.

Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis began on October 14, 1962, when CIA U-2 spy planes took photographs of a Soviet intermediate-range ballistic missile site under construction in Cuba. The photos were shown to Kennedy on October 16, 1962. The United States would soon be posed with a serious nuclear threat. Kennedy faced a dilemma: if the U.S. attacked the sites, it might lead to nuclear war with the U.S.S.R., but if the U.S. did nothing, it would endure the threat of nuclear weapons being launched from close range. Because the weapons were in such proximity, the U.S. might have been unable to retaliate if they were launched pre-emptively. Another consideration was that the U.S. would appear to the world as weak in its own hemisphere.

Many military officials and cabinet members pressed for an air assault on the missile sites, but Kennedy ordered a naval quarantine in which the U.S. Navy inspected all ships arriving in Cuba. He began negotiations with the Soviets and ordered the Soviets to remove all defensive material that was being built on Cuba. Without doing so, the Soviet and Cuban peoples would face naval quarantine. A week later, he and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev reached a basically cordial, lasting agreement. Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles subject to U.N. inspections if the U.S. publicly promised never to invade Cuba and quietly remove its Jupiter missiles stationed in Turkey. The removal of the Jupiter missiles was not a great concession as they were viewed as obsolete and Kennedy believed the US Navy Polarlis subs could fill their role. This crisis had brought the world closer to nuclear war than at any point before or since. In the end, "the humanity" of the two men prevailed.

Latin America and communism

Arguing that "those who make peaceful revolution impossible, will make violent revolution inevitable," Kennedy sought to contain communism in Latin America by establishing the Alliance for Progress, which sent foreign aid to troubled countries in the region and sought greater human rights standards in the region. He worked closely with Governor of Puerto Rico Luis Muñoz Marín for the development of the Alliance of Progress, as well as developments in the autonomy of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.

When the president took office the Eisenhower administration, through the CIA, has begun putting into place assassination plots in Cuba against Castro and in the Dominican Republic against Rafael Trujillo. Kennedy instructed the CIA privately that any such planning must include plausible deniability by the U.S.. His public position was in opposition. In June 1961 the Dominican Republic's leader was assassinated; in the days following the event, Undersecretary of State Chester Bowles led a cautious reaction by the nation, and Robert Kennedy, substituting for his brother who was in France, and who saw an opportunity for the U.S., called him "a gutless bastard" to his face.

Peace Corps

As one of his first presidential acts, Kennedy asked Congress to create the Peace Corps. Through this program, Americans volunteer to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, health care, and construction.

Southeast Asia

In his briefings of Kennedy, Eisenhower was quick to point out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos to be "the cork in the bottle" as regarded the regional threat. In March 1960 Kennedy voiced a change in policy from supporting a "free" Laos to a "neutral" Laos, indicating privately that Vietnam was the breaking point for communism's spread in the area in terms of a U.S. reaction. In May 1961 he dispatched Lyndon Johnson to meet with Diem. Johnson assured Diem of more aid in molding a fighting force that could resist the Communists. Kennedy announced a change of policy from support to partnership with Diem in defeat of communism in South Vietnam.

Otherwise, Kennedy generally followed Eisenhower's lead, by using limited military action to fight the Communist forces led by Ho Chi Minh. Proclaiming a fight against the spread of Communism, Kennedy continued policies providing political, economic, and military support for the unstable French-installed South Vietnamese government. Late in 1961, the Viet Cong began assuming a predominant presence, initially seizing the provincial capital of Phouc Vinh. Kennedy increased the number of helicopters, military advisors and U.S. Special Forces in the area, but he was still reluctant to make a full scale deployment of troops. Kennedy formally authorized the country's war footing in Southeast Asia when he signed the "National Security Action Memorandum - Subversive Insurgency (War of Liberation)" in early 1962. At that time, "Operation Ranch Hand", a broad scale defoliation effort began along the roadsides in South Vietnam. Two hundred thousand gallons of defoliant were shipped in violation of the Geneva Accords.

By July 1963, Kennedy faced a crisis in Vietnam: despite increased U.S. support, the South Vietnamese military was only marginally effective against pro-Communist Viet Minh and Viet Cong forces. Regarding Ngo Dinh Diem, the Catholic President of South Vietnam, as insufficiently anti-Communist, the U.S. gave secret assurances of non-interference for an impending coup d'état. On November 1, 1963, South Vietnamese generals overthrew the Diem government, arresting and then killing Diem (though the circumstances of his death were obfuscated). Kennedy sanctioned Diem's overthrow, but not his murder. One reason to support the coup was a fear that Diem might negotiate a neutralist coalition government which included Communists, as had occurred in Laos in 1962. Dean Rusk, Secretary of State, remarked "This kind of neutralism...is tantamount to surrender."

It remains a point of some controversy among historians whether or not Vietnam would have escalated to the point it did had Kennedy served out his full term and been re-elected in 1964. Fueling the debate are statements made by Kennedy and Johnson's Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara that Kennedy was strongly considering pulling out of Vietnam after the 1964 election. In the film "The Fog of War", not only does McNamara say this, but a tape recording of Lyndon Johnson confirms that Kennedy was planning to withdraw from Vietnam, a position Johnson states he strongly disapproved of. Additional evidence is Kennedy's National Security Action Memorandum (NSAM) 263, dated October 11, 1963, which ordered withdrawal of 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963. Nevertheless, given the stated reason for the overthrow of the Diem government, such action would have been a policy reversal, but Kennedy was generally moving in a less hawkish direction in the Cold War since his acclaimed speech about World Peace at American University the previous June 10, 1963. According to historian Lawrence Freedman, regarding Kennedy's statements about withdrawing from Vietnam, it was, "less of a definite decision than a working assumption, based on a hope for stability rather than an expectation of chaos".

The details of Kennedy's involvement in Vietnam remained classified until the release of the Pentagon Papers in 1971.

U.S. involvement in the area escalated until Lyndon Johnson, his successor, directly deployed regular U.S. military forces for fighting the Vietnam War.After Kennedy's assassination, the new President Lyndon B. Johnson immediately reversed his predecessor's order to withdraw 1,000 military personnel by the end of 1963 with his own NSAM 273 on November 26, 1963.

American University speech

On June 10, 1963, Kennedy delivered the commencement address at American University in Washington, D.C., proclaiming that "The United States, as the world knows, will never start a war. We do not want a war. We do not now expect a war," but cautioning that, "We shall be prepared if others wish it. We shall be alert to try to stop it. But we shall also do our part to build a world of peace where the weak are safe and the strong are just."

West Berlin speech

Under simultaneous and opposing pressures from the Allies and the Soviets, Germany was divided. The Berlin Wall separated West and East Berlin, the latter being under the control of the Soviets. On June 26, 1963, Kennedy visited West Berlin and gave a public speech criticizing communism. Kennedy used the construction of the Berlin Wall as an example of the failures of communism: "Freedom has many difficulties and democracy is not perfect, but we have never had to put a wall up to keep our people in." The speech is known for its famous phrase "Ich bin ein Berliner". Nearly five-sixths of the population was on the street when Kennedy said the famous phrase. He remarked to aides afterwards: "We'll never have another day like this one."

Israel

During Kennedy's time in office he encountered problems with the Israeli government regarding the production of nuclear weapons in Dimona. Although the existence of a nuclear plant was initially denied by the Israeli government, David Ben-Gurion, in a speech to the Israeli Knesset on December 21, 1960, stated that the purpose of the nuclear plant established at Beersheba was for "research in problems of arid zones and desert flora and fauna". When Ben-Gurion met with Kennedy in New York, he claimed that Dimona was being developed to provide nuclear power for desalinization and that "for the time being the only purposes are for peace". Kennedy did not believe this, and in May 1963 sent a letter to Ben-Gurion stating, "this commitment and this support would seriously be jeopardized in the public opinion in this country and the West as a whole if it should be thought that this Government was unable to obtain reliable information on a subject as vital to peace as Israel's efforts in the nuclear field." Ben-Gurion repeated previous reassurances that Dimona was being developed for peaceful purposes, and Israel firmly resisted American pressure to open its nuclear facilities to International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) inspections. According to Seymour Hersh, the Israelis set up false control rooms to show American inspectors. Abe Feinberg stated, "It was part of my job to tip them off that Kennedy was insisting on ." The State Department argued that if Israel wanted U.S. tanks, it should be prepared in return to accept international supervision of its nuclear program. Kennedy had tried to control the arms being sold and given to Israel because the Israelis would not sign the IAEA compacts for the Dimona nuclear site, would not fully admit its purpose and continued to insist it was for peaceful energy purposes. In early March 1965, the director of the State Department's Office of Near Eastern Affairs, Rodger P. Davies, had come to the conclusion that Israel was developing nuclear weapons. He reported that the target date for acquisition of a nuclear capability by Israel was 1968-69. A science attache at the embassy in Tel Aviv concluded that parts of the Dimona facility had been "purposely mothballed" to mislead American scientists during their visit. Dimona was never placed under IAEA safeguards despite efforts made by various U.S. administrators and presidents. On May 1, 1968, Undersecretary of State Katzenbach told President Johnson that Dimona was producing enough plutonium to produce two bombs a year. Attempts to write Israeli adherence to the NPT into contracts for the supply of U.S. weapons continued throughout 1968.

Iraq

In 1963, the Kennedy administration backed a coup against the government of Iraq headed by General Abdel Karim Kassem, who five years earlier had deposed the Western-allied Iraqi monarchy. The CIA helped the new Ba'ath Party government led by Abdul Salam Arif in ridding the country of suspected leftists and Communists. In a Ba'athist coup, the government used lists of suspected Communists and other leftists provided by the CIA, to systematically murder untold numbers of Iraq's educated elite—killings in which Saddam Hussein himself is said to have participated. The victims included hundreds of doctors, teachers, technicians, lawyers, and other professionals as well as military and political figures. According to an op-ed in The New York Times, the U.S. sent arms to the new regime, weapons later used against the same Kurdish insurgents the U.S. supported against Kassem and then abandoned him. American and UK oil and other interests, including Mobil, Bechtel, and British Petroleum, were conducting business in Iraq.

Ireland

On the occasion of his visit to the Republic of Ireland in 1963, President Kennedy joined with Irish President Éamon de Valera to form The American Irish Foundation. The mission of this organization was to foster connections between Americans of Irish descent and the country of their ancestry. Kennedy furthered these connections of cultural solidarity by accepting a grant of armorial bearings from the Chief Herald of Ireland. Kennedy had near-legendary status in Ireland, due to his ancestral ties to the country. Irish citizens who were alive in 1963 often have very strong memories of Kennedy's momentous visit. He also visited the original cottage at Dunganstown, near New Ross, where previous Kennedys had lived before emigrating to America, and said: "This is where it all began ..." On December 22, 2006, the Irish Department of Justice released declassified police documents that indicated that Kennedy was the subject of three death threats during this visit. Though these threats were determined to be hoaxes, security was heightened.

Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

Troubled by the long-term dangers of radioactive contamination and nuclear weapons proliferation, Kennedy pushed for the adoption of a Limited or Partial Test Ban Treaty, which prohibited atomic testing on the ground, in the atmosphere, or underwater, but did not underground. In the Vienna summit meeting in June 1961, Khrushchev and Kennedy reached an informal understanding against nuclear testing. However, Khrushchev began testing nuclear weapons that September. Kennedy responded by conducting tests 5 days later. Shortly thereafter new U.S satellites began delivering images which made it clear that the Soviets were substantially behind the U.S. in the "missile gap". Nevertheless, the greater nuclear strength of the U.S. was of little value as long as the U.S.S.R. perceived themselves to be at parity.

Ultimately, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union were the initial signatories to a treaty, which Kennedy signed into law in August 1963.

Domestic policy

Kennedy called his domestic program the "New Frontier". It ambitiously promised federal funding for education, medical care for the elderly, economic aid to rural regions, and government intervention to halt the recession. Kennedy also promised an end to racial discrimination. In 1963, he proposed a tax reform which included income tax cuts, but this was not passed by Congress until 1964, after his death. Few of Kennedy's major programs passed Congress during his lifetime, although, under his successor Johnson, Congress did vote them through in 1964–65.

Economy

Kennedy ended a period of tight fiscal policies, loosening monetary policy to keep interest rates down and encourage growth of the economy. Kennedy presided over the first government budget to top the $100 billion mark, in 1962, and his first budget in 1961 led to the country's first non-war, non-recession deficit. The economy, which had been through two recessions in three years and was in one when Kennedy took office, accelerated notably during his brief presidency. Despite low inflation and interest rates, GDP had grown by an average of only 2.2% during the Eisenhower presidency (scarcely more than population growth at the time), and had declined by 1% during Eisenhower's last twelve months in office. Stagnation had taken a toll on the nation's labor market, as well: unemployment had risen steadily from under 3% in 1953 to 7%, by early 1961.

The economy turned around and prospered during the Kennedy administration. GDP expanded by an average of 5.5% from early 1961 to late 1963, while inflation remained steady at around 1% and unemployment began to ease; industrial production rose by 15% and motor vehicle sales leapt by 40%. This rate of growth in GDP and industry continued until around 1966, and has yet to be repeated for such a sustained period of time. There were nevertheless some painful moments, as in the stock market, which had steadily declined since Kennedy's election, and which dropped a full 10% shortly after the administration's attack on the steel industry in 1962.

The major steel companies announced in April of 1962 an identical 3.5% price increase within a day of each other. This came just days after the companies had reached a settlement (also identical) with the steelworkers' union, keeping their wage increase within 2.5%. The administration was furious, with Kennedy saying, "Why did they do this? Do they think they can get away with this? God, I hate the bastards." The president took personal charge of a campaign against the industry, assigning to each cabinet member a statement regarding the effects of the price increase on their area. Robert Kennedy hit the hardest, saying "We're going for broke...their expense accounts, where they've been and what they've been doing...the FBI is to interview them all...we can't lose this." Robert took the position that the steel executives had illegally colluded in doing this. There was genuine concern about the inflationary effects of the price increase. The administration's actions influenced US Steel not to institute the price increase. The Wall Street Journal wrote that the administration had acted "by naked power, by threats, by agents of the state security police." Yale law professor Charles Reich wrote in The New Republic his opinion that the administration had violated civil liberties by calling a grand jury to indict US Steel for collusion so quickly. A New York Times editorial praised Kennedy's actions and said that the steel industry's price increase "imperils the economic welfare of the country by inviting a tidal wave of inflation." Nevertheless, the administration's Bureau of Budget reported the price increase would have resulted in a net gain for GDP as well as a net budget surplus.

Kennedy had little knowledge of the agricultural sector of the economy, and farmers were definitely not on his list of priorities, at least in his 1960 campaign. After giving a speech to a farming community, he rhetorically asked an aide, "Did you understand any of what I just said in there? I sure didn't." And after his last such speech on the campaign trail he remarked, "F*** the farmers after November."

Federal and military death penalty

As President, Kennedy oversaw the last pre-Furman federal execution, and, as of 2008, the last military execution. Governor of Iowa Harold Hughes, a death penalty opponent, personally contacted Kennedy to request clemency for Victor Feguer, who was sentenced to death by a federal court in Iowa, but Kennedy turned down the request and Feguer was executed on March 15, 1963. Kennedy commuted a death sentence imposed by military court on seaman Jimmie Henderson on February 12, 1962, changing the penalty to life in prison.

On March 22, 1962, Kennedy signed into law HR5143 (PL87-423), abolishing the mandatory death penalty for first degree murder in the District of Columbia, the only remaining jurisdiction in the United States with a mandatory death sentence for first degree murder, replacing it with life imprisonment with parole if the jury could not decide between life imprisonment and the death penalty, or if the jury chose life imprisonment by a unanimous vote. The death penalty in the District of Columbia has not been applied since 1957, and has now been abolished.

Civil rights

The turbulent end of state-sanctioned racial discrimination was one of the most pressing domestic issues of Kennedy's era. The United States Supreme Court had ruled in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. However, many schools, especially in southern states, did not obey the Supreme Court's judgment. Segregation on buses, in restaurants, movie theaters, bathrooms, and other public places continued despite prohibition by the Court. Kennedy verbally supported racial integration and civil rights, and during the 1960 campaign he telephoned Coretta Scott King, wife of the jailed Reverend Martin Luther King, Jr., which perhaps drew some additional black support to his candidacy. John and Robert Kennedy's intervention secured the early release of King from jail.

Nevertheless President Kennedy initially believed the grass roots movement for civil rights would only anger many Southern whites and make it even more difficult to pass civil rights laws through Congress, which was dominated by conservative Southern Democrats, and he distanced himself from it. He also was more concerned with other issues early in his presidency, e.g. the Bay of Pigs fiasco and the upheaval in Southeast Asia. As articulated by brother Robert, the political priority then was to keep the president out of "this civil rights mess". As a result, many civil rights leaders viewed Kennedy as unsupportive of their efforts, especially as concerned the Freedom Riders who organized an integrated public transportation effort in the south, and who were repeatedly met with violence by whites, including some law enforcement both federal and state. Kennedy assigned federal marshals to protect the Freedom Riders as an alternative to using federal troops or uncooperative FBI agents. Robert Kennedy, speaking for the president, urged the Freedom Riders to get off the buses and leave the matter to peaceful settlement in the courts.

In September 1962, James Meredith tried to enroll at the University of Mississippi, but he was prevented from doing so by white students and other Mississippians. Robert Kennedy, then Attorney General, responded by sending some 400 U.S. Marshals, while President Kennedy reluctantly sent about 3,000 federal troops after the situation on campus turned violent. Riots at the campus left two dead and dozens injured. Meredith finally enrolled in his first class.

On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy intervened when Alabama Governor George Wallace blocked the doorway to the University of Alabama to stop two African American students, Vivian Malone and James Hood, from enrolling. Wallace moved aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach and the Alabama National Guard. That evening Kennedy gave his famous civil rights address on national television and radio. Kennedy proposed what would become the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

Kennedy signed the executive order creating the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in 1961. Commission statistics revealed that women were also experiencing discrimination. Their final report documenting legal and cultural barriers was issued in October 1963, a month before Kennedy's assassination.

Civil liberties

In 1963, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who hated civil-rights leader Martin Luther King, Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker, presented the Kennedy Administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned that the allegations, if made public, would derail the Administration's civil rights initiatives, Robert Kennedy warned King to discontinue the suspect associations, and later felt compelled to issue a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King's civil rights organization. Although Kennedy only gave written approval for limited wiretapping of King's phones "on a trial basis, for a month or so", Hoover extended the clearance so his men were "unshackled" to look for evidence in any areas of King's life they deemed worthy. The wire tapping continued through June 1966 and was revealed in 1968.

Immigration

John F. Kennedy initially proposed an overhaul of American immigration policy that later was to become the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, sponsored by Kennedy's brother Senator Edward Kennedy. It dramatically shifted the source of immigration from Northern and Western European countries towards immigration from Latin America and Asia and shifted the emphasis of selection of immigrants towards facilitating family reunification. Kennedy wanted to dismantle the selection of immigrants based on country of origin and saw this as an extension of his civil rights policies.

Space program

As a senator, Kennedy had been generally opposed to the space program. Early in his presidency he was poised to dismantle the Apollo program but postponed any decision out of deference to his Vice President whom he had appointed chairman of the U.S. Space Council and strongly supported NASA due to its Texas location.

This changed with his 1961 State of the Union. Kennedy was then eager for the United States to take the lead in the Space Race. Sergei Khrushchev says Kennedy approached his father, Nikita, twice about a "joint venture" in space exploration—in June 1961 and autumn 1963. On the first occasion, the Soviet Union was far ahead of America in terms of space technology. Kennedy first announced the goal for landing a man on the Moon in the speech to a Joint Session of Congress on May 25, 1961, saying

"First, I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him back safely to the earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish."

Kennedy later made a speech at Rice University on September 12, 1962, in which he said

"No nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in this race for space."

and

"We choose to go to the Moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard."

On November 21, 1962, however, in a Cabinet Room meeting with NASA Administrator James Webb and other officials, Kennedy said

"This is important for political reasons, international political reasons... Because otherwise we shouldn't be spending this kind of money, because I'm not that interested in space. I think it's good, I think we ought to know about it, we're ready to spend reasonable amounts of money. But...we’ve spent fantastic expenditures, we’ve wrecked our budget on all these other domestic programs, and the only justification for it, in my opinion, to do it in the pell-mell fashion is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple of years, by God, we passed them. I think it would be a helluva thing for us."

On the second approach to Khrushchev, the Ukrainian was persuaded that cost-sharing was beneficial and that American space technology was forging ahead. The U.S. had launched a geosynchronous satellite and Kennedy had asked Congress to approve more than $25 billion for the Apollo program.

In September 1963, during a speech before the United Nations, Kennedy again proposed a joint lunar program to the Soviet Union. The proposal was not enthusiastically received by Khrushchev. Kennedy's death only a little more than a month later essentially made the proposal irrelevant. On July 20, 1969, almost six years after his death, Apollo's goal was realized when Americans landed on the Moon.

Native American relations

Construction of the Kinzua Dam flooded 10,000 acres (4,047 ha) of Seneca nation land that they occupied under the Treaty of 1794, and forced approximately 600 Seneca to relocate to the northern shores upstream of the dam at Salamanca, New York. Kennedy was asked by the American Civil Liberties Union to intervene and halt the project but he declined citing a critical need for flood control. He did express concern for the plight of the Seneca, and directed government agencies to assist in obtaining more land, damages, and assistance to help mitigate their displacement.

Assassination

President Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, at 12:30 p.m. Central Standard Time on November 22, 1963, while on a political trip to Texas to smooth over factions in the Democratic Party between liberals Ralph Yarborough and Don Yarborough (no relation) and conservative John Connally. He was shot once in the upper back and was killed with a final shot to the head. He was pronounced dead at 1:00 p.m. Only 46, President Kennedy died younger than any U.S. president to date. Lee Harvey Oswald, an employee of the Texas School Book Depository from which the shots were suspected to have been fired, was arrested on charges of the murder of a local police officer and was subsequently charged with the assassination of Kennedy. He denied shooting anyone, claiming he was a patsy, but was killed by Jack Ruby on November 24, before he could be indicted or tried. Ruby was then arrested and convicted for the murder of Oswald. Ruby successfully appealed his conviction and death sentence but became ill and died of cancer on 3 January 1967 while the date for his new trial was being set.

President Johnson created the Warren Commission—chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren—to investigate the assassination, which concluded that Oswald was the lone assassin. The results of this investigation are disputed by many.

Burial

On November 25, 1963, John F. Kennedy's body was buried in a small plot, (20 by 30 ft.), in Arlington National Cemetery. Over a period of 3 years, (1964–1966), an estimated 16 million people had visited his grave. On March 14, 1967, Kennedy's body was moved to a permanent burial plot and memorial at Arlington National Cemetery. The funeral was officiated by Father John J Cavanaugh.

The honor guard at JFK`s graveside was the 37th Cadet Class of the Irish Army. JFK was greatly impressed by the Irish Cadets on his last official visit to the Republic of Ireland, so much so that Jackie Kennedy requested the Irish Army to be the honor guard at the funeral.

Kennedy's wife, Jacqueline and their two deceased minor children were buried with him later. His brother, Senator Robert Kennedy, was buried nearby in June 1968. In August 2009, his brother, Senator Edward M. Kennedy, was also buried near his two brothers. JFK's grave is lit with an "Eternal Flame." Kennedy and William Howard Taft are the only two U.S. Presidents buried at Arlington.

Administration, Cabinet and judicial appointments 1961–1963

The Kennedy Cabinet OFFICE NAME TERM President John F. Kennedy 1961–1963 Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson 1961–1963 State Dean Rusk 1961–1963 Treasury C. Douglas Dillon 1961–1963 Defense Robert S. McNamara 1961–1963 Justice Robert F. Kennedy 1961–1963 Postmaster General J. Edward Day 1961–1963   John A. Gronouski 1963 Interior Stewart L. Udall 1961–1963 Agriculture Orville L. Freeman 1961–1963 Commerce Luther H. Hodges 1961–1963 Labor Arthur J. Goldberg 1961–1962   W. Willard Wirtz 1962–1963 HEW Abraham A. Ribicoff 1961–1962   Anthony J. Celebrezze 1962–1963

Judicial appointments Supreme Court Main article: John F. Kennedy Supreme Court candidates Kennedy appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: Byron Raymond White– 1962 Arthur Joseph Goldberg– 1962 Further information: ] Other courts Main article: John F. Kennedy judicial appointments In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments, Kennedy appointed 21 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals, and 102 judges to the United States district courts.

Image, social life and family

John Kennedy met his future wife, Jacqueline Bouvier, when he was a congressman. They were married a year after he was elected senator, on September 12, 1953. Kennedy and his wife were younger in comparison to presidents and first ladies that preceded them, and both were popular in ways more common to pop singers and movie stars than politicians, influencing fashion trends and becoming the subjects of numerous photo spreads in popular magazines. Although Eisenhower had allowed presidential press conferences to be filmed for television, Kennedy was the first president to ask for them to be broadcast live and made good use of the medium. Jacqueline brought new art and furniture to the White House, and directed a restoration. They invited a range of artists, writers and intellectuals to rounds of White House dinners, raising the profile of the arts in America. The Kennedy family is one of the most established political families in the United States, having produced a President, three senators, and multiple other Representatives, both on the federal and state level. Jack Kennedy's father, Joseph P. Kennedy was a prominent American businessman and political figure, serving in multiple roles, including Ambassador to the United Kingdom, from 1938 to 1940.

Outside on the White House lawn, the Kennedys established a swimming pool and tree house, while Caroline attended a preschool along with 10 other children inside the home.

The president was closely tied to popular culture, emphasized by songs such as "Twisting at the White House." Vaughn Meader's First Family comedy album—an album parodying the President, First Lady, their family and administration—sold about four million copies. On May 19, 1962, Marilyn Monroe sang 'Happy Birthday' for the president at a large party in Madison Square Garden. The charisma of Kennedy and his family led to the figurative designation of "Camelot" for his administration, credited by his wife to his affection for the contemporary Broadway musical of the same name.

Behind the glamorous facade, the Kennedys also experienced many personal tragedies. Jacqueline had a miscarriage in 1955 and a stillbirth in 1956. Their newborn son, Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, died in August 1963. Kennedy had two children who survived infancy. One of the fundamental aspects of the Kennedy family is a tragic strain which has run through the family, as a result of the violent and untimely deaths of many of its members. John's eldest brother, Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr., died in World War II, at the age of 29. It was Joe Jr. who was originally to carry the family's hopes for the Presidency. Then of course both John himself, and his brother Robert died as a result of assassinations. Edward had brushes with death, the first in a plane crash and the second as a result of a car accident, known as the Chappaquiddick incident. Edward died, at age 77, on August 25, 2009 from the effects of a malignant brain tumor.

Years after his death, it was revealed that in September 1947, at age 30 and while in his first term in Congress, President Kennedy was diagnosed by Sir Daniel Davis at The London Clinic with Addison's disease, a rare endocrine disorder. In 1966, his White House doctor, Janet Travell, revealed that Kennedy also had hypothyroidism. The presence of two endocrine diseases, Addison's Disease and hypothyroidism, raises the possibility that Kennedy had autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome type 2 (APS 2). He also suffered from chronic and severe back pain, for which he had surgery and was written up in the AMA's Archives of Surgery. Kennedy at one time was regularly seen by no less than three doctors, one of which was unknown to the other two, as his mode of treatment was for the most severe bouts of pain. There was often disagreement among his doctors, as in late 1961, over the proper balance of medication and exercise, with the president preferring the former as he was short on time and desired immediate relief. Details of these and other medical problems were not publicly disclosed during Kennedy's lifetime.

Caroline Bouvier Kennedy was born in 1957 and is the only surviving member of JFK's immediate family. John F. Kennedy, Jr. was born in 1960, just a few weeks after his father was elected. John died in 1999 when the small plane he was piloting crashed en route to Martha's Vineyard, killing him, his wife Carolyn Bessette and his sister-in-law.

In October 1951, during his third term as Massachusetts's 11th district congressman, the then 34-year-old Kennedy embarked on a seven-week Asian trip to India, Japan, Vietnam, and Israel with his then 25-year-old brother Robert (who had just graduated from law school four months earlier) and his then 27-year-old sister Patricia. Because of their eight-year separation in age, the two brothers had previously seen little of each other. This 25,000-mile (40,000 km) trip was the first extended time they had spent together and resulted in their becoming best friends in addition to being brothers. Robert was campaign manager for Kennedy's successful 1952 Senate campaign and later successful 1960 presidential campaign. The two brothers worked closely together from 1957 to 1959 on the Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in the Labor and Management Field when Robert was its chief counsel. During Kennedy's presidency, Robert served in his cabinet as Attorney General and was his closest advisor.

Kennedy is reported to have had affairs with individuals such as Marilyn Monroe, Gunilla von Post, Judith Campbell and Mimi Beardsley Alford. Mary Pinchot Meyer, a paramour of JFK, claimed she was using LSD to change the awareness of men in power; her supplier was Timothy Leary, the LSD guru. The president asked a flabbergasted Harold Macmillan, "I wonder how it is for you, Harold? If I don't have a woman for three days, I get terrible headaches." Kennedy inspired affection and loyalty from the members of his team. According to Reeves, this included "the logistics of Kennedy's liasons with Judith Campbell and dozens of other women... required secrecy and devotion rare in the annals of the energetic service demanded by successful politicians." . Kennedy came in third (behind Martin Luther King, Jr. and Mother Teresa) in Gallup's List of Widely Admired People of the twentieth century.

Ancestors

It is in Dunganstown, County Wexford, that the Kennedy story begins. In 1848, Patrick Kennedy left his farm and boarded a ship in New Ross bound for Liverpool on his way to Boston. It was here he met the woman he was to marry, Bridget Murphy.

Patrick Kennedy came to Boston, took a job as a migrant worker, and died within eight or nine years, of cholera. He left behind a widow and children. It was his wife, Bridget, who carried on.

Legacy

Television became the primary source by which people were kept informed of events surrounding John F. Kennedy's assassination. Newspapers were kept as souvenirs rather than sources of updated information. In this sense it was the first major "tv news event" of its kind, the tv coverage uniting the nation, interpreting what went on and creating memories of this space in time. All three major U.S. television networks suspended their regular schedules and switched to all-news coverage from November 22 through November 25, 1963, being on the air for no less than 70 hours, making it the longest uninterrupted news event on American tv until 9/11. The record was broken only just before 13:00 UTC, September 14, 2001, by which time the networks had been on for 72 hours straight, covering the terror attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon. Kennedy's state funeral procession and the murder of Lee Harvey Oswald were all broadcast live in America and in other places around the world. The state funeral was the first of three in a span of 12 months: The other two were for General Douglas MacArthur and Herbert Hoover.

The assassination had an effect on many people, not only in the U.S. but around the world. Many vividly remember where they were when first learning of the news that Kennedy was assassinated, as with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 before it and the September 11 attacks after it. U.N. Ambassador Adlai Stevenson said of the assassination: "all of us... will bear the grief of his death until the day of ours." Many people have also spoken of the shocking news, compounded by the pall of uncertainty about the identity of the assassin(s), the possible instigators and the causes of the killing as an end to innocence, and in retrospect it has been coalesced with other changes of the tumultuous decade of the 1960s, especially the Vietnam War.

Special Forces have a special bond with Kennedy. "It was President Kennedy who was responsible for the rebuilding of the Special Forces and giving us back our Green Beret," said Forrest Lindley, a writer for the newspaper Stars and Stripes who served with Special Forces in Vietnam. This bond was shown at JFK's funeral. At the commemoration of the 25th anniversary of JFK's death, Gen. Michael D. Healy, the last commander of Special Forces in Vietnam, spoke at Arlington Cemetery. Later, a wreath in the form of the Green Beret would be placed on the grave, continuing a tradition that began the day of his funeral when a sergeant in charge of a detail of Special Forces men guarding the grave placed his beret on the coffin.

Ultimately, the death of President Kennedy and the ensuing confusion surrounding the facts of his assassination are of political and historical importance insofar as they marked a turning point and decline in the faith of the American people in the political establishment—a point made by commentators from Gore Vidal to Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. and implied by Oliver Stone in several of his films, such as his landmark 1991 JFK.

Kennedy's continuation of Presidents Harry S. Truman and Dwight D. Eisenhower's policies of giving economic and military aid to the Vietnam War preceded President Johnson's escalation of the conflict. This contributed to a decade of national difficulties and disappointment on the political landscape.

Many of Kennedy's speeches (especially his inaugural address) are considered iconic; and despite his relatively short term in office and lack of major legislative changes coming to fruition during his term, Americans regularly vote him as one of the best presidents, in the same league as Abraham Lincoln, George Washington, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. Some excerpts of Kennedy's inaugural address are engraved on a plaque at his grave at Arlington.

He was posthumously awarded the Pacem in Terris Award. It was named after a 1963 encyclical letter by Pope John XXIII that calls upon all people of goodwill to secure peace among all nations. Pacem in Terris is Latin for 'Peace on Earth.'

President Kennedy is the only president to have predeceased both his mother and father. He is also the only president to have predeceased a grandparent. His grandmother, Mary Josephine Hannon Fitzgerald, died in 1964, just over eight months after his assassination.

Eponyms

• John F. Kennedy International Airport, American facility (renamed from Idlewild in December 1963) in New York City's Queens County; nation's busiest international gateway
• John F. Kennedy Memorial Airport American facility in Ashland County, Wisconsin, near city of Ashland
• John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge American seven-lane transportation hub across Ohio River; completed in late 1963, the bridge links Kentucky and Indiana
• John F. Kennedy School of Government, American institution (renamed from Harvard Graduate School of Public Administration in 1966)
• John F. Kennedy Space Center, U.S. government installation that manages and operates America's astronaut launch facilities
• John F. Kennedy University, American private educational institution founded in California in 1964; locations in Pleasant Hill, Campbell, Berkeley, and Santa Cruz
• USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67), U.S. Navy aircraft carrier ordered in April 1964, launched May 1967, decommissioned August 2007; nicknamed "Big John"
• John F. Kennedy High Schools in multiple localities

Memorials

Coat of arms

In 1961, Kennedy was presented with a grant of arms for all the descendants of Patrick Kennedy from the Chief Herald of Ireland. The design of the arms strongly alludes to symbols in the coats of arms of the O'Kennedys of Ormonde and the Fitzgeralds of Desmond, from whom the family is believed to be descended. The crest is an armored hand holding four arrows between two olive branches, elements taken from the coat of arms of the United States of America and also symbolic of Kennedy and his brothers.

Kennedy received a signet ring engraved with his arms for his 44th birthday as a gift from his wife, and the arms were incorporated into the seal of the USS John F. Kennedy. Following his assassination, Kennedy was honored by the Canadian government by having a mountain, Mount Kennedy, named for him, which his brother, Robert Kennedy, climbed in 1965 to plant a banner of the arms at the summit.

Media

• The White House Situation Room reports on the assassination to an airplane with several Cabinet members as it flies to Hawaii, Nov 22,1963 (MP3 format 7.5 MB 33-Min.)

See also

• Abraham Zapruder, photographer of the primary film of assassination, the Zapruder film.
• History of the United States (1945–1964)
• John F. Kennedy International Airport
• Jesuit Ivy
• JFK Reloaded, a video game
• Kennedy Curse
• Kennedy Doctrine
• Lincoln Kennedy coincidences urban legend
• List of assassinated American politicians
• List of Presidents of the United States
• List of United States Presidents who died in office
• Operation Northwoods
• Orville Nix, photographer of the second film of assassination
• Peace Corps
• Robert F. Kennedy assassination
• "Senator, you're no Jack Kennedy" retort by Senator Lloyd Bentsen, 1988 VP debate

• U.S. Presidents on U.S. postage stamps

Footnotes

1. "Obama joins list of seven presidents with Harvard degrees". Harvard Gazette. Harvard University. November 6, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
2. ^ "John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum". Jfklibrary.org. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
3. Theodore Roosevelt was 9 months younger when he first assumed the presidency on September 14, 1901, but he was not elected to the presidency until 1904, when he was 46.
4. ^ "The Sixties". Junior Scholastic. February 11, 1994. {{cite news}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
5. "FAQ". Pulitzer.org. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
6. American Experience: John F. Kennedy, PBS. Retrieved on February 25, 2007.
7. "John Fitzgerald Kennedy National Historic site" (HHTML). Retrieved February 8, 2008.
8. "John F. Kennedy Miscellaneous Information". JFK library. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
9. Nigel Hamilton, JFK: Reckless Youth (New York, 1992)
10. No Writer Attributed (May 5, 1937). ""Memorial Hall Auditorium Filled to Capacity at Annual Freshman Smoker," The Harvard Crimson, May 5, 1937". Thecrimson.com. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
11. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, p. 7.
12. Kennedy, John F. (October 16, 1981). Why England Slept. Greenwood Press Reprint. ISBN 9780313228742.; Jean Edward Smith, "Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years", Air University Review, (Mar-Apr, 1967)
13. Ballard, Robert (2002) Collision with History: The Search for John F. Kennedy's PT 109, pp. 12, 36.
14. "Lieutenant John F. Kennedy, USN". Naval Historical Center. June 18, 2002. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
15. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, pp 99, 100.
16. Hove, Duane (2003) American Warriors: Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II Bard Street Press ISBN 1-57249-307-0
17. Hove, Duane T. "Five Presidents in the Pacific Theater of World War II". Retrieved September 17, 2007.
18. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, pp. 106-107.
19. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, pp. 123-124.
20. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, pp. 125-126, 141-142, 162-164.
21. Pearson, Drew: "Jack Missed Court Martial" Milwaukee Sentinel, July 10, 1960
22. Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, pp. 172–184.
23. "John F. Kennedy and PT109". JFK library. Retrieved December 27, 2009.
24. Ted Chamberlain (July 11, 2002) JFK's PT-109 Found, U.S. Navy Confirms (National Geographic News).
25. Cover story, Time magazine, January 20, 1961
26. ^ Edward Smith, Dr. Jean (1967-03). "Kennedy and Defense The formative years". Air University Review. Retrieved September 18, 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
27. Tofel, Richard J. (May 9, 2008). "Wall Street Journal, May 9, 2008, p W3, review of ''Counselor'', by Ted Sorensen". Online.wsj.com. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
28. ^ O'Brien (2005) p 370.
29. O'Brien (2005) p 370,
30. O'Brien (2005) pp 370, 371.
31. O'Brien (2005) p 372.
32. O'Brien (2005) p 374.
33. Schlesinger (2002) (re-print), p 214.
34. T. Reeves, A Question of Character, p 140.
35. O'Brien (2005) pp 274–79, 394–99.
36. Kennedy, John F. (July 15, 1960). "Address of Senator John F. Kennedy Accepting the Democratic Party Nomination for the Presidency of the United States". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved May 25, 2010. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |separator= ignored (help)
37. Kennedy, John F. (June 18, 2002). "Address to the Greater Houston Ministerial Association". American Rhetoric. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
38. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 15
39. Tyner Allen, Erika. "The Kennedy-Nixon Presidential Debates, 1960". museum.tv. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
40. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 21
41. Kennedy, John F. (January 20, 1961). "Inaugural Address of President John F. Kennedy". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved May 25, 2010.
42. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 22.
43. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 23.
44. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 25.
45. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 46-47.
46. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 60-61.
47. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 56.
48. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 66.
49. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 145.
50. ^ Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 161-171.
51. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 175.
52. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 185.
53. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 201.
54. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 213.
55. "Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy at Saint Anselm's College, Manchester, New Hampshire, March 5, 1960 - John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum". Jfklibrary.org. March 5, 1960. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
56. Wyden, Peter, Bay of Pigs: The Untold Story, Simon and Shuster, (1979)
57. ^ Schlesinger, Robert Kennedy and His Times
58. Lynch, Grayston L. Decision for Disaster Betrayal at the Bay of Pigs, Potomac Books, Inc. (2000)
59. Jean Edward Smith, "Bay of Pigs: The Unanswered Questions", The Nation, April 13, 1964
60. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp.95-97
61. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.264
62. Kenney, Charles (2000), John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio, pp. 184-186.
63. Kenney, Charles (2000), John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio, p. 189.
64. JFK's "Address on the First Anniversary of the Alliance for Progress," White House reception for diplomatic cors of the Latin American republics, March 13, 1962. Public Papers of the Presidents – John F. Kennedy (1962), p. 223.
65. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 140-142.
66. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 152.
67. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 75.
68. Karnow, S. Vietnam: A History, p. 230.
69. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 119.
70. ^ Dunnigan, James and Nofi, Albert, Dirty Little Secrets of the Vietnam War. p 257.
71. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.240
72. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.242
73. "Vietnam War". College Peace Collection. {{cite web}}: External link in |publisher= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help)
74. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.281
75. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.283
76. LeFeber, "America, Russia and the Cold War", p.233
77. "CIA Memo: "Press Version of How Diem and Nhu Died"" (PDF). Central Intelligence Agency Office of Current Intelligence. Central Intelligence Agency. November 12, 1963. Retrieved September 18, 2007.See also Arrest and assassination of Ngô Đình Diệm
78. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 43–46. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
79. Ellis, Joseph J. (2000). "Making Vietnam History". Reviews in American History. 28 (4): 625–629. doi:10.1353/rah.2000.0068.
80. The Fog of War: Eleven Lessons from the Life of Robert S. McNamara
81. NSAM 263, Oct. 11, 1963
82. See John M. Newman, JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (1992).
83. "1963 Commencement" June 10, 1963. Retrieved February 14, 2010.
84. Lawrence Freedman, Kennedy's wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos, and Vietnam (2002) p. 399
85. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. pp. 40–41. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
86. Karnow, S. Vietnam: A History, p. 339.
87. "Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq". Pew Research Center. 2002. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Invalid |ref=harv (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (archived from the original on 2 February 2008).
88. NSAM 273, Nov. 26, 1963
89. Air Force One: Planes and the Presidents: Flight II, hosted and narrated by Charlton Heston. AP White House Correspondent Frank Cormier said that 5/6 of the population was on the street when Kennedy gave that famous phrase.
90. Jean Edward Smith, The Defense of Berlin, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963; Jean Edward Smith, The Wall as Watershed, Arlington, Virginia: Institute for Defense Analysis, 1966.
91. Walsh, Kenneth T. (2003). Air Force One: A History of the Presidents and Their Planes. New York: Hyperion.
92. ^ Salt, Jermey (2008). The Unmaking of The Middle East. University of California. p. 201.
93. ^ Salt, Jermey (2008). The Unmaking of The Middle East. University of California. p. 202.
94. ^ Salt, Jermey (2008). The Unmaking of The Middle East. University of California. p. 203.
95. ^ Salt, Jermey (2008). The Unmaking of The Middle East. University of California. p. 205.
96. ^ "A Tyrant 40 Years in the Making". New York Times. December 15, 2003. Retrieved September 18, 2007.
97. "The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq", Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978; Peter and Marion Sluglett, "Iraq Since 1958" London, I.B. Taurus, 1990
98. Regarding the CIA's "Health Alteration Committee's work in Iraq, see U.S. Senate's Church Committee Interim Report on Assassination, page 181, Note 1
99. "1963: Warm welcome for JFK in Ireland". BBC. June 27, 1963. Retrieved October 4, 2007.
100. "JFK faced 3 death threats during '63 visit to Ireland| Deseret News (Salt Lake City)| Find Articles at BNET.com". Findarticles.com. December 29, 2006. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
101. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.227
102. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.229
103. ^ Reeves, Richard (1993), p.243
104. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 293. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
105. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 324. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
106. ^ "BEA: quarterly GDP figures by sector, 1953-1964". Bea.gov. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
107. ^ "Bureau of Labor Statistics: Employment & Unemployment". Data.bls.gov. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
108. "Statistical Abstract of the United States: Historical price indices" (PDF). Retrieved March 28, 2010.
109. "Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1964" (PDF). Retrieved March 28, 2010.
110. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.318-320
111. Reeves, Richard (1993), p.298
112. "Smiting the Foe". TIME. April 20, 1962.
113. ^ O'Brien, Michael (2005). John F. Kennedy. Macmillan. ISBN 9780312281298. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
114. "Inflation in Steel". New York Times. April 12, 1962.
115. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp.300
116. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 277
117. Executions 1790 to 1963
118. Carey Goldberg (May 6, 2001). "Federal Executions Have Been Rare but May Increase". The New York Times.
119. "Letter from Kennedy to the Attorney General". Thesmokinggun.com. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
120. Riechmann, Deb (July 29, 2008). "Bush: Former Army cook's crimes warrant execution". ABC News. Associated Press. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
121. Whealan, Ronald E. (December 5, 2005). "March 22, 1962 - The White House Diary". John F. Kennedy Library. Retrieved August 28, 2009.
122. Whealan, Ronald E. (January 19, 2006). "Kennedy Legislative Record, Page 2 - Summary of the Three Year Kennedy Record (Legislation)". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library. Retrieved August 28, 2009.
123. "Norton Letter to U.S. Attorney Says Death Penalty Trial That Begins Today Part of Troubling and Futile Pattern". Office of Congresswoman Eleanor Holmes Norton. January 8, 2007. Retrieved August 28, 2009.
124. Brown, Mitchell. "Martin Luther King, Jr. Chronology". Louisiana State University. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
125. Bryant, Nick (2006). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (53): 60, 66. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
126. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp. 123-126.
127. Bryant, Nick (2006). "Black Man Who Was Crazy Enough to Apply to Ole Miss". The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (53): 71. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
128. Kennedy, John F. "Civil Rights Address". AmericanRhetoric.com. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
129. "Nation Celebrates Anniversary Of Landmark Civil Rights Law". US Department of State. Retrieved 2008-11-214. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
130. Davis, F. (1999). Moving the mountain: The Women's Movement in America since 1960. Chicago: University of Illinois. See also: Martin, J. M. (2003). The Presidency and Women: Promise, Performance, and Illusion. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M.
131. "The FBI's War on King". American Public Radio. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
132. Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 41. ISBN 0465041957. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
133. Herst, Burton (2007). Bobby and J. Edger, Carroll & Graf: New York, New York. ISBN 0-78671-982-6. p 372
134. Herst, Burton, (2007) pp 372-374
135. Garrow, David J. (2002-07/08). "The FBI and Martin Luther King". The Atlantic Monthly. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
136. Ludden, Jennifer. "Q&A: Sen. Kennedy on Immigration, Then & Now". NPR. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
137. "From Press Office: Senator John F. Kennedy, Immigration and Naturalization Laws, Hyannis Inn Motel, Hyannis, MA". americanpresidency.org. August 6, 1960. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
138. Kenney, Charles (2000), John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio, pp. 115-116.
139. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 138.
140. Kennedy, John F. (May 25, 1961). "Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs Page 4". John F. Kennedy Library. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
141. Kennedy, John F. (September 12, 1962). "President John F. Kennedy". Rice University. Retrieved September 20, 2007.
142. Selverstone, Marc (2002-07/08). "JFK and the Space Race". White House Tapes–Presidential Recordings Program, Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
143. "Dwayne A. Day, Ph.D. "A Historic Meeting on Spaceflight: Background Analysis" NASA History Office". History.nasa.gov. Retrieved September 17, 2010.
144. Bilharz, Joy Ann (1998). The Allegany Senecas and Kinzua Dam: forced relocation through two generations. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 55. ISBN 0-8032-1282-8. Retrieved October 19, 2009.
145. "320 - Letter to the President of the Seneca Nation of Indians Concerning the Kinzua Dam on the Allegheny River". Presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
146. Russ. "26, 2009#P12844 Life in Legacy". Lifeinlegacy.com. Retrieved March 28, 2010.
147. Lee Oswald claiming innocence (film), Youtube.com
148. Warren Commission Hearings, vol. 20, p. 366, Kantor Exhibit No. 3 — Handwritten notes made by Seth Kantor concerning events surrounding the assassination
149. "Jack Ruby: Biography". Retrieved October 8, 2010.
150. Gus Russo and Stephen Molton "Did Castro OK the Kennedy Assassination?," American Heritage, Winter 2009.
151. This Day in History 1967: JFK’s body moved to permanent gravesite, History.com. Retrieved on April 8, 2008.
152. "Broadcast Yourself". YouTube. Retrieved January 2, 2010.
153. Rouse, Robert (March 15, 2006). "Happy Anniversary to the first scheduled presidential press conference – 93 years young!". American Chronicle.
154. The Personal Papers of Theodore H. White (1915–1986): Series 11. Camelot Documents, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum
155. Mandel, Lee R. (2009). "Endocrine and Autoimmune Aspects of the Health History of John F. Kennedy". Annals of Internal Medicine. 151 (151(5)): 350–354. doi:10.1059/0003-4819-151-5-200909010-00011. PMID 19721023.
156. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp. 42, 152.
157. Online NewsHour with Senior Correspondent Ray Suarez and physician Jeffrey Kelman, "Pres. Kennedy's Health Secrets", The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer transcript, November 18, 2002
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159. Summers, Anthony (1993). Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. ISBN 0575042362.
160. Bone, James (February 17, 2010), "How JFK's Riviera romance led to years of longing", The Times, London. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
161. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp.289.
162. Alford, Mimi Beardsley; Newman, Judith (2010). Once Upon A Secret. Random House. ISBN 978-0-09-193175-9.
163. Thomas, Kenn (2000). Cyberculture Counterconspiracy. Book Tree. pp. 80–82. ISBN 978-1-58509-126-3.
164. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp.290-291.
165. Barnes, John, John F. Kennedy on Leadership, (2007), p. 116
166. Reeves, Richard (1993), pp.290-291.
167. The Gallup Poll 1999. Wilmington, Delaware: Scholarly Resources Inc. 1999. pp. 248–249.
168. "Greatest of the Century". Gallup/CNN/USA Today Poll. December 20, 1999 and December 21, 1999. Retrieved January 5, 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
169. Roberts, Patrick (December 13, 2009). "Kennedy Ancestral Home in Ireland to Be Landmarked". ABCNews.com. ABC News Internet Ventures. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
170. Maier, Thomas (2004). The Kennedys: America's Emerald Kings. New York: Basic Books. p. 25. ISBN 9780465043187.
171. Maier 2004, p.30
172. Maier 2004, p.33
173. Carter, Bill (September 15, 2001). "Viewers Again Return To Traditional Networks". The New York Times. p. A14.
174. Kennedy reversed the Defense Department rulings that prohibited the Special Forces wearing of the Green Beret. Reeves, Richard (1993), p. 116.
175. "John Fitzgerald Kennedy, 35th President of the United States". American Heraldry Society. Retrieved October 27, 2009.

References

• Ballard, Robert. Collision with History: The Search for John F. Kennedy's PT 109, National Geographic, Washington, D.C. 2002, ISBN 0-7922-6876-8
• Brauer, Carl. John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (1977)
• Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New Generation (1988)
• Casey, Shaun. The Making of a Catholic President: Kennedy vs. Nixon 1960 (2009)
• Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life : John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963. Brown, Little. ISBN 0-316-17238-3.
• Collier, Peter & Horowitz, David. The Kennedys (1984)
• Cottrell, John. Assassination! The World Stood Still (1964)
• Douglass, James W., JFK and the Unspeakable: Why He Died and Why it Matters (Orbis Books, 2008), positive assessment
• Donovan, Robert J. PT-109: John F. Kennedy in WW II, 40th Anniversary Edition, McGraw Hill, (reprint 2001), ISBN 0-07-137643-7
• Fay, Paul B., Jr. The Pleasure of His Company (1966)
• Freedman, Lawrence. Kennedy's Wars: Berlin, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam (2000)
• Fursenko, Aleksandr and Timothy Naftali. One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (1997)
• Giglio, James. The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1991), standard scholarly overview of policies
• Goldzwig, Steven R. and Dionisopoulos, George N., eds. In a Perilous Hour: The Public Address of John F. Kennedy, text and analysis of key speeches (1995)
• Harper, Paul, and Joann P. Krieg eds. John F. Kennedy: The Promise Revisited (1988), scholarly articles on presidency
• Harris, Seymour E. The Economics of the Political Parties, with Special Attention to Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy (1962)
• Heath, Jim F. Decade of Disillusionment: The Kennedy–Johnson Years (1976), general survey of decade
• Hellmann, John. The Kennedy Obsession: The American Myth of JFK (1997), negative assessment
• Hersh, Seymour. The Dark Side of Camelot (1997), highly negative assessment
• House Select Committee on Assassinations. Final Assassinations Report (1979)
• Kenney, Charles, John F. Kennedy: The Presidential Portfolio, Public Affairs, New York, 2000, ISBN 1-891620-36-3
• Kunz, Diane B. The Diplomacy of the Crucial Decade: American Foreign Relations during the 1960s (1994)
• Manchester, William. Portrait of a President: John F. Kennedy in Profile (1967)
• Manchester, William. The Death of a President: November 20-November 25 (1967)
• Newman, John M., JFK and Vietnam: Deception, Intrigue, and the Struggle for Power (1992)
• O'Brien, Michael. John F. Kennedy: A Biography (2005), the most detailed biography
• Parmet, Herbert. Jack: The Struggles of John F. Kennedy (1980)
• Parmet, Herbert. JFK: The Presidency of John F. Kennedy (1983)
• Parmet, Herbert. "The Kennedy Myth". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, St. James, NY. ISBN 1-881-089-97-5
• Piper, Michael Collins. Final Judgment (2004: sixth edition). American Free Press
• Reeves, Richard. President Kennedy: Profile of Power (1993), balanced assessment of policies
• Reeves, Thomas. A Question of Character: A Life of John F. Kennedy (1991) hostile assessment of his character
• Sabato, Larry J. The Kennedy Half-Century: The Lasting Legacy of John F. Kennedy (forthcoming, 2013)
• Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. A Thousand Days: John F. Kennedy in the White House (1965), Pulitzer Prize, by a close advisor
• Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr. Robert Kennedy And His Times (2002 re-print)
• Smith, Jean Edward. Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years. Air University Review (March–April 1967)
• Sorensen, Theodore. Kennedy (1966), by a close advisor

External links

• Template:Worldcat id
• John F. Kennedy at IMDb
• John F. Kennedy at Find a Grave
• John F. Kennedy: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
• New video footage released of JFK's last moments
• Video of Vincent Bugliosi discussing JFK assassination
• Kennedy's Secret White House Recordings via the Miller Center of Public Affairs (UVa)
• Video, Audio, Text of John F. Kennedy's Inaugural Address
• Kennedy discusses Cuban Missile Crisis with former President Eisenhower
• John F. Kennedy Library
• The White House Biography
• JFK at the Avalon Project
• The Kennedys museum in Berlin, Germany with special exhibit on Kennedy's visit
• Birthplace of John F. Kennedy: Home of the Boy Who Would Be President, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places lesson plan
• Essay on JFK with shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
• Kennedy Administration from Office of the Historian, United States Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Links to related articles

Political offices Preceded byDwight D. Eisenhower President of the United States January 20, 1961 – November 22, 1963 Succeeded byLyndon B. Johnson U.S. Senate Preceded byHenry Cabot Lodge, Jr. U.S. senator (Class 1) from Massachusetts January 3, 1953 – December 22, 1960 Served alongside: Leverett Saltonstall Succeeded byBenjamin A. Smith U.S. House of Representatives Preceded byJames Michael Curley Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Massachusetts's 11th congressional district January 3, 1947 – January 3, 1953 Succeeded byThomas P. O'Neill, Jr. Party political offices Preceded byAdlai Stevenson Democratic Party Presidential nominee 1960 Succeeded byLyndon B. Johnson Preceded byDavid I. Walsh Democratic Party nominee for United States Senator from Massachusetts (Class 1) 1952, 1958 Succeeded byTed Kennedy Honorary titles Preceded byUnknown Soldiers of World War II and the Korean War Persons who have lain in state or honor in the United States Capitol rotunda November 24, 1963 – November 25, 1963 Succeeded byDouglas MacArthur v t e John F. Kennedy 35th President of the United States (1961–1963) U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1953–1960) U.S. Representative for MA–11 (1947–1953) Presidency (timeline) Transition Inauguration Cabinet Judicial appointments Supreme Court Executive Orders Presidential Proclamations Presidential pardons Presidential limousine Presidential yacht Resolute desk Situation Room Foreign policy Alliance for Progress Arms Control and Disarmament Agency Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty Flexible response Kennedy Doctrine Peace Corps Trade Expansion Act Migration and Refugee Assistance Act USAID Vietnam War Cuba: Bay of Pigs Invasion Cuban Project Cuban Missile Crisis ExComm Soviet Union: Berlin Crisis Moscow–Washington hotline Vienna summit New Frontier Communications Satellite Act Community Mental Health Act Equal Pay Act Executive Order 11110 Federal affirmative action Federal housing segregation ban Fifty-mile hikes Food for Peace Pilot Food Stamp Program Presidential Medal of Freedom Space policy Status of Women (Presidential Commission) University of Alabama integration Voter Education Project All-Channel Receiver Act Oil Pollution Act of 1961 Revenue Act of 1962 Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961 Wetlands Loan Act Presidential speeches Inaugural address American University speech "We choose to go to the Moon" Report to the American People on Civil Rights "Ich bin ein Berliner" "A rising tide lifts all boats" Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts State of the Union Address 1961 1962 1963 Elections U.S. House of Representatives elections: 1946 1948 1950 U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: 1952 1958 1960 presidential primaries 1960 presidential campaign Democratic National Conventions: 1956 1960 U.S. presidential election 1960 debates Personal life Birthplace and childhood home Kennedy Compound Hickory Hill La Querida Wexford Navy service: PT-109 Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana Arthur Evans PT-59 Castle Hot Springs Hammersmith Farm Coretta Scott King phone call "Happy Birthday, Mr. President" John F. Kennedy document hoax Books Why England Slept (1940) Profiles in Courage (1956) A Nation of Immigrants (1958) Death Assassination timeline media coverage reactions in popular culture State funeral Riderless horse attending dignitaries Gravesite and Eternal Flame Legacy Bibliography John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum Profile in Courage Award Twenty-fourth Amendment Civil Rights Act of 1964 Apollo 11 Moon landing Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Kennedy Space Center Kennedy Round U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development VISTA Cultural depictions films Kennedy half dollar U.S. postage stamps U.S. five cent stamp Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences Operation Sail Memorials, namesakes Harvard Kennedy School Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston) John F. Kennedy International Airport Boston statue Brooklyn bust Dallas memorial Hyannis memorial London bust Nashua bust Portland memorial Runnymede memorial John F. Kennedy Arboretum John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School John F. Kennedy University (defunct) John F. Kennedy Stadium Kennedy Expressway Mount Kennedy MV John F. Kennedy USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67) USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79) Yad Kennedy Love Park Family Jacqueline Bouvier (wife) Caroline Kennedy (daughter) John F. Kennedy Jr. (son) Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (son) Rose Schlossberg (granddaughter) Tatiana Schlossberg (granddaughter) Jack Schlossberg (grandson) Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. (father) Rose Fitzgerald (mother) Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. (brother) Rosemary Kennedy (sister) Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (sister) Eunice Kennedy Shriver (sister) Patricia Kennedy Lawford (sister) Robert F. Kennedy (brother) Jean Kennedy Smith (sister) Ted Kennedy (brother) P. J. Kennedy (grandfather) John F. Fitzgerald (grandfather) Pushinka (dog) Billie and Debbie (hamsters) Sardar (horse) ← Dwight D. Eisenhower Lyndon B. Johnson → Category v t e Presidents of the United States Presidents and presidencies George Washington (1789–1797) John Adams (1797–1801) Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809) James Madison (1809–1817) James Monroe (1817–1825) John Quincy Adams (1825–1829) Andrew Jackson (1829–1837) Martin Van Buren (1837–1841) William Henry Harrison (1841) John Tyler (1841–1845) James K. Polk (1845–1849) Zachary Taylor (1849–1850) Millard Fillmore (1850–1853) Franklin Pierce (1853–1857) James Buchanan (1857–1861) Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865) Andrew Johnson (1865–1869) Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877) Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881) James A. Garfield (1881) Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885) Grover Cleveland (1885–1889) Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893) Grover Cleveland (1893–1897) William McKinley (1897–1901) Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909) William Howard Taft (1909–1913) Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921) Warren G. Harding (1921–1923) Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929) Herbert Hoover (1929–1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945) Harry S. Truman (1945–1953) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961) John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969) Richard Nixon (1969–1974) Gerald Ford (1974–1977) Jimmy Carter (1977–1981) Ronald Reagan (1981–1989) George H. W. Bush (1989–1993) Bill Clinton (1993–2001) George W. Bush (2001–2009) Barack Obama (2009–2017) Donald Trump (2017–2021) Joe Biden (2021–2025) Donald Trump (2025–present) Presidency timelines Washington McKinley T. Roosevelt Taft Wilson Harding Coolidge Hoover F. D. Roosevelt Truman Eisenhower Kennedy L. B. Johnson Nixon Ford Carter Reagan G. H. W. Bush Clinton G. W. Bush Obama Trump Biden Category List v t e Democratic Party History Second Party System Third Party System Fourth Party System Fifth Party System Sixth Party System National conventions, presidential tickets, and presidential primaries 1828 (None): Jackson/Calhoun 1832 (Baltimore): Jackson/Van Buren 1835 (Baltimore): Van Buren/R. Johnson 1840 (Baltimore): Van Buren/None 1844 (Baltimore): Polk/Dallas 1848 (Baltimore): Cass/Butler 1852 (Baltimore): Pierce/King 1856 (Cincinnati): Buchanan/Breckinridge 1860 (Charleston/Baltimore): Douglas/H. Johnson (Breckinridge/Lane, SD) 1864 (Chicago): McClellan/Pendleton 1868 (New York): Seymour/Blair 1872 (Baltimore): Greeley/Brown 1876 (St. Louis): Tilden/Hendricks 1880 (Cincinnati): Hancock/English 1884 (Chicago): Cleveland/Hendricks 1888 (St. Louis): Cleveland/Thurman 1892 (Chicago): Cleveland/Stevenson I 1896 (Chicago): W. Bryan/Sewall 1900 (Kansas City): W. Bryan/Stevenson I 1904 (St. Louis): Parker/H. Davis 1908 (Denver): W. Bryan/Kern 1912 (Baltimore): Wilson/Marshall primaries 1916 (St. Louis): Wilson/Marshall primaries 1920 (San Francisco): Cox/Roosevelt primaries 1924 (New York): J. Davis/C. Bryan primaries 1928 (Houston): Smith/Robinson primaries 1932 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Garner primaries 1936 (Philadelphia): Roosevelt/Garner primaries 1940 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Wallace primaries 1944 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Truman primaries 1948 (Philadelphia): Truman/Barkley primaries 1952 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Sparkman primaries 1956 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Kefauver primaries 1960 (Los Angeles): Kennedy/L. Johnson primaries 1964 (Atlantic City): L. Johnson/Humphrey primaries 1968 (Chicago): Humphrey/Muskie primaries 1972 (Miami Beach): McGovern/(Eagleton, Shriver) primaries 1976 (New York): Carter/Mondale primaries 1980 (New York): Carter/Mondale primaries 1984 (San Francisco): Mondale/Ferraro primaries 1988 (Atlanta): Dukakis/Bentsen primaries 1992 (New York): B. Clinton/Gore primaries 1996 (Chicago): B. Clinton/Gore primaries 2000 (Los Angeles): Gore/Lieberman primaries 2004 (Boston): Kerry/Edwards primaries 2008 (Denver): Obama/Biden primaries 2012 (Charlotte): Obama/Biden primaries 2016 (Philadelphia): H. Clinton/Kaine primaries 2020 (Milwaukee/other locations): Biden/Harris primaries 2024 (Chicago): Harris/Walz primaries Presidential administrations Jackson (1829–1837) Van Buren (1837–1841) Polk (1845–1849) Pierce (1853–1857) Buchanan (1857–1861) A. Johnson (1868–1869) Cleveland (1885–1889; 1893–1897) Wilson (1913–1921) Roosevelt (1933–1941; 1941–1945) Truman (1945–1953) Kennedy (1961–1963) L. B. Johnson (1963–1969) Carter (1977–1981) Clinton (1993–2001) Obama (2009–2017) Biden (2021–2025) U.S. House leaders, Speakers, and Caucus chairs A. Stevenson (1827–1834) Bell (1834–1835) Polk (1835–1839) J. W. Jones (1843–1845) Davis (1845–1847) Cobb (1849–1851) Boyd (1851–1855) G. W. Jones (1855–1857) Orr (1857–1859) Houston (1859–1861) Niblack/Randall (1869–1871) Niblack (1873–1875) Kerr (1875–1876) Randall (1876–1881) Carlisle (1883–1889) Holman (1889–1891) Crisp (1891–1895) D. B. Culberson (1895–1897) Richardson (1897–1903) Williams (1903–1909) Clark (1909–1921) Kitchin (1921–1923) Garrett (1923–1929) Garner (1929–1933) Rainey (1933–1934) Byrns (1935–1936) Bankhead (1936–1940) Rayburn (1940–1961) McCormack (1962–1971) Albert (1971–1977) O'Neill (1977–1987) Wright (1987–1989) Foley (1989–1995) Gephardt (1995–2003) Pelosi (2003–2023) Jeffries (2023–present) U.S. Senate leaders and Caucus chairs J. W. Stevenson (1873–1877) Wallace (1877–1881) Pendleton (1881–1885) Beck (1885–1890) Gorman (1890–1898) Turpie (1898–1899) J. K. Jones (1899–1903) Gorman (1903–1906) Blackburn (1906–1907) C. A. Culberson (1907–1909) Money (1909–1911) Martin (1911–1913) Kern (1913–1917) Martin (1917–1919) Hitchcock (1919–1920) Underwood (1920–1923) Robinson (1923–1937) Barkley (1937–1949) Lucas (1949–1951) McFarland (1951–1953) Johnson (1953–1961) Mansfield (1961–1977) Byrd (1977–1989) Mitchell (1989–1995) Daschle (1995–2005) Reid (2005–2017) Schumer (2017–present) Chairs of the DNC Hallett McLane Smalley Belmont Schell Hewitt Barnum Brice Harrity Jones Taggart Mack McCombs McCormick Cummings White Hull Shaver Raskob Farley Flynn Walker Hannegan McGrath Boyle McKinney Mitchell Butler Jackson Bailey O'Brien Harris O'Brien Westwood Strauss Curtis White Manatt Kirk Brown Wilhelm DeLee Dodd/Fowler Romer/Grossman Rendell/Andrew McAuliffe Dean Kaine Wasserman Schultz Perez Harrison State and territorial parties Alabama Alaska Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Hawaii Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New Mexico New York North Carolina North Dakota Ohio Oklahoma Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Wyoming American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico Virgin Islands Democrats Abroad Affiliated groups Congress Senate Caucus Policy Committee Steering and Outreach Committee House Caucus Factions Blue Dog Coalition Congressional Progressive Caucus Squad Justice Democrats New Democrat Coalition Problem Solvers Caucus Fundraising Democratic Attorneys General Association Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee Democratic Governors Association Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee National Conference of Democratic Mayors National Democratic Redistricting Committee Sectional College Democrats of America Democrats Abroad National Federation of Democratic Women Stonewall Democrats Stonewall Young Democrats Young Democrats of America High School Democrats of America Related Primaries Presidential candidates Debates Superdelegate Chairmanship elections 2005 2017 2021 2025 House caucus leadership elections 2006 2018 Weekly Democratic Address v t e United States senators from Massachusetts Class 1 Dalton Cabot Goodhue Mason Adams Lloyd Gore Ashmun Mellen Mills Webster Choate Webster Winthrop Rantoul Sumner Washburn Dawes Lodge Sr. Butler Walsh Lodge Jr. J. Kennedy Smith E. Kennedy Kirk Brown Warren Class 2 Strong Sedgwick Dexter Foster Pickering Varnum Otis Lloyd Silsbee Davis Bates Davis Everett Rockwell Wilson Boutwell Hoar Crane J. Weeks Walsh Gillett Coolidge Lodge Jr. S. Weeks Saltonstall Brooke Tsongas Kerry Cowan Markey v t e Cold War United States Soviet Union NATO Warsaw Pact ANZUS METO SEATO NEATO Rio Pact Non-Aligned Movement 1940s Morgenthau Plan Hukbalahap rebellion Jamaican political conflict Dekemvriana Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Occupation of the Baltic states Cursed soldiers Operation Unthinkable Gouzenko Affair Division of Korea Indonesian National Revolution Operation Masterdom Operation Beleaguer Operation Blacklist Forty Iran crisis of 1946 Greek Civil War Baruch Plan Corfu Channel incident Turkish Straits crisis Restatement of Policy on Germany First Indochina War 1947 Polish parliamentary election Truman Doctrine Asian Relations Conference May 1947 crises Partition of India Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948 1947–1949 Palestine war 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 1948 Arab–Israeli War 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight Marshall Plan Comecon 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council Al-Wathbah uprising Tito–Stalin split Berlin Blockade Annexation of Hyderabad Madiun Affair Western betrayal Iron Curtain Eastern Bloc Western Bloc Chinese Civil War Chinese Communist Revolution Malayan Emergency March 1949 Syrian coup d'état Operation Valuable 1950s Bamboo curtain McCarthyism Korean War Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 1952 Egyptian revolution Iraqi Intifada (1952) Mau Mau rebellion East German uprising of 1953 1953 Iranian coup d'état Pact of Madrid Bricker Amendment 1954 Syrian coup d'état Petrov Affair Domino theory 1954 Geneva Conference 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état Capture of the Tuapse First Taiwan Strait Crisis Jebel Akhdar War Algerian War Kashmir Princess Bandung Conference Geneva Summit (1955) Vietnam War Cyprus Emergency "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences" 1956 Poznań protests Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Polish October Suez Crisis "We will bury you" Operation Gladio Syrian Crisis of 1957 Sputnik crisis Ifni War Iraqi 14 July Revolution 1958 Lebanon crisis Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 1959 Mosul uprising 1959 Tibetan uprising Laotian Civil War Kitchen Debate Cuban Revolution Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution Sino-Soviet split 1960s Congo Crisis Simba rebellion 1960 U-2 incident Bay of Pigs Invasion 1960 Turkish coup d'état Albanian–Soviet split Expulsion of Soviets from Albania Iraqi–Kurdish conflict First Iraqi–Kurdish War Berlin Crisis of 1961 Berlin Wall Annexation of Goa Papua conflict Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation Sand War Portuguese Colonial War Angolan War of Independence Guinea-Bissau War of Independence Mozambican War of Independence Cuban Missile Crisis El Porteñazo Sino-Indian War Communist insurgency in Sarawak Ramadan Revolution Eritrean War of Independence North Yemen Civil War 1963 Syrian coup d'état Assassination of John F. Kennedy Aden Emergency Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 Shifta War Mexican Dirty War Tlatelolco massacre Guatemalan Civil War Colombian conflict 1964 Brazilian coup d'état Dominican Civil War Rhodesian Bush War Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) ASEAN Declaration 1966 Syrian coup d'état Cultural Revolution Argentine Revolution South African Border War Korean DMZ Conflict 12-3 incident Greek junta 1967 Hong Kong riots Years of Lead (Italy) Six-Day War War of Attrition Dhofar War Al-Wadiah War Nigerian Civil War Protests of 1968 May 68 Prague Spring USS Pueblo incident 1968 Polish political crisis 1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency Communist insurgency in Malaysia Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 17 July Revolution 1968 Peruvian coup d'état Revolutionary Government 1969 Sudanese coup d'état 1969 Libyan revolution Goulash Communism Sino-Soviet border conflict New People's Army rebellion 1970s Détente Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty Black September Alcora Exercise Corrective Movement (Syria) Western Sahara conflict Cambodian Civil War Communist insurgency in Thailand 1970 Polish protests Koza riot Realpolitik Ping-pong diplomacy 1971 JVP insurrection Corrective revolution (Egypt) 1971 Turkish military memorandum 1971 Sudanese coup d'état 1971 Bolivian coup d'état Four Power Agreement on Berlin Bangladesh Liberation War 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 First Yemenite War Munich massacre 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency Eritrean Civil Wars 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 1973 Afghan coup d'état 1973 Chilean coup d'état Yom Kippur War 1973 oil crisis Carnation Revolution Spanish transition to democracy Metapolitefsi Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Second Iraqi–Kurdish War Turkish invasion of Cyprus 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état Siege of Dhaka (1975) Sipahi-Janata revolution Angolan Civil War Cambodian genocide June 1976 protests Mozambican Civil War Oromo conflict Ogaden War 1978 Somali coup attempt Western Sahara War Ethiopian Civil War Lebanese Civil War Sino-Albanian split Third Indochina War Cambodian–Vietnamese War Cambodian conflict Operation Condor Dirty War (Argentina) 1976 Argentine coup d'état Egyptian–Libyan War German Autumn Korean Air Lines Flight 902 Nicaraguan Revolution Uganda–Tanzania War NDF Rebellion Chadian–Libyan War Second Yemenite War Grand Mosque seizure Iranian revolution Saur Revolution Sino-Vietnamese War New Jewel Movement 1979 Herat uprising Seven Days to the River Rhine Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union 1980s Salvadoran Civil War Soviet–Afghan War 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts Gera Demands Peruvian Revolution Gdańsk Agreement Solidarity Eritrean Civil Wars 1980 Turkish coup d'état Ugandan Bush War Gulf of Sidra incident Martial law in Poland Casamance conflict Falklands War 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War Ndogboyosoi War United States invasion of Grenada Able Archer 83 Star Wars 1985 Geneva Summit Iran–Iraq War Somali Rebellion Reykjavík Summit 1986 Black Sea incident South Yemen civil war Toyota War 1987 Lieyu massacre Operation Denver 1987–1989 JVP insurrection Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 1988 Black Sea bumping incident 8888 Uprising Solidarity (Soviet reaction) Contras Central American crisis Operation RYAN Korean Air Lines Flight 007 People Power Revolution Glasnost Perestroika Bougainville conflict First Nagorno-Karabakh War Afghan Civil War United States invasion of Panama 1988 Polish strikes Polish Round Table Agreement 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre Revolutions of 1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall Fall of the inner German border Velvet Revolution Romanian Revolution Peaceful Revolution 1990s Mongolian Revolution of 1990 Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident Gulf War Min Ping Yu No. 5202 German reunification Yemeni unification Fall of communism in Albania Breakup of Yugoslavia Dissolution of the Soviet Union 1991 August Coup Dissolution of Czechoslovakia Frozen conflicts Abkhazia China-Taiwan Korea Kosovo South Ossetia Transnistria Sino-Indian border dispute North Borneo dispute Foreign policy Truman Doctrine Containment Eisenhower Doctrine Domino theory Hallstein Doctrine Kennedy Doctrine Peaceful coexistence Ostpolitik Johnson Doctrine Brezhnev Doctrine Nixon Doctrine Ulbricht Doctrine Carter Doctrine Reagan Doctrine Rollback Kinmen Agreement Ideologies Capitalism Liberalism Chicago school Conservatism American conservatism Keynesianism Libertarianism Monetarism Neoclassical economics Reaganomics Supply-side economics Democratic capitalism Socialism Communism Marxism–Leninism Castroism Eurocommunism Guevarism Hoxhaism Juche Ho Chi Minh Thought Maoism Trotskyism Stalinism Titoism Other Imperialism Anti-imperialism Nationalism Ultranationalism Chauvinism Ethnic nationalism Racism Zionism Anti-Zionism Fascism Neo-Nazism Islamism Totalitarianism Authoritarianism Autocracy Liberal democracy Illiberal democracy Guided democracy Social democracy Third-worldism White supremacy White nationalism White separatism Apartheid Organizations NATO SEATO METO EEC Warsaw Pact Comecon Non-Aligned Movement NN States ASEAN SAARC Safari Club Propaganda Pro-communist Active measures Izvestia Neues Deutschland Pravda Radio Moscow Rudé právo Trybuna Ludu TASS Soviet Life Pro-Western Amerika Crusade for Freedom Paix et Liberté Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Red Scare Voice of America Technological competition Arms race Nuclear arms race Space Race Historians Gar Alperovitz Thomas A. Bailey Michael Beschloss Archie Brown Warren H. Carroll Adrian Cioroianu John Costello Michael Cox Nicholas J. Cull Norman Davies Willem Drees Robert D. English Herbert Feis Robert Hugh Ferrell André Fontaine Anneli Ute Gabanyi John Lewis Gaddis Lloyd Gardner Timothy Garton Ash Gabriel Gorodetsky Fred Halliday Jussi Hanhimäki John Earl Haynes Patrick J. Hearden Tvrtko Jakovina Tony Judt Harvey Klehr Gabriel Kolko Walter LaFeber Walter Laqueur Melvyn P. Leffler Geir Lundestad Vojtech Mastny Jack F. Matlock Jr. Thomas J. McCormick Timothy Naftali Marius Oprea David S. Painter William B. Pickett Ronald E. Powaski Yakov M. Rabkin M. E. Sarotte Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. Ellen Schrecker Giles Scott-Smith Shen Zhihua Timothy Snyder Athan Theoharis Andrew Thorpe Vladimir Tismăneanu Patrick Vaughan Alex von Tunzelmann Odd Arne Westad William Appleman Williams Jonathan Reed Winkler Rudolph Winnacker Ken Young Espionage and intelligence List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States Soviet espionage in the United States Russian espionage in the United States American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation CIA and the Cultural Cold War CIA MI5 MI6 United States involvement in regime change Soviet involvement in regime change MVD KGB Stasi See also Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War Soviet Union–United States relations Soviet Union–United States summits Russia–NATO relations War on terror Brinkmanship Second Cold War Russian Revolution Category List of conflicts Timeline Template:Cold War figures v t e Buddhist crisis Events Huế Phật Đản (Vesak) shootings Hue chemical attacks Self-immolation of Thích Quảng Đức Double Seven Day scuffle Xá Lợi Pagoda raids 1963 South Vietnamese coup d'état (reaction) Arrest and assassination of Ngo Dinh Diem Policy Joint Communiqué Cable 243 Krulak–Mendenhall mission McNamara–Taylor mission Political or religious figures Bui Van Luong Bửu Hội Thích Quảng Đức Michael Forrestal W. Averell Harriman Roger Hilsman Thich Thien Hoa John F. Kennedy Thich Tinh Khiet Victor H. Krulak Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Robert McNamara Joseph Mendenhall Ngô Đình Cẩn Ngô Đình Diệm Ngô Đình Nhu Ngô Đình Thục Nguyễn Ngọc Thơ Nguyễn Đình Thuận Madame Nhu Frederick Nolting Thích Trí Quang Maxwell D. Taylor Trần Văn Chương William Trueheart Vũ Văn Mẫu Military figures Lucien Conein Đỗ Cao Trí Đỗ Mậu Dương Văn Minh Huỳnh Văn Cao Lê Quang Tung Lê Văn Kim Nguyễn Hữu Có Nguyễn Khánh Nguyễn Văn Nhung Nguyễn Văn Thiệu Phạm Ngọc Thảo Tôn Thất Đính Trần Kim Tuyến Trần Thiện Khiêm Trần Văn Đôn Journalists Peter Arnett Malcolm Browne David Halberstam Marguerite Higgins Neil Sheehan Related Persecution of Buddhists v t e PT-109 Craft PT boat PT-109 PT-59 Japanese destroyer Amagiri People John F. Kennedy Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana Reg Evans Andrew Kirksey and Harold Marney Media 1962 Song 1963 Film 1987 Video game The Search for Kennedy's PT 109 (2002 film) PT 109: An American Epic of War, Survival, and the Destiny of John F. Kennedy (2015 book) Related Kasolo Island (Kennedy Island) v t e Ted Kennedy February 22, 1932 – August 25, 2009 United States Senator from Massachusetts, 1962–2009 Electoral history U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: 1962 (special) 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006 1980 United States presidential election (Democratic primaries) Ted Kennedy 1980 presidential campaign Books My Senator and Me: A Dog's-Eye View of Washington, D.C. (2006) True Compass (2009) Speeches The Dream Shall Never Die Family, family tree Joan Bennett Kennedy (first wife) Victoria Reggie Kennedy (second wife, widow) Kara Kennedy (daughter) Edward M. Kennedy Jr. (son) Patrick J. Kennedy II (son) Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. (father) Rose Kennedy (mother) Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. (brother) John F. Kennedy (brother presidency) Rosemary Kennedy (sister) Kathleen Kennedy (sister) Eunice Kennedy Shriver (sister) Patricia Kennedy Lawford (sister) Robert F. Kennedy (brother) Jean Kennedy Smith (sister) Patrick J. Kennedy I (grandfather) John F. Fitzgerald (grandfather) Related Awards and honors Political positions Kennedy Compound Edward M. Kennedy Institute for the United States Senate Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act Chappaquiddick incident Mary Jo Kopechne Friends of Ireland Chappaquiddick (2018 film) Category v t e Kennedy family I. P. J. Kennedy (1858–1929) Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. (m.) Rose Fitzgerald II. Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. (1888–1969) Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. John F. Kennedy (m.) Jacqueline Bouvier Rosemary Kennedy Kathleen Kennedy (m.) William Cavendish, Marquess of Hartington Eunice Kennedy (m.) Sargent Shriver Patricia Kennedy (m./div.) Peter Lawford Robert F. Kennedy (m.) Ethel Skakel Jean Kennedy (m.) Stephen Edward Smith Edward M. "Ted" Kennedy (m./div. 1st) Joan Bennett; (m. 2nd) Victoria Reggie III. John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) Caroline Kennedy (m.) Edwin Schlossberg John F. Kennedy Jr. (m.) Carolyn Bessette Patrick Bouvier Kennedy Eunice Kennedy Shriver (1921–2009) Bobby Shriver Maria Shriver (m./div.) Arnold Schwarzenegger Timothy Shriver Mark Shriver Anthony Shriver Patricia Kennedy Lawford (1924–2006) Christopher Lawford Robert F. Kennedy (1925–1968) Kathleen Kennedy Townsend Joseph P. Kennedy II Robert F. Kennedy Jr. (m./sep.) Mary Richardson (m. 3rd) Cheryl Hines Michael LeMoyne Kennedy Kerry Kennedy (m./div.) Andrew Cuomo Christopher G. Kennedy Max Kennedy Douglas Harriman Kennedy Rory Kennedy (m.) Mark Bailey Jean Kennedy Smith (1928–2020) William Kennedy Smith Ted Kennedy (1932–2009) Kara Kennedy Edward M. Kennedy Jr. Patrick J. Kennedy (m.) Amy Savell IV. Rose Kennedy Schlossberg Tatiana Celia Kennedy Schlossberg John Bouvier Kennedy Schlossberg Katherine Schwarzenegger (m.) Chris Pratt Patrick Schwarzenegger Joseph P. Kennedy III Maeve Kennedy McKean Max Kennedy Jr. Related Hickory Hill Kennedy Compound Kennedy curse Merchandise Mart The Kennedys (museum) The Kennedys (miniseries) The Kennedys: After Camelot Category Kennedy family m. = married; div. = divorced; sep. = separated. v t e (← 1952) 1956 United States presidential election (→ 1960) Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Incumbent nominee: Dwight D. Eisenhower Incumbent VP nominee: Richard Nixon Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Adlai Stevenson II VP nominee: Estes Kefauver Other candidates: John S. Battle Happy Chandler James C. Davis W. Averell Harriman Lyndon B. Johnson Frank Lausche George Bell Timmerman Jr. Third-party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee: Herbert M. Shelton VP nominee: Symon Gould Prohibition Party Nominee: Enoch A. Holtwick VP nominee: Herbert C. Holdridge Socialist Labor Party Nominee: Eric Hass VP nominee: Georgia Cozzini Socialist Party Nominee: Darlington Hoopes VP nominee: Samuel H. Friedman Socialist Workers Party Nominee: Farrell Dobbs VP nominee: Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates T. Coleman Andrews Gerald L. K. Smith Other 1956 elections: House Senate v t e (← 1956) 1960 United States presidential election (→ 1964) Democratic Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: John F. Kennedy campaign VP nominee: Lyndon B. Johnson Other candidates Ross Barnett Pat Brown Michael DiSalle Paul C. Fisher Hubert Humphrey Lyndon B. Johnson George H. McLain Robert B. Meyner Wayne Morse Albert S. Porter Adlai Stevenson II George Smathers Stuart Symington Republican Party Convention Primaries Candidates Nominee: Richard Nixon campaign VP nominee: Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. Other candidates Barry Goldwater Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. James M. Lloyd Nelson Rockefeller Third-party and independent candidates American Vegetarian Party Nominee Symon Gould National States' Rights Party Nominee Orval Faubus VP nominee J. B. Stoner Prohibition Party Nominee Rutherford Decker VP nominee E. Harold Munn Socialist Labor Party Nominee Eric Hass VP nominee Georgia Cozzini Socialist Workers Party Nominee Farrell Dobbs VP nominee Myra Tanner Weiss Independents and other candidates Harry F. Byrd Merritt B. Curtis Lar Daly George Lincoln Rockwell Charles L. Sullivan Other 1960 elections: House Senate v t e Cabinet of President John F. Kennedy (1961–1963) Cabinet Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson (1961–1963) Secretary of State Dean Rusk (1961–1963) Secretary of the Treasury C. Douglas Dillon (1961–1963) Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara (1961–1963) Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy (1961–1963) Postmaster General J. Edward Day (1961–1963) John A. Gronouski (1963) Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall (1961–1963) Secretary of Agriculture Orville Freeman (1961–1963) Secretary of Commerce Luther H. Hodges (1961–1963) Secretary of Labor Arthur Goldberg (1961–1962) W. Willard Wirtz (1962–1963) Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare Abraham Ribicoff (1961–1962) Anthony J. Celebrezze (1962–1963) Cabinet-level Ambassador to the United Nations Adlai Stevenson II (1961–1963) v t e Time Persons of the Year 1927–1950 Charles Lindbergh (1927) Walter Chrysler (1928) Owen D. Young (1929) Mohandas Gandhi (1930) Pierre Laval (1931) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932) Hugh S. Johnson (1933) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934) Haile Selassie (1935) Wallis Simpson (1936) Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937) Adolf Hitler (1938) Joseph Stalin (1939) Winston Churchill (1940) Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941) Joseph Stalin (1942) George Marshall (1943) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944) Harry S. Truman (1945) James F. Byrnes (1946) George Marshall (1947) Harry S. Truman (1948) Winston Churchill (1949) The American Fighting-Man (1950) 1951–1975 Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951) Elizabeth II (1952) Konrad Adenauer (1953) John Foster Dulles (1954) Harlow Curtice (1955) Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956) Nikita Khrushchev (1957) Charles de Gaulle (1958) Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959) U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960) John F. Kennedy (1961) Pope John XXIII (1962) Martin Luther King Jr. (1963) Lyndon B. Johnson (1964) William Westmoreland (1965) The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966) Lyndon B. Johnson (1967) The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968) The Middle Americans (1969) Willy Brandt (1970) Richard Nixon (1971) Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972) John Sirica (1973) King Faisal (1974) American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975) 1976–2000 Jimmy Carter (1976) Anwar Sadat (1977) Deng Xiaoping (1978) Ayatollah Khomeini (1979) Ronald Reagan (1980) Lech Wałęsa (1981) The Computer (1982) Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983) Peter Ueberroth (1984) Deng Xiaoping (1985) Corazon Aquino (1986) Mikhail Gorbachev (1987) The Endangered Earth (1988) Mikhail Gorbachev (1989) George H. W. Bush (1990) Ted Turner (1991) Bill Clinton (1992) The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993) Pope John Paul II (1994) Newt Gingrich (1995) David Ho (1996) Andrew Grove (1997) Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998) Jeff Bezos (1999) George W. Bush (2000) 2001–present Rudolph Giuliani (2001) The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002) The American Soldier (2003) George W. Bush (2004) The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005) You (2006) Vladimir Putin (2007) Barack Obama (2008) Ben Bernanke (2009) Mark Zuckerberg (2010) The Protester (2011) Barack Obama (2012) Pope Francis (2013) Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014) Angela Merkel (2015) Donald Trump (2016) The Silence Breakers (2017) The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018) Greta Thunberg (2019) Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020) Elon Musk (2021) Volodymyr Zelenskyy / Spirit of Ukraine (2022) Taylor Swift (2023) Donald Trump (2024) v t e National Football Foundation Gold Medal winners 1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower 1959: Douglas MacArthur 1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg 1961: John F. Kennedy 1962: Byron "Whizzer" White 1963: Roger Blough 1964: Donold B. Lourie 1965: Juan T. Trippe 1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik 1967: Frederick L. Hovde 1968: Chester J. LaRoche 1969: Richard Nixon 1970: Thomas J. Hamilton 1971: Ronald Reagan 1972: Gerald Ford 1973: John Wayne 1974: Gerald B. Zornow 1975: David Packard 1976: Edgar B. Speer 1977: Louis H. Wilson 1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy 1979: William P. Lawrence 1980: Walter J. Zable 1981: Justin W. Dart 1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) - All Honored Jim Brown, Willie Davis, Jack Kemp, Ron Kramer, Jim Swink 1983: Jack Kemp 1984: John F. McGillicuddy 1985: William I. Spencer 1986: William H. Morton 1987: Charles R. Meyer 1988: Clinton E. Frank 1989: Paul Brown 1990: Thomas H. Moorer 1991: George H. W. Bush 1992: Donald R. Keough 1993: Norman Schwarzkopf 1994: Thomas S. Murphy 1995: Harold Alfond 1996: Gene Corrigan 1997: Jackie Robinson 1998: John H. McConnell 1999: Keith Jackson 2000: Fred M. Kirby II 2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs 2002: George Steinbrenner 2003: Tommy Franks 2004: William V. Campbell 2005: Jon F. Hanson 2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden 2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach 2008: John Glenn 2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman 2010: Bill Cosby 2011: Robert Gates 2012: Roscoe Brown 2013: National Football League & Roger Goodell 2014: Tom Catena & George Weiss 2015: Condoleezza Rice 2016: Archie Manning 2017: None awarded 2018: Aaron Feis & Jason Seaman 2019: Mark Harmon

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• Articles that may be too long from May 2010
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