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The Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery Expedition (1804–1806), was the first transcontinental expedition to the Pacific coast undertaken by the United States. Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson, it was led Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.

Overview

According to Jefferson himself, one goal was to find "the most diret & practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce". Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U.S. sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River, and getting an accurate sense of the resources in the recently completed Louisiana Purchase.

Although the expedition did make notable achievements in science, scientific research itself was not the main goal behind the mission.

References to Lewis and Clark "scarcely appeared" in history books even during the United States Centennial in 1876 and the expedition was largely forgotten. Lewis and Clark began to gain new attention around the start of the 20th century. Both the 1904 Louisiana Purchase Exposition, in St. Louis, and the 1905 Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition, in Portland, Oregon, showcased Lewis and Clark as American pioneers. However, the story remained a relatively shallow tale—a celebration of US conquest and personal adventures—until the mid-century, since which time the history has been more thoroughly researched and retold in many forms to a growing and appreciative audience.

In addition, a complete and reliable set of the expedition's journals was finally compiled by Gary E. Moulton. In the 2000s the bicentennial of the expedition further elevated popular interest in Lewis and Clark. Today, no US exploration party is more famous, and no American expedition leaders are more instantly recognizable by name.

Template:Timeline of the Lewis and Clark Expedition

Preparations

Jefferson had a long interest in western expansion, and in 1780s met John Ledyard who discussed a proposed trip to the Pacific Northwest. Jefferson had read Mackenzie's book about the trip in 1802, and this influenced his decision to send an expedition. Two years into his presidency, he asked Congress to fund an expedition through the Louisiana Purchase, and to the Pacific Ocean. He used a secret message to ask for funding due to poor relations with the opposition party in Congress.

In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned the Corps of Discovery, and named U.S. Army Captain Meriwether Lewis its leader, who selected William Clark as his partner. Their goals were to explore the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade and U.S. sovereignty over the native peoples along the River Missouri. Jefferson also wanted to establish a U.S. claim of "Discovery" to the Pacific Northwest and Oregon territory by documenting an American presence there before Europeans could claim the land. According to some historians, Jefferson understood he would have a better claim of ownership to the Pacific Northwest if the team gathered scientific data on animals and plants.

The U.S. mint prepared special silver medals with a portrait of Jefferson and had a message of friendship and peace, called Indian Peace Medals or peace medals. The soldiers were to distribute them to the nations they met. These symbolized U.S. sovereignty over the indigenous inhabitants. The expedition also prepared advanced weapons to display their military firepower. Among these was an air rifle of about .44 caliber, powerful enough to kill a deer.

The expedition was prepared with sufficient black powder and lead for their flintlock firearms, knives, blacksmithing supplies, and cartography equipment. They also carried flags, gift bundles, medicine and other items they would need for their journey. Much time went into ensuring a sufficient supply of these items.

The route of Lewis and Clark's expedition, up the Missouri River to its headwaters, then on to the Pacific via the Columbia River, may have been influenced by the purported transcontinental journey of Moncacht-Apé by the same route about a century before. Jefferson had a copy of Le Page's book detailing Moncacht-Apé's itinerary in his library, and Lewis carried a copy with him during the expedition. Le Page's description of Moncacht-Apé's route ; across the continent, which neglects to mention the need to cross the Rocky Mountains, may be the source of Lewis and Clark's mistaken belief that they could easily carry boats from the Missouri's headwaters to the westward-flowing Columbia.

Journey

There were 33 people, including 29 participants in training at the 1803–1804 Camp Dubois winter staging area in Illinois Territory, near present day Hartford, Illinois. They left on May 14, 1804, and met up with Lewis in St. Charles, Missouri, a short time later; the corps followed the Missouri River westward. Soon they passed La Charrette, the last Euro-American settlement on the Missouri River.

The expedition followed the Missouri through what is now Kansas City, Missouri, and Omaha, Nebraska. On August 20, 1804, Sergeant Charles Floyd died, apparently from acute appendicitis. He was buried at Floyd's Bluff, in what is now Sioux City, Iowa. During the final week of August, Lewis and Clark reached the edge of the Great Plains, a place abounding with elk, deer, bison, and beavers.

The Lewis and Clark Expedition established relations with two dozen indigenous nations, without whose help the expedition would have starved to death or become hopelessly lost in the Rocky Mountains.

The Americans and the Lakota nation (whom the Americans called Sioux or "Teton-wan Sioux") had problems when they met, and there was a concern the two sides might fight. According to Harry W. Fritz, "All earlier Missouri River travelers had warned of this powerful and aggressive tribe, determined to block free trade on the river. ... The Sioux were also expecting a retaliatory raid from the Omaha Indians, to the south. A recent Sioux raid had killed 75 Omaha men, burned 40 lodges, and taken four dozen prisoners."

One of their horses disappeared, and they believed the Sioux were responsible. Afterward, the two sides met and there was a disagreement, and the Sioux asked the men to stay or to give more gifts instead before being allowed to pass through their territory. They came close to fighting several times, and both sides finally backed down and the expedition continued on to Arikara territory. Clark wrote they were "warlike" and were the "vilest miscreants of the savage race."

In the winter of 1804–05, the party built Fort Mandan, near present-day Washburn, North Dakota. One chief asked Lewis and Clark to provide a boat for passage through their national territory. As tensions increased, Lewis and Clark prepared to fight, but the two sides fell back in the end. The Americans quickly continued westward (upriver), and camped for the winter in the Mandan nation's territory. Here they met a French-Canadian fur trapper named Toussaint Charbonneau, and his young Shoshone wife Sacagawea, who helped translate.

They followed the Missouri to its headwaters, and over the Continental Divide at Lemhi Pass. In canoes, they descended the mountains by the Clearwater River, the Snake River, and the Columbia River, past Celilo Falls and past what is now Portland, Oregon at the meeting of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers. Lewis used William Robert Broughton's 1792 notes and maps to find the stratovolcano mountain for navigation.

The expedition faced its second bitter winter, and voted on whether to camp on the south side of the Columbia river (modern Astoria, Oregon), building Fort Clatsop. Because Sacagawea and Clark's slave York were both allowed to participate in the vote, it may have been the first time in American history where a woman and a slave were allowed to vote. The Corps turned home on March 23, 1806, using canoes, and later by land.

On July 3, before crossing the Continental Divide, the Corps split into two teams so Lewis could explore the Marias River. Lewis' group of four met some men from the Blackfeet nation. During the night, the Blackfeet tried to steal their weapons. In the struggle, the soldiers killed two Blackfeet men. Lewis, Drouillard, and the Field brothers, fled over 100 miles (160 km) in a day before they camped again.

Meanwhile, Clark had entered the Crow tribe's territory. In the night, half of Clark's horses disappeared, but not a single Crow had been seen. Lewis and Clark stayed separated until they reached the Yellowstone and Missouri Rivers on August 11, along with Clark's. Before reuniting, one of Clark's hunters, Pierre Cruzatte, mistook Lewis for an elk and fired, injuring Lewis in the thigh. Once reunited, the Corps were able to return home quickly via the Missouri River. They reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806.

The Corps met their objective of reaching the Pacific, mapping and establishing their presence for a legal claim to the land. They established diplomatic relations and trade with at least two dozen indigenous nations. They did not find the Northwest Passage.

Geography, science

The Lewis and Clark Expedition gained an understanding of the geography of the Northwest and produced the first accurate maps of the area. During the journey, Lewis and Clark drew about 140 maps. Stephen Ambrose says the expedition "filled in the main outlines" of the area.

The expedition documented natural resources and plants that had been previously unknown to Euro-Americans, though not to the indigenous peoples. Lewis and Clark "were the first" Americans to describe "the place officially". Their visit to the Pacific Northwest, maps, and proclamations of sovereignty with medals and flags were legal steps needed to claim title to each indigenous nations' lands under the Doctrine of Discovery.

Lewis and Clark's expedition had no greater advocate and no greater beneficiary, than the American Philosophical Society (APS). Their duties, as assigned by Jefferson, were preeminently scientific. Specifically, they were instructed in geography, astronomy, ethnology, climatology, mineralogy, meteorology, botany, ornithology, and zoology.

The expedition recorded more than 200 plants and animals that were new to science and noted at least 72 native tribes.

Jefferson had the expedition declare "sovereignty" and demonstrate their military strength to ensure native tribes would be subordinate to the US, as European colonizers did elsewhere. Upon the completion of the expedition the maps that were produced allowed the further discovery and settlement of this vast territory in the years that soon followed.

In 1807 Patrick Gass published an account of the journey. Paul Allen edited a two-volume history of the Lewis and Clark expedition that was published in 1814, in Philadelphia, but without mention of the actual author, banker Nicholas Biddle. Even then, all of the report was not completely made public until more recently. The earliest authorized edition of the Lewis and Clark journals reside in the Maureen and Mike Mansfield Library at the University of Montana.

Sacagawea

Sacagawea, sometimes called Sakajawea or Sakagawea (c. 1788 – December 20, 1812), was an indigenous woman who accompanied her husband Toussaint Charbonneau on the expedition to the Pacific Ocean. Her son Jean Baptiste Charbonneau was born in 1805 with the help of the expedition.

Though she has been discussed in literature frequently, much of the information is exaggerated or fiction. Scholars say she did notice some geographical features, but "Sacagawea...was not the guide for the Expedition, she was important to them as an interpreter and in other ways." The sight of a woman and her infant son would have been a reassuring sight to some indigenous nations, and she played an important role in diplomatic relations by talking to chiefs, easing tensions, and giving the impression of a peaceful mission.

In his writings, Meriwether Lewis presented a somewhat negative view of her, though Clark had a higher regard for her, and later on provided some support for her children in subsequent years. In the journals, they used the terms "squar" and "savages" to refer to Sacagawea and other indigenous peoples.

Before Lewis and Clark

Before 1537 Cabeza de Vaca crossed central Texas or northern Mexico from the Gulf to northwest Mexico. In 1539–42 Hernando de Soto crossed much of the South from Georgia to Arkansas. In 1540–42 Francisco Vásquez de Coronado traveled from Arizona to eastern Kansas. Since these expeditions found nothing of value the Spaniards largely abandoned northward expansion.

In 1608 the French founded Quebec and quickly spread through the Saint Lawrence basin. In 1682 René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle went down the Mississippi from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. The French then established a chain of posts along the Mississippi from New Orleans to the Great Lakes. In 1714 Etiene Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont ascended the Missouri as far as the mouth of the Cheyenne River in central South Dakota.

Moncacht-Apé, a Native American explorer, may have traveled from near the mouth of the Mississippi River to the Atlantic, and from there to the coast of the Pacific Northwest, sometime in the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century. This purported transcontinental journey is related by Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz, a French ethnographer who lived for a period in Louisiana, where he claimed to have met Moncacht-Apé and recorded the details of his travels.

In 1720 the Villasur expedition from Santa Fe tried to reach the French on the Mississippi but was defeated by the Pawnee in eastern Nebraska. In 1739 Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet reached Santa Fe from the Mississippi. Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, sieur de La Vérendrye opened the area west of lake Superior and in 1738 reached the Mandan villages on the upper Missouri in North Dakota. In 1743 two of his sons may have reached the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming, but documentation was poor.

From Hudson Bay, in 1690 Henry Kelsey reached the lower Saskatchewan River, in 1754 Anthony Henday followed the Saskatchewan almost to the Rocky Mountains and in 1771 Samuel Hearne reached the Arctic coast at the Coppermine River. In 1789 Sir Alexander Mackenzie followed the river named after him to the Arctic Ocean. In 1793 he ascended the Peace River, crossed the Rocky Mountains and reached the Pacific twelve years before Lewis and Clark. In 1799 the Canadians built Rocky Mountain House, Alberta within sight of the mountains. From 1795 Canadians from Brandon House were trading with the Mandans and in 1796 John Evans (explorer) reached the Mandans from the Mississippi.

Provoked by Russian expansion down the Alaska coast Juan José Pérez Hernández explored the Pacific coast in 1774, followed by James Cook in 1778. This led to a British Sea Otter trade with China, the Nootka Crisis and Anglo-American claims on the Oregon country. In 1792 Robert Gray found the mouth of the Columbia River.

Later in 1792 the Vancouver Expedition explored over 100 miles (160 km) up the Columbia, into the Columbia River Gorge. Lewis and Clark carried a copy of Vancouver's map of the lower Columbia. By 1800 the coast of the Pacific Northwest had been thoroughly explored by maritime fur traders. By the time Lewis and Clark arrived at the mouth of the Columbia, at least 14 maritime fur traders had already visited the river's mouth and estuary.

Thus Lewis and Clark had first to travel the lower Missouri to the Mandan country in North Dakota. Everything west from North Dakota to the Pacific was unknown, except that the Rocky Mountains existed, that the upper Missouri seemed to flow from that direction and that on the other side of the Rockies the large Columbia River entered the Pacific.

We should also note the different methods of travel. Coronado and De Soto travelled with large gangs of armed men. Hearne and the younger Vérendryes joined bands of roving Indians. La Salle and Mackenzie used professional voyageurs and Indian guides. Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific mostly under their own power.

See also

• The Red River Expedition (1806) and the Pike Expedition were also commissioned by Jefferson.
• USS Lewis and Clark and USNS Lewis and Clark
• Jefferson National Expansion Memorial
• Moncacht-Apé, a Native American who may have traveled across North America more than a century before Lewis and Clark
• The Far Horizons, a movie of the expedition
• York (explorer) – the slave on the expedition
• Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana) - the only non motorized pass on the expeditions route

References

1. Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, James Fenelon, Mary Defender-Wilson. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 90–1
2. Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Manifest Destiny Robert Miller, Bison Books, 2008 pg 108
3. ^ The Way to the Western Sea, David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 32, 90.
4. Lewis and Clark among the Indians, James Ronda, University of Nebraska Press, 2002, pg 82, 192.
5. Fritz, Harry W. (2004). The Lewis and Clark Expedition. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 113. ISBN 0-313-31661-9.
6. Lewis and Clark among the Indians, James Ronda. pg 9. Books.google.com. January 1, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8032-8990-1. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
7. ^ Ronda, James P. (1998). Voyages of Discovery: Essays on the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Montana Historical Society. pp. 327–328. ISBN 978-0-917298-45-5. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
8. ^ Fresonke, Kris; Spencer, John (2004). Lewis & Clark: Legacies, Memories, and New Perspectives. University of California Press. pp. 159–162. ISBN 978-0-520-22839-9. Retrieved December 14, 2010.
9. "Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition". University of Nebraska–Lincoln. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
10. Ambrose, Stephen. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the opening of the American west. (Simon & Schuster, New York, 1996). p. 69.
11. Visions of Another Empire: John Ledyard, an American Traveler across the Russian Empire, 1787–1788, Edward Gray, Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 24, No. 3 Autumn, 2004, pp. 358.
12. DeVoto, Bernard (1953). The Journals of Lewis and Clark. Houghton Mifflin Company. p. xxix. ISBN 0-395-08380-X.
13. ''Exploring polar frontiers: a historical encyclopedia'', Volume 1, William J. Mills, 2003, pg 390. Books.google.com. 2003. ISBN 978-1-57607-422-0. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
14. ''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'', Carlos Schwantes, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, pg 54-5. Books.google.com. January 1, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8032-9228-4. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
15. ''The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia'', Junius Rodriguez, 2002, pg xxiv. Books.google.com. 2002. ISBN 978-1-57607-188-5. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
16. ''Acts of discovery: visions of America in the Lewis and Clark journals'', Albert Furtwangler, 1993, pg 19. Books.google.com. 1993. ISBN 978-0-252-06306-0. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
17. "Jefferson's Secret Message to Congress". Retrieved June 30, 2006.
18. ''The Pacific Northwest: an interpretive history'', Carlos Schwantes, University of Nebraska Press, 1996, pg 55. Books.google.com. January 1, 1996. ISBN 978-0-8032-9228-4. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
19. ''The encyclopedia of Louisville'' John Kleber, University Press of Kentucky, 2000, pg 509, 510. Books.google.com. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8131-2100-0. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
20. ''The Lewis and Clark Expedition'' Harry Fritz, pg 1, 5. Books.google.com. 2004. ISBN 978-0-313-31661-6. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
21. Lewis & Clark among the Indians. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 32.
22. Native America, Discovered and Conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis and Clark, and Manifest Destiny Robert Miller, Bison Books, 2008 pg 99, 100, 111
23. ''The United States Army: issues, background and bibliography'', George Bennett, Nova Science Publishers, 2002, pg 4. Books.google.com. 2002-05. ISBN 978-1-59033-300-6. Retrieved 2011-01-20. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
24. ^ Voyage of Domination, "Purchase" as Conquest, Sakakawea for Savagery: Distorted Icons from Misrepresentations of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, James Fenelon, Mary Defender-Wilson. Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 88, 90
25. ^ Explorations into the world of Lewis and Clark, Robert Saindon, 2003, pg 551-2.
26. ^ Native America, discovered and conquered: Thomas Jefferson, Lewis & Clark, Praeger, 2008, pg 106.
27. ^ Woodger, Toropov, 2012 pp.104, 265, 271 Cite error: The named reference "Woodger104" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
28. ^ "A Native American Scoops Lewis and Clark", Gordon M. Sayre, Common-Place: The Interactive Journal of Early American Life, Vol. 5, No. 4, July 2005, accessed 5 May 2012
29. Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.13. ISBN 0-313-31661-9
30. Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.14. ISBN 0-313-31661-9
31. Lewis and Clark among the Tetons: Smoking out What Really Happened, Craig Howe, Wicazo Sa Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, American Indian Encounters with Lewis and Clark (Spring, 2004), pp. 69.
32. The Lewis and Clark Expedition, Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 14-5.
33. Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West, Simon and Schuster, 1996, pg 170.
34. ''Lewis & Clark among the Indians''. University of Nebraska Press, 1984, pg 27, 40. Books.google.com. January 1, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8032-8990-1. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
35. The Way to the Western Sea, David Lavender, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pg 181.
36. Dugout Canoe description Retrieved on March 24, 2007
37. ^ Fritz, Harry W. (2004). The Lewis and Clark Expedition. Greenwood Press.
38. Ambrose, Stephen E. (1996). Undaunted Courage. Simon & Schuster.
39. Cite error: The named reference Clark Expedition 2004, pg 60 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
40. Archibald, Robert R. (2003). "The Significance of the National Lewis and Clark Commemoration". Indiana Magazine of History. 99: 254–262.
41. Bernard deVoto (1962), The Course of Empire (Boston:Houghton Mifflin); p. 552
42. Harry W. Fritz (2004). "The Lewis and Clark Expedition". Greenwood Publishing Group. p.59. ISBN 0-313-31661-9
43. Jack Uldrich, Meriwether Lewis, William Clark (2004). "Into the unknown: leadership lessons from Lewis & Clark's daring westward adventure". AMACOM Div American Mgmt Assn. p.37. ISBN 0-8144-0816-8
44. Lewis & Clark: legacies, memories, and new perspectives Kris Fresonke, Mark Spence pg 70
45. ''The Lewis and Clark Expedition'', Harry Fritz, Greenwood Press, 2004, pg 88. Books.google.com. 2004. ISBN 978-0-313-31661-6. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
46. MacGregor, Carol Lynn (1997). The Journals of Patrick Gass. Mountain Press Publishing Co. ISBN 0-87842-350-8., originally published in 1807
47. • History of the Expedition under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark at Project Gutenberg
48. Cutright, Paul Russell (July 1982). Contributions of Philadelphia to Lewis and Clark History. Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, Inc. pp. 33–35. ISBN 0-9678887-0-0. An anomaly of some proportion is the fact that the 1814 account, now commonly referred to as the Biddle edition, carried no mention of Biddle anywhere. ... The only logical explanation of this incredible omission is that Biddle wanted it that way, insisted on complete anonymity.
49. Lewis and Clark Journals
50. Clark, Ella Elizabeth. Sacagawea of the Lewis and Clark expedition. Berkeley, Calif: University of California P, 1979.
51. Ronda, James P. (2003). "Why Lewis and Clark Matter". Smithsonian. 34: 98–101.
52. ''Lewis and Clark among the Indians'', James Ronda, University of Nebraska Press, 2002, pg 258-9. Books.google.com. January 1, 2002. ISBN 978-0-8032-8990-1. Retrieved January 20, 2011.
53. "George Vancouver's Map of the Lower Columbia". Discovering Lewis & Clark. Retrieved August 10, 2011.
54. "Fur trade". Northwest Power and Conservation Council. Retrieved August 10, 2011.

Bibliography

• Fritz, Harry (2004). The Lewis and Clark Expedition,. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-313-31661-6. Url

• Woodger, Elin; Toropov, Brandon (2009). Encyclopedia of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.
  Infobase Publishing,. p. 438. ISBN 0-8160-4781-2.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) Url

Further reading

• Bassman, John H. (2009). A navigation companion for the Lewis & Clark Trail. Volume 1, History, camp locations and daily summaries of expedition activities. United States: John H. Bassman.
• Lewis and Clark Among the Indians, James P. Ronda, 1984 – ISBN 0-8032-3870-3
• Undaunted Courage, Stephen Ambrose, 1997 – ISBN 0-684-82697-6
• National Geographic Guide to the Lewis & Clark Trail, Thomas Schmidt, 2002 – ISBN 0-7922-6471-1
• The Lewis and Clark Journals: An American Epic of Discovery (abridged), edited by Gary E. Moulton, 2003 – ISBN 0-8032-2950-X
• The Journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, 13-Volume Set, edited by Gary E. Moulton, 2002 – ISBN 0-8032-2948-8
• The complete text of the Lewis and Clark Journals online, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
• In Search of York: The Slave Who Went to the Pacific With Lewis and Clark, Robert B. Betts, 2002 – ISBN 0-87081-714-0
• Online text of The Journals of Lewis and Clark, 1804–1806 by William Clark and Meriwether Lewis at Project Gutenberg
• Lewis & Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery, Ken Burns, 1997 – ISBN 0-679-45450-0
• Lewis and Clark: across the divide, Carolyn Gilman, 2003. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. ISBN 1-58834-099-6
• Contributions of Philadelphia to Lewis and Clark History, Paul Russell Cutright, (July 1982), Portland, Oregon: Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, Inc., ISBN 0-9678887-0-0.
• The Way to the Western Sea: Lewis and Clark Across the Continent, David Lavender, 1988. Harpercollins. ISBN 0-06-015982-0
• "Why Sacagawea Deserves the Day Off and Other Lessons from the Lewis and Clark Trail" by Stephenie Ambrose Tubbs (University of Nebraska Press, 2008)
• Pittsburgh's Heinz History Center on the city's contributions to the Voyage.

External links

• Full text of the Lewis and Clark journals online – edited by Gary E. Moulton, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
  • "National Archives photos dating from the 1860s–1890s of the Native cultures the expedition encountered". Archived from the original on February 12, 2008.

• Lewis and Clark Expedition, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary

• Sargent, Colin (2008). Museum of Human Beings. Ithaca, McBooks

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• History of United States expansionism
• Louisiana Purchase
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