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Revision as of 19:07, 30 January 2014 editHistoryofIran (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers97,970 editsm HistoryofIran moved page Muhammad of Ghor to Mu'izz al-Din: Common name.← Previous edit Revision as of 19:18, 30 January 2014 edit undoHistoryofIran (talk | contribs)Autopatrolled, Extended confirmed users, Pending changes reviewers97,970 editsNo edit summaryNext edit →
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{{Refimprove|date=April 2010}} {{Refimprove|date=April 2010}}
{{Infobox monarch {{Infobox monarch
|name=Mu'izz al-Din
|name=Muizz-uddin Muhammad bin Sām
|title=] of the ] |title=] of the ]
|image=Shahabuddin Suri.jpg |image=Shahabuddin Suri.jpg
|caption=Sultan Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Ghori |caption=Mu'izz al-Din
|reign=1202–1206 |reign=1202–1206
|coronation= |coronation=
|othertitles= |othertitles=
|predecessor=] |predecessor=]
|successor=] |successor=]
|wife= |wife=
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|religion=]<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> |religion=]<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/>
}} }}
Sultan '''Shahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori''' (last title also spelled ''Ghauri'', ''Ghouri'') ({{lang-fa|سلطان شہاب الدین محمد غوری}}), was born '''Mu'izzuddīn Muḥammad Bin Sām''' (1149&nbsp;– March 15, 1206). He was referred to by ] as '''Muhammad of Ghor''' and famously known as just '''Ghori'''. He was one of the greatest rulers of the ], and is credited with laying the foundation of Islamic occupation in India that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan. '''Mu'izz al-Din''' ({{lang-fa|معزالدوله الدین}}), born '''Shihab al-Din''' (1149&nbsp;– March 15, 1206), was ] of the ] from 1202 to 1206. He was the brother and successor of ]. Mu'izz al-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the ], and is credited with laying the foundation of Islamic occupation in India that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.


Mu'izzuddīn Muḥammad Bin Sām, was given the title ''"Shahab-ud-din"'' which means "The Flame of Religion (Islam)" took the city of ] in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor ] at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghurids'', C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, ()</ref> In the meantime, he assisted his brother ] in his contest with the ] for the lordship of ] in ]. In 1175 Ghori captured ] from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took ] in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of ] in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near ] in modern-day Pakistan.<ref>''MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN'', T.W. Haig, '''Encyclopaedia of Islam''', Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.</ref> Mu'izz al-Din took the city of ] in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor ] at the hands of ] and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghurids'', C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, ()</ref> In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyas in his contest with the ] for the lordship of ] in ]. In 1175 Mu'izz captured ] from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took ] in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of ] in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near ] in modern-day Pakistan.<ref>''MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN'', T.W. Haig, '''Encyclopaedia of Islam''', Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.</ref>


A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghūri leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the ] in about 1215. Though the Ghūrids' empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid Suri states remained in power until the arrival of ], Shahabuddin Ghori's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. ], a former slave (]) of Muhammad Ghori, was the first ] of Delhi. A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghūri leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the ] in about 1215. Though the Ghūrids' empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid Suri states remained in power until the arrival of ], Mu'izz's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. ], a former slave (]) of Mu'izz, was the first ] of Delhi.


==Background== ==Background==
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== Early life == == Early life ==
Shahab-ud-din Ghori was born '''Muizz-ud-dīn Muhammad Bin Sām''' in 1149 CE in the ] region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, ], was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/> Mu'izz was born in 1149 in the ] region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, ], was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time.<ref name="Iranica-Ghurids"/>


==The Ghori Empire== ==The Ghori Empire==
The Ghor region laid on the western boundary of the ], which, in the early 12th century, covered an area stretching from what is now central Afghanistan to the ] in what is now Pakistan, with summer capital at Ghazni and winter capital at Lahore. The Ghor region laid on the western boundary of the ], which, in the early 12th century, covered an area stretching from what is now central Afghanistan to the ] in what is now Pakistan, with summer capital at Ghazni and winter capital at Lahore.


Beginning in the mid-12th century, Ghor expressed its independence from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1149, the Ghaznavid ruler Bahram Shāh poisoned a local Ghūrid leader, Quṭb ud-Dīn, who had taken refuge in the city of Ghazna after a family quarrel. In revenge, the Ghūrid chief ''Ala-ud-Din Husain Shah'' sacked and burned the city of Ghazna and put the city into fire for seven days and seven nights. It earned him the title of ''Jahānsuz'', meaning "the world burner".<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghaznavids'', Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, ()</ref> The Ghaznavids retook the city with ] help, but lost it to ] ]s.<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids"/> The Ghurids reconquered Ghaznā from the Oghuz Turks and in 1173, Muizz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sām aka '''Shahabuddin Muhammad Ghori''' became governor of the Ghazna province while his brother, ], became the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire. Beginning in the mid-12th century, Ghor expressed its independence from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1149, the Ghaznavid ruler Bahram Shāh poisoned a local Ghūrid leader, Quṭb ud-Dīn, who had taken refuge in the city of Ghazna after a family quarrel. In revenge, the Ghūrid chief ''Ala-ud-Din Husain Shah'' sacked and burned the city of Ghazna and put the city into fire for seven days and seven nights. It earned him the title of ''Jahānsuz'', meaning "the world burner".<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids">Encyclopedia Iranica, ''Ghaznavids'', Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, ()</ref> The Ghaznavids retook the city with ] help, but lost it to ] ]s.<ref name="Iranica-Ghaznavids"/> The Ghurids reconquered Ghazna from the Oghuz Turks and in 1173, Mu'izz became governor of the Ghazna province while his brother, ], became the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire.


== Ghurid-Ghaznavid struggles == == Ghurid-Ghaznavid struggles ==
Mahmud Ghazni had attacked Ghor and the King ], an ancestor of Shahabuddin Ghori, who committed suicide with poison after being taken prisoner. Various sources including Ferishta and Siraj attest to these events. {{bquote|In the following year AH 401 (AD 1010), Mahmood led his army towards ].<ref name="ReferenceB">Ferishta -Translation John Briggs page 28 vol 1</ref>}} ] had attacked Ghor and the King ], an ancestor of Mu'izz, who committed suicide with poison after being taken prisoner. Various sources including Ferishta and Siraj attest to these events. {{bquote|In the following year AH 401 (AD 1010), Mahmood led his army towards ].<ref name="ReferenceB">Ferishta -Translation John Briggs page 28 vol 1</ref>}}
According to Minhaj us Siraj, Amir Suri was captured by ], taken prisoner along with his son, and taken to Ghazni, where Amir Suri died.<ref>The History of Inda as told by its own Historians by Eliot and Dowson, Volume 2 page 286</ref>{{bquote|Soor, being made prisoner was brought to the king, but having taken poison, which he always kept under his ring, he died in a few hours; his country was annexed to the dominions of Ghizny.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}} According to Minhaj us Siraj, Amir Suri was captured by ], taken prisoner along with his son, and taken to Ghazni, where Amir Suri died.<ref>The History of Inda as told by its own Historians by Eliot and Dowson, Volume 2 page 286</ref>{{bquote|Soor, being made prisoner was brought to the king, but having taken poison, which he always kept under his ring, he died in a few hours; his country was annexed to the dominions of Ghizny.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>}}
{{bquote|A little over a hundred years after Mahmud, one of his successors to the throne of ] fell into a blood feud with the ruler of Ghor, southeast of ]. In reprisal Ghazni was sacked by the prince of Ghor a fellow Muslim in 1150, and burned for seven days and nights. All the magnificent Mahmudi palaces and halls were destroyed and plunder, devastation and, and slaughter were continuous. It might be a historian reporting one of Mahmud's own murderous Indian raids. The Ghori victor earned the title of ''Jahansoze'', the world burner. The bells ring again: the perpetrations of the northern foreigners were not essentially anti-Hindu. They could be quite merciless with Muslim rivals as well, for that was a part of their way of life. Ghazni now fell to a Turkman tribe which was in its turn ousted by the nephew of ''Jahansoze'' in 1173. The latter gave it to his brother later to be known as Muhammad of Ghori.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}} {{bquote|A little over a hundred years after Mahmud, one of his successors to the throne of ] fell into a blood feud with the ruler of Ghor, southeast of ]. In reprisal Ghazni was sacked by the prince of Ghor a fellow Muslim in 1150, and burned for seven days and nights. All the magnificent Mahmudi palaces and halls were destroyed and plunder, devastation and, and slaughter were continuous. It might be a historian reporting one of Mahmud's own murderous Indian raids. The Ghurid victor earned the title of ''Jahansoze'', the world burner. The bells ring again: the perpetrations of the northern foreigners were not essentially anti-Hindu. They could be quite merciless with Muslim rivals as well, for that was a part of their way of life. Ghazni now fell to a Turkman tribe which was in its turn ousted by the nephew of ''Jahansuz'' in 1173. The latter gave it to his brother later to be known as Mu'izz.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}}


{{bquote|Muhammad of Ghori launched expeditions into India, first capturing Multan from a fellow Muslim chief in 1175–76. Three years later he invaded Gujarat and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. Another three years later, and Shahabuddin Ghori was back to take Peshawar and Sialkot in 1181. Now in alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendant of Mahmud of Ghazni, and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}} {{bquote|Mu'izz launched expeditions into India, first capturing Multan from a fellow Muslim chief in 1175–76. Three years later he invaded Gujarat and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. Another three years later, and Mu'izz was back to take Peshawar and Sialkot in 1181. Now in alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendant of Mahmud of Ghazni, and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.<ref name="India, The Page 54"/>}}


Shahabuddin Ghori is credited with the decimation of the Ghaznavids, his ancestral enemies. Mu'izz is credited with the decimation of the Ghaznavids, his ancestral enemies.
{{bquote|In alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendent of ], and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.<ref name="India, The Page 54">Rediscovery Of India, The: A New Subcontinent By Ansar Hussain Khan, Ansar Hussain Published by Orient Longman Limited Page 54</ref>}} {{bquote|In alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendent of ], and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.<ref name="India, The Page 54">Rediscovery Of India, The: A New Subcontinent By Ansar Hussain Khan, Ansar Hussain Published by Orient Longman Limited Page 54</ref>}}


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=== Defeat in the First Battle of Tarain, 1191 === === Defeat in the First Battle of Tarain, 1191 ===
] pointing towards the direction of Shihab-ud-din Ghori's Tomb]] ] pointing towards the direction of Mu'izz's Tomb]]
{{Main|First Battle of Tarain}} {{Main|First Battle of Tarain}}
In 1191, Ghori proceeded towards Hindustan through the ] in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Ghori captured a fortress, ] in present-day ] on the northwestern frontier of ]'s kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress,<ref>Cambridge History (Page 40)</ref> he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of ], 14 miles from ] in present-day ]. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Ghori mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.</ref> In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards Hindustan through the ] in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, ] in present-day ] on the northwestern frontier of ]'s kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress,<ref>Cambridge History (Page 40)</ref> he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of ], 14 miles from ] in present-day ]. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.</ref>


=== Victory in the Second Battle of Tarain, 1192 === === Victory in the Second Battle of Tarain, 1192 ===
{{Main|Second Battle of Tarain}} {{Main|Second Battle of Tarain}}


On his return to Ghazni, Ghori made preparations to avenge the defeat. According to ], the Rajput army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry, most likely a gross exaggeration.<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526)'', 25.</ref> ], stated Muhammad Ghori brought 120,000 fully armored men to battle.<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526)'', 25.</ref> On his return to Ghazni, Mu'izz made preparations to avenge the defeat. According to ], the Rajput army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry, most likely a gross exaggeration.<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526)'', 25.</ref> ], stated Mu'izz brought 120,000 fully armored men to battle.<ref>Satish Chandra, ''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526)'', 25.</ref>


Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Ghori attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, 263. </ref> Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.<ref>'''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East''', Vol. I, 263. </ref>


== Consolidation of the Ghurid Empire == == Consolidation of the Ghurid Empire ==
When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over ]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sharma, Gopi Nath|year=1970|title=Rajasthan Studies|location=Agra, India|publisher=Lakshmi Narain Agarwal|page=201|oclc=137196}}</ref> and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India.<ref name="Abbasi">{{Cite book|author=Abbasi, M. Yusuf|chapter=The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution|editor=Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi|year=1990|title=Pakistan Resolution Revisited|publisher=National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research|location=Islamabad, Pakistan|pages=8&ndash;9|isbn=978-969-415-024-6}}</ref> Rajput kingdoms like ], ], Kohram and ] were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the ], a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Ghori in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan){{fact|date=November 2013}}. Within a year, Ghori controlled northern ] and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_sgAAAAMAAJ&q=prithviraj+gola&dq=prithviraj+gola |title=The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids. When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over ]<ref>{{Cite book|author=Sharma, Gopi Nath|year=1970|title=Rajasthan Studies|location=Agra, India|publisher=Lakshmi Narain Agarwal|page=201|oclc=137196}}</ref> and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India.<ref name="Abbasi">{{Cite book|author=Abbasi, M. Yusuf|chapter=The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution|editor=Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi|year=1990|title=Pakistan Resolution Revisited|publisher=National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research|location=Islamabad, Pakistan|pages=8&ndash;9|isbn=978-969-415-024-6}}</ref> Rajput kingdoms like ], ], Kohram and ] were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the ], a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Mu'izz in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan){{fact|date=November 2013}}. Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern ] and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=S_sgAAAAMAAJ&q=prithviraj+gola&dq=prithviraj+gola |title=The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids.


Shahabuddin Ghori, having settled the affairs of the province of Lahore, conferred the government of Lahore on Ali Karmakh<ref name="ReferenceA">Siraj, Minhaj, ''Tahqaat-e-Nasri''; Qasim, ''Tarkh-e-Farishta''; Ahmed Yaha Sirshnidi, Tarkh-e-Mubrak Shahi, Lahore 398</ref> who was then the Governor of Multan. In 1206, Shahabuddin Ghori appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his ''Naib us Sultanat'' in India<ref name="ReferenceA"/> at a grand ''darbar'' (court reception) at Lahore, which was attended by a large majority of the nobles and dignitaries of his kingdom. It was at this occasion that Shahabuddin Ghori bestowed upon Qutb-ud-din the title of ''Aibak'', meaning "Axis of the Faith".<ref>http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1458-3.pdf</ref> Mu'izz, having settled the affairs of the province of Lahore, conferred the government of Lahore on Ali Karmakh<ref name="ReferenceA">Siraj, Minhaj, ''Tahqaat-e-Nasri''; Qasim, ''Tarkh-e-Farishta''; Ahmed Yaha Sirshnidi, Tarkh-e-Mubrak Shahi, Lahore 398</ref> who was then the Governor of Multan. In 1206, Mu'izz appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his ''Naib us Sultanat'' in India<ref name="ReferenceA"/> at a grand ''darbar'' (court reception) at Lahore, which was attended by a large majority of the nobles and dignitaries of his kingdom. It was at this occasion that Mu'izz bestowed upon Qutb-ud-din the title of ''Aibak'', meaning "Axis of the Faith".<ref>http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1458-3.pdf</ref>


Muḥammad Ghori returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under ] generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as ]. Aibak ransacked ] temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of ]. In 1204, after becoming sultan, Shahabuddin Ghori defeated the advance of ]. Aibak's ] ] had been appointed as a general by Muhammad of Ghor in 1203, and in 1204 he helped defeat the army of Lakshman Sen of the ]. Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under ] generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as ]. Aibak ransacked ] temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of ]. In 1204, after becoming sultan, Mu'izz defeated the advance of ]. Aibak's ] ] had been appointed as a general by Muhammad of Ghor in 1203, and in 1204 he helped defeat the army of Lakshman Sen of the ].


== Final days and death == == Final days and death ==
In 1206, Shahabuddin Ghori had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. Before leaving India, Muhammad had left all his affairs in hands of ]. He was a slave of Muhammad. In 1206, Mu'izz had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. Before leaving India, Muhammad had left all his affairs in hands of ]. He was a slave of Muhammad.


On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near ] (which is near the city of Jhelum in the ] province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Shahabuddin Ghori's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local ] and others claiming he was assassinated by ] or even Ismailis. On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near ] (which is near the city of Jhelum in the ] province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Mu'izz's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local ] and others claiming he was assassinated by ] or even Ismailis.
Hasan Nizami and Ferishta record the killing of Shahabuddin Ghori at the hands of the Gakhars. However, Ferishta may have confused the Ghakars with the Khokhars.<!--The correct source is not the plagiarist Wikeley (whom I have removed), but IIRC H A Rose, need to check --> Other historians have also blamed Shahabuddin Ghori's assassination ''to a band of Hindu ] ].'' Hasan Nizami and Ferishta record the killing of Mu'izz at the hands of the Gakhars. However, Ferishta may have confused the Ghakars with the Khokhars.<!--The correct source is not the plagiarist Wikeley (whom I have removed), but IIRC H A Rose, need to check --> Other historians have also blamed Mu'izz's assassination ''to a band of Hindu ] ].''


{{bquote|All the historians before the time of Ferishta agree that the Khokhars, not the Gakhars, killed Shahab ud din Ghori{{fact|date=November 2013}}.<ref>A Glossary Of The Tribes And Castes Of The Punjab And North-West Frontier By H.A. Rose Page 275</ref>}} {{bquote|All the historians before the time of Ferishta agree that the Khokhars, not the Gakhars, killed Mu'izz{{fact|date=November 2013}}.<ref>A Glossary Of The Tribes And Castes Of The Punjab And North-West Frontier By H.A. Rose Page 275</ref>}}


Some also claim that Shahabuddin Ghori was assassinated by a radical ] Muslim sect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396618/Muizz-al-Din-Muhammad-ibn-Sam |title=Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India)&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref> Some also claim that Mu'izz was assassinated by a radical ] Muslim sect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/396618/Muizz-al-Din-Muhammad-ibn-Sam |title=Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India)&nbsp;– Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=2009-08-09}}</ref>


In Hindu Folklore, the death of Muhammad of Ghor was caused by Prithviraj <ref>''Prithviraj, a valorous hero par excellence, has been depicted in the lofty style which has been a source of inspiration to and influence on the North-Indian people.'' Krishnadatt Paliwal (1988) "Epic (Hindi)" ''In'' Datta, Amaresh (1988) ''The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature: Volume Two: Devraj to Jyoti'', Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, India, , ISBN 81-260-1194-7</ref> but which is not borne out by historical documents.<ref name="Luṇiyā">''Whatever may be their arguments, one cannot deny that the Prithviraj Raso remains a great piece of Hindi literature.'' Luṇiyā, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978) ''Life and Culture in Medieval India'' Kamal Prakashan, Indore, India, page 293, {{OCLC|641457716}}</ref><ref name="Kaviraj">Kaviraj Syamaldas (1886) "The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the epic called the Prithviraj Rasa and commonly ascribed to Chand Bardai" Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 55, pt.1,</ref><ref>] (April 1906) "Review of Das, Syamsundar ''Annual Report on the search for Hindi Manuscripts'' (four volumes for the years 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903)" ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' 1906(4): pp.&nbsp;497–503, </ref> This is described in the article ]. Even today Afghans vent their anger by stabbing on the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan, as according to them, Prithviraj had killed Ghori.<ref>"http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-8-2005_pg4_20"</ref><ref>"http://hindu.com/2000/09/26/stories/14262186.htm"</ref> ], a member of ] community, visited Afghanistan to trace the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan. He dug Chauhan's "grave" and collected sand from it. This incident created sensation in Indian news and public media – as he said he did it to get back India's pride & respect.<ref></ref><ref></ref> In Hindu Folklore, the death of Muhammad of Ghor was caused by Prithviraj <ref>''Prithviraj, a valorous hero par excellence, has been depicted in the lofty style which has been a source of inspiration to and influence on the North-Indian people.'' Krishnadatt Paliwal (1988) "Epic (Hindi)" ''In'' Datta, Amaresh (1988) ''The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature: Volume Two: Devraj to Jyoti'', Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, India, , ISBN 81-260-1194-7</ref> but which is not borne out by historical documents.<ref name="Luṇiyā">''Whatever may be their arguments, one cannot deny that the Prithviraj Raso remains a great piece of Hindi literature.'' Luṇiyā, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978) ''Life and Culture in Medieval India'' Kamal Prakashan, Indore, India, page 293, {{OCLC|641457716}}</ref><ref name="Kaviraj">Kaviraj Syamaldas (1886) "The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the epic called the Prithviraj Rasa and commonly ascribed to Chand Bardai" Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 55, pt.1,</ref><ref>] (April 1906) "Review of Das, Syamsundar ''Annual Report on the search for Hindi Manuscripts'' (four volumes for the years 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903)" ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'' 1906(4): pp.&nbsp;497–503, </ref> This is described in the article ]. Even today Afghans vent their anger by stabbing on the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan, as according to them, Prithviraj had killed Mu'izz.<ref>"http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-8-2005_pg4_20"</ref><ref>"http://hindu.com/2000/09/26/stories/14262186.htm"</ref> ], a member of ] community, visited Afghanistan to trace the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan. He dug Chauhan's "grave" and collected sand from it. This incident created sensation in Indian news and public media – as he said he did it to get back India's pride & respect.<ref></ref><ref></ref>


As per his wishes, Shahabuddin Ghori was buried where he fell, in Damik. As per his wishes, Mu'izz was buried where he fell, in Damik.


== Succession == == Succession ==
Shahabuddin Ghori had no offspring, but he treated his ] as his sons, who were trained both as soldiers and administrators and provided with the best possible education. Many of his competent and loyal slaves rose to positions of importance in Shahabuddin Ghori's army and government. Mu'izz had no offspring, but he treated his ] as his sons, who were trained both as soldiers and administrators and provided with the best possible education. Many of his competent and loyal slaves rose to positions of importance in Mu'izz's army and government.


When a courtier lamented that the Sultan had no male heirs, Shahabuddin Ghori retorted: When a courtier lamented that the Sultan had no male heirs, Mu'izz retorted:


<blockquote>"Other monarchs may have one son, or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the ] (Friday sermon) throughout these territories."{{Cite quote|date=April 2009}}</blockquote> <blockquote>"Other monarchs may have one son, or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the ] (Friday sermon) throughout these territories."{{Cite quote|date=April 2009}}</blockquote>


Shahabuddin Ghori's prediction proved true. After his assassination, his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. Most notably: Mu'izz's prediction proved true. After his assassination, his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. Most notably:
* ] became ruler of ] in 1206, establishing the ], which marked the start of the ].<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref> * ] became ruler of ] in 1206, establishing the ], which marked the start of the ].<ref>{{dead link|date=July 2012}}</ref>
* ] became ruler of ] in 1210. * ] became ruler of ] in 1210.
Line 109: Line 109:


== Legacy == == Legacy ==
Muhammad of Ghor is revered by many ] as a Muslim hero who defeated the Hindu King Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Terain. Some Pakistani Muslims claim descent from Ghori and his Mamluke army. Pakistani military named three of its ] ], ] and ], in the memory of Muhammad of Ghor.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sep 3, 2005 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2005-09-03 |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref> Muhammad of Ghor is revered by many ] as a Muslim hero who defeated the Hindu King Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Terain. Some Pakistani Muslims claim descent from Mu'izz and his Mamluk army. Pakistani military named three of its ] ], ] and ], in the memory of Muhammad of Ghor.<ref>{{cite web|author=Sep 3, 2005 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GI03Df02.html |title=Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2005-09-03 |accessdate=2012-07-11}}</ref>


== Coins == == Coins ==
Line 154: Line 154:
{{Ghurid dynasty}} {{Ghurid dynasty}}
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see ]. --> {{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see ]. -->
| NAME = Muhammad of Ghor | NAME = Mu'izz al-Din
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Muizz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sām, Shahāb-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori | ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Shihab al-Din
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Ghurid Sultan | SHORT DESCRIPTION = Ghurid Sultan
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1149 | DATE OF BIRTH = 1149

Revision as of 19:18, 30 January 2014

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Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate
Mu'izz al-Din
Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate
Mu'izz al-Din
Reign1202–1206
PredecessorGhiyas ad-Din Ghori
SuccessorQutbuddin Aibak
Born1149
Ghor, present-day Afghanistan
DiedMarch 15, 1206
Damiak, Jhelum District, present-day Pakistan
BurialDamik, Jhelum District, present-day Pakistan
HouseGhurid dynasty
FatherBaha al-Din Sam I
ReligionSunni Islam

Mu'izz al-Din (Template:Lang-fa), born Shihab al-Din (1149 – March 15, 1206), was Sultan of the Ghurid Empire from 1202 to 1206. He was the brother and successor of Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori. Mu'izz al-Din was one of the greatest rulers of the Ghurid dynasty, and is credited with laying the foundation of Islamic occupation in India that lasted for several centuries. He reigned over a territory spanning over parts of modern-day Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Iran, India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan.

Mu'izz al-Din took the city of Ghazni in 1173 to avenge the death of his ancestor Muhammad ibn Suri at the hands of Mahmud of Ghazni and used it as a launching-pad for expansion into northern India. In the meantime, he assisted his brother Ghiyas in his contest with the Khwarezmid Empire for the lordship of Khorasan in Western Asia. In 1175 Mu'izz captured Multan from the Hamid Ludi dynasty which was a Pashtun but were alleged to be un-Islamic on the account of their association with Ismailite Shi'iate sect and also took Uch in 1175. He also annexed the Ghaznavid principality of Lahore in 1186, the last haven of his Persianized rivals. After the death of Ghiyasuddin in 1202, he became the successor of the Ghurid Empire and ruled until his assassination in 1206 near Jhelum in modern-day Pakistan.

A confused struggle then ensued among the remaining Ghūri leaders, and the Khwarizmi were able to take over the Ghurid Sultanate in about 1215. Though the Ghūrids' empire was short-lived and petty Ghurid Suri states remained in power until the arrival of Timurids, Mu'izz's conquests laid the foundations of Muslim rule in India. Qutb-ud-din Aibak, a former slave (Mamluk) of Mu'izz, was the first Sultan of Delhi.

Background

The Ghuristan region remained primarily Hindu and Buddhist till 12th century. It was then Islamised by the Ghaznavids and later gave rise to the Ghurids.

The rise to power of the Ghurids at Ghur, a small isolated area located in the mountain vastness between the Ghaznavid Empire and the Seljuks, was an unusual and unexpected development. The area was so remote that till the 11th century, it had remained a Hindu enclave surrounded by Muslim principalities. It was converted to Islam in the early part of the 12th century after Mahmud raided it, and left teachers to instruct the Ghurids in the precepts of Islam. Even then it is believed that paganism, i.e. a variety of Mahayana Buddhism persisted in the area till the end of the century.

Early life

Mu'izz was born in 1149 in the Ghor region of Afghanistan. The exact date of his birth is unknown. His father, Baha al-Din Sam I, was the local ruler of the Ghor region at the time.

The Ghori Empire

The Ghor region laid on the western boundary of the Ghaznavid Empire, which, in the early 12th century, covered an area stretching from what is now central Afghanistan to the Punjab in what is now Pakistan, with summer capital at Ghazni and winter capital at Lahore.

Beginning in the mid-12th century, Ghor expressed its independence from the Ghaznavid Empire. In 1149, the Ghaznavid ruler Bahram Shāh poisoned a local Ghūrid leader, Quṭb ud-Dīn, who had taken refuge in the city of Ghazna after a family quarrel. In revenge, the Ghūrid chief Ala-ud-Din Husain Shah sacked and burned the city of Ghazna and put the city into fire for seven days and seven nights. It earned him the title of Jahānsuz, meaning "the world burner". The Ghaznavids retook the city with Seljuk help, but lost it to Oghuz Turk freebooters. The Ghurids reconquered Ghazna from the Oghuz Turks and in 1173, Mu'izz became governor of the Ghazna province while his brother, Ghiyas ad-Din Ghori, became the Sultan of the Ghurid Empire.

Ghurid-Ghaznavid struggles

Mahmud of Ghazn had attacked Ghor and the King Muhammad ibn Suri, an ancestor of Mu'izz, who committed suicide with poison after being taken prisoner. Various sources including Ferishta and Siraj attest to these events.

In the following year AH 401 (AD 1010), Mahmood led his army towards Ghor.

According to Minhaj us Siraj, Amir Suri was captured by Mahmud of Ghazni, taken prisoner along with his son, and taken to Ghazni, where Amir Suri died.

Soor, being made prisoner was brought to the king, but having taken poison, which he always kept under his ring, he died in a few hours; his country was annexed to the dominions of Ghizny.

A little over a hundred years after Mahmud, one of his successors to the throne of Ghazni fell into a blood feud with the ruler of Ghor, southeast of Herat. In reprisal Ghazni was sacked by the prince of Ghor a fellow Muslim in 1150, and burned for seven days and nights. All the magnificent Mahmudi palaces and halls were destroyed and plunder, devastation and, and slaughter were continuous. It might be a historian reporting one of Mahmud's own murderous Indian raids. The Ghurid victor earned the title of Jahansoze, the world burner. The bells ring again: the perpetrations of the northern foreigners were not essentially anti-Hindu. They could be quite merciless with Muslim rivals as well, for that was a part of their way of life. Ghazni now fell to a Turkman tribe which was in its turn ousted by the nephew of Jahansuz in 1173. The latter gave it to his brother later to be known as Mu'izz.

Mu'izz launched expeditions into India, first capturing Multan from a fellow Muslim chief in 1175–76. Three years later he invaded Gujarat and was roundly defeated by the Hindu King. Another three years later, and Mu'izz was back to take Peshawar and Sialkot in 1181. Now in alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendant of Mahmud of Ghazni, and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.

Mu'izz is credited with the decimation of the Ghaznavids, his ancestral enemies.

In alliance with the Hindu Raja of Jammu Vijaya Dev, he attacked Lahore in 1187, which was held by his ancestral enemy, the descendent of Mahmud of Ghazni, and made him prisoner. Mahmud of Ghazni's line of Sultans and Governors became extinguished.

Invasions of India

Defeat in the Battle of Gujarat

Muhammad's campaign against the Muslim rulers of Multan in 1175 had ended in victory. He turned south, and led his army from Multan to Uch and then across the desert towards the Gujarat capital of Anhilwara (modern Patan). In 1178, Muhammad of Ghor suffered a defeat at the battle of Kayadara (Gujarat), during his first campaign against an Indian ruler in India. Gujarat was ruled by the young Indian ruler Bhimdev Solanki II (ruled 1178–1241), although the age of the Raja meant that the army was commanded by his mother Naikidevi. Muhammad's army had suffered greatly during the march across the desert, and Naikidevi inflicted a major defeat on him at the village of Kayadara (near to Mount Abu, about forty miles to the north-east of Anhilwara). The invading army suffered heavy casualties during the battle, and also in the retreat back across the desert to Multan.

An army led by Qutb al-din Aibak, Muhammad of Ghor's deputy in India, invaded in c.1195–97 and plundered Anahilapataka.

He captured Lahore in 1186 and constructed the fortress of Sialkot.

Defeat in the First Battle of Tarain, 1191

A sign post in Sohawa pointing towards the direction of Mu'izz's Tomb
Main article: First Battle of Tarain

In 1191, Mu'izz proceeded towards Hindustan through the Khyber Pass in modern day Pakistan and was successful in reaching Punjab. Mu'izz captured a fortress, Bathinda in present-day Punjab state on the northwestern frontier of Prithvīrāj Chauhān's kingdom. After appointing a Qazi Zia-ud-Din as governor of the fortress, he received the news that Prithviraj's army, led by his vassal prince Govind Tai were on their way to besiege the fortress. The two armies eventually met near the town of Tarain, 14 miles from Thanesar in present-day Haryana. The battle was marked by the initial attack of mounted Mamluk archers in which Prithviraj responds by counter-attacking from three sides and dominates the battle. Mu'izz mortally wounds Govind Tai in personal combat and is wounded himself, whereupon his army retreats.

Victory in the Second Battle of Tarain, 1192

Main article: Second Battle of Tarain

On his return to Ghazni, Mu'izz made preparations to avenge the defeat. According to Firishta, the Rajput army consisted of 3,000 elephants, 300,000 cavalry and infantry, most likely a gross exaggeration. Minhaj-i-Siraj, stated Mu'izz brought 120,000 fully armored men to battle.

Prithviraj had called his banners but hoped to buy time as his banners (other Rajputs under him or his allies) had not arrived. Before the next day, Mu'izz attacked the Rajput army before dawn. Rajputs had a tradition of fighting from sunrise to sunset. Although they were able to quickly form formations, they suffered losses due to surprise attack before sunrise. Rajput army was eventually defeated and Prithviraj was taken prisoner and subsequently executed.

Consolidation of the Ghurid Empire

When the state of Ajmer failed to fulfill the tribute demands as per the custom after a defeat, Qutub ud Din Aibak, in 1193 took over Ajmer and soon established Ghurid control in northern and central India. Rajput kingdoms like Saraswati, Samana, Kohram and Hansi were captured without any difficulty. Finally his forces advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after the Battle of Chandwar, a surprise attack on Raja Jaichand of Kannauj (who was originally an ally who had assisted Mu'izz in defeating Prithviraj Chauhan). Within a year, Mu'izz controlled northern Rajasthan and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. The Kingdom of Ajmer was then given over to Golā, on condition that he send regular tributes to the Ghurids.

Mu'izz, having settled the affairs of the province of Lahore, conferred the government of Lahore on Ali Karmakh who was then the Governor of Multan. In 1206, Mu'izz appointed Qutb-ud-din Aibak as his Naib us Sultanat in India at a grand darbar (court reception) at Lahore, which was attended by a large majority of the nobles and dignitaries of his kingdom. It was at this occasion that Mu'izz bestowed upon Qutb-ud-din the title of Aibak, meaning "Axis of the Faith".

Mu'izz returned west to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his western frontiers from the unrest in Iran, but he appointed Aibak as his regional governor for northern India. His armies, mostly under Turkic generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal. Aibak ransacked Ayodhya temples in 1193, followed by his conquest of Delhi. In 1204, after becoming sultan, Mu'izz defeated the advance of Muḥammad II of Khwārezm. Aibak's protégé Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji had been appointed as a general by Muhammad of Ghor in 1203, and in 1204 he helped defeat the army of Lakshman Sen of the Sena Empire.

Final days and death

In 1206, Mu'izz had to travel to Lahore to crush a revolt. Before leaving India, Muhammad had left all his affairs in hands of Qutb-ud-din Aibak. He was a slave of Muhammad.

On his way back to Ghazni, his caravan rested at Damik near Sohawa (which is near the city of Jhelum in the Punjab province of modern-day Pakistan). He was assassinated on March 15, 1206, while offering his evening prayers. The identity of Mu'izz's assassins is disputed, with some claiming that he was assassinated by local Gakhars and others claiming he was assassinated by Khokhars or even Ismailis.

Hasan Nizami and Ferishta record the killing of Mu'izz at the hands of the Gakhars. However, Ferishta may have confused the Ghakars with the Khokhars. Other historians have also blamed Mu'izz's assassination to a band of Hindu Jat Khokhars.

All the historians before the time of Ferishta agree that the Khokhars, not the Gakhars, killed Mu'izz.

Some also claim that Mu'izz was assassinated by a radical Ismaili Muslim sect.

In Hindu Folklore, the death of Muhammad of Ghor was caused by Prithviraj but which is not borne out by historical documents. This is described in the article Prithviraj Raso. Even today Afghans vent their anger by stabbing on the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan, as according to them, Prithviraj had killed Mu'izz. Sher Singh Rana, a member of Rajput community, visited Afghanistan to trace the grave of Prithviraj Chauhan. He dug Chauhan's "grave" and collected sand from it. This incident created sensation in Indian news and public media – as he said he did it to get back India's pride & respect.

As per his wishes, Mu'izz was buried where he fell, in Damik.

Succession

Mu'izz had no offspring, but he treated his Turkic slaves as his sons, who were trained both as soldiers and administrators and provided with the best possible education. Many of his competent and loyal slaves rose to positions of importance in Mu'izz's army and government.

When a courtier lamented that the Sultan had no male heirs, Mu'izz retorted:

"Other monarchs may have one son, or two sons; I have thousands of sons, my Turkish slaves who will be the heirs of my dominions, and who, after me, will take care to preserve my name in the Khuṭbah (Friday sermon) throughout these territories."

Mu'izz's prediction proved true. After his assassination, his Empire was divided amongst his slaves. Most notably:

Legacy

Muhammad of Ghor is revered by many Pakistanis as a Muslim hero who defeated the Hindu King Prithviraj Chauhan in the 2nd battle of Terain. Some Pakistani Muslims claim descent from Mu'izz and his Mamluk army. Pakistani military named three of its medium-range ballistic missile Ghauri-I, Ghauri-II and Ghauri-III, in the memory of Muhammad of Ghor.

Coins

  • Copper coin Copper coin
  • Bull and horseman type copper coin Bull and horseman type copper coin

Historical contemporaries

References

  1. ^ Encyclopedia Iranica, Ghurids, C. Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2012, (LINK)
  2. MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN, T.W. Haig, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993), 410.
  3. Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206-1526), Part 1, (Har-Anand Publications, 1997), 22.
  4. ^ Encyclopedia Iranica, Ghaznavids, Edmund Bosworth, Online Edition 2007, (LINK)
  5. ^ Ferishta -Translation John Briggs page 28 vol 1
  6. The History of Inda as told by its own Historians by Eliot and Dowson, Volume 2 page 286
  7. ^ Rediscovery Of India, The: A New Subcontinent By Ansar Hussain Khan, Ansar Hussain Published by Orient Longman Limited Page 54
  8. Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 244.  – via Questia (subscription required)
  9. Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, (Brill, 2002), 143.  – via Questia (subscription required)
  10. Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 143.  – via Questia (subscription required)
  11. Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, Vol. 2, 143.  – via Questia (subscription required)
  12. Sailendra Nath Sen, Ancient Indian History and Civilization, (New Age International, 1999), 327.
  13. Cambridge History (Page 40)
  14. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.
  15. Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526), 25.
  16. Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals (1206-1526), 25.
  17. A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. I, 263.
  18. Sharma, Gopi Nath (1970). Rajasthan Studies. Agra, India: Lakshmi Narain Agarwal. p. 201. OCLC 137196.
  19. Abbasi, M. Yusuf (1990). "The evolution of Muslim nationalism and the Pakistan Resolution". In Yusuf, Kaniz F.; Akhtar, Muhammad Saleem and Wasti, Syed Razi (ed.). Pakistan Resolution Revisited. Islamabad, Pakistan: National Institute of Historical and Cultural Research. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-969-415-024-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  20. The crescent in India: a study in medieval history - Shripad Rama Sharma - Google Books. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 2012-07-11.
  21. ^ Siraj, Minhaj, Tahqaat-e-Nasri; Qasim, Tarkh-e-Farishta; Ahmed Yaha Sirshnidi, Tarkh-e-Mubrak Shahi, Lahore 398
  22. http://prr.hec.gov.pk/Chapters/1458-3.pdf
  23. A Glossary Of The Tribes And Castes Of The Punjab And North-West Frontier By H.A. Rose Page 275
  24. "Mu'izz-al-Din Muhammad ibn Sam (Ghurid ruler of India) – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2009-08-09.
  25. Prithviraj, a valorous hero par excellence, has been depicted in the lofty style which has been a source of inspiration to and influence on the North-Indian people. Krishnadatt Paliwal (1988) "Epic (Hindi)" In Datta, Amaresh (1988) The Encyclopaedia Of Indian Literature: Volume Two: Devraj to Jyoti, Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, India, page 1178, ISBN 81-260-1194-7
  26. Whatever may be their arguments, one cannot deny that the Prithviraj Raso remains a great piece of Hindi literature. Luṇiyā, Bhanwarlal Nathuram (1978) Life and Culture in Medieval India Kamal Prakashan, Indore, India, page 293, OCLC 641457716
  27. Kaviraj Syamaldas (1886) "The Antiquity, Authenticity and Genuineness of the epic called the Prithviraj Rasa and commonly ascribed to Chand Bardai" Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 55, pt.1,
  28. Hoernle, A. F. R. (April 1906) "Review of Das, Syamsundar Annual Report on the search for Hindi Manuscripts (four volumes for the years 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903)" The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1906(4): pp. 497–503, page 500
  29. "http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_1-8-2005_pg4_20"
  30. "http://hindu.com/2000/09/26/stories/14262186.htm"
  31. Leander Paes Ashmit Patel & Ritupurna Sengupta Part Of Film 'The End Of Bandit Queen'
  32. The Hindu : National : Phoolan murder accused held again
  34. Sep 3, 2005 (2005-09-03). "Asia Times Online :: South Asia news, business and economy from India and Pakistan". Atimes.com. Retrieved 2012-07-11.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)

Sources

Further reading

  • Briggs, John (Translator): The History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India. (Translation of the Mughal-Era Tārikh-i Farishtah. Available online at the Packard Humanities Institute.)
Muhammad of Ghor Ghurid dynasty
Preceded byGhiyas ad-Din Ghori Sultan of the Ghurid Sultanate
1202–1206 		Succeeded byQutb-ud-din Aibak
Ghurid dynasty
In Ghur (before 879–1215)
In Ghazni (1151-1152 and 1173–1215)
In Bamiyan (1152–1215)
Minor domains

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