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'''Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr.''' (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a ] politician |
'''Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr.''' (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a ] politician from 1965 to 1986. He was an authoritarian ruler under ] from 1972 until 1981.<ref name=lacsamana1990p189>{{Cite book|last=Lacsamana|first=Leodivico Cruz|title=Philippine History and Government|edition=Second|year=1990|isbn=971-06-1894-6|publisher=Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.|ref=harv}} p. 189.</ref> While his regime started an unprecedented and hitherto unequaled number of infrastructure projects and ],<ref name="edifice">{{cite book|title=Edifice Complex: Power, Myth And Marcos State Architecture|last=Lico|first=Gerard|publisher=] University Press|date=January 30, 2003}}</ref> it also became infamous for its alleged corruption, listed in multiple publications by Amnesty International and Transparency International that only cites newspapers and news agencies but no resolved court documents.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.transparency.org/content/download/4459/26786/file/Introduction_to_political_corruption.pdf |title=Global Corruption Report|publisher=Transparency International |date= |accessdate=August 6, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Global Corruption Report, p. 106">{{cite web |url=https://issuu.com/transparencyinternational/docs/2004_gcr_politicalcorruption_en?e=2496456/2106435 |title=Global Corruption Report, p. 106|publisher=Transparency International |date= |accessdate=February 25, 2016}}</ref><ref name="Global Corruption Report, p. 106"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/crime/toolkit/f1tof7.pdf |title=Global Programme Against Corruption, p. 274|publisher=Transparency International |date= |accessdate=February 25, 2016}}</ref><ref name="marcosFamilyReturnLimelight">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/07/08/world/asia/08iht-marcos.2.6550516.html?pagewanted=all|title=Marcos family returning to the limelight in the Philippines|author=Carlos H. Conde|publisher=]|date=July 8, 2007}}</ref><ref name="amnestyInternational1975" /> | ||
Prior to Marcos's presidency, he served as a member of the ] from 1949 to 1959 and of the ] from 1959 to 1965, where he was also ] from 1963 to 1965. As part of his election campaign, he would later claim to have been "the most decorated war hero in the Philippines", a claim which was later proven to be a hoax,<ref name="fakeMedalsReduxI">{{cite web|url=http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-i-p10722-168.htm|title=MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part I)|author=Benjamin Maynigo|publisher=Asian Journal USA}}</ref><ref name="fakeMedalsReduxII">{{cite web|url=http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-ii-p10766-168.htm|title=MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part II)|author=Benjamin Maynigo|publisher=Asian Journal USA}}</ref><ref name="marcosHeroism">{{cite web|url=http://www.philstar.com/opinion/673841/suspicions-resurface-about-marcos-heroism|title=Suspicions resurface about Marcos heroism|author=Jarius Bondoc|date=April 8, 2011|publisher=Philippine Star}}</ref> and according to the ], was "''fraudulent''" and "''absurd''".<ref name="marcoswartime">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/23/world/marcos-s-wartime-role-discredited-in-us-files.html?pagewanted=all|title=MARCOS'S WARTIME ROLE DISCREDITED IN U.S. FILES|author=Jeff Gerth and Joel Brinkley|date=January 23, 1986|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> | Prior to Marcos's presidency, he served as a member of the ] from 1949 to 1959 and of the ] from 1959 to 1965, where he was also ] from 1963 to 1965. As part of his election campaign, he would later claim to have been "the most decorated war hero in the Philippines", a claim which was later proven to be a hoax,<ref name="fakeMedalsReduxI">{{cite web|url=http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-i-p10722-168.htm|title=MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part I)|author=Benjamin Maynigo|publisher=Asian Journal USA}}</ref><ref name="fakeMedalsReduxII">{{cite web|url=http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-ii-p10766-168.htm|title=MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part II)|author=Benjamin Maynigo|publisher=Asian Journal USA}}</ref><ref name="marcosHeroism">{{cite web|url=http://www.philstar.com/opinion/673841/suspicions-resurface-about-marcos-heroism|title=Suspicions resurface about Marcos heroism|author=Jarius Bondoc|date=April 8, 2011|publisher=Philippine Star}}</ref> and according to the ], was "''fraudulent''" and "''absurd''".<ref name="marcoswartime">{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/1986/01/23/world/marcos-s-wartime-role-discredited-in-us-files.html?pagewanted=all|title=MARCOS'S WARTIME ROLE DISCREDITED IN U.S. FILES|author=Jeff Gerth and Joel Brinkley|date=January 23, 1986|publisher=New York Times}}</ref> |
Revision as of 06:49, 2 March 2016
This article is about a former president of the Philippines. For his son, a politician and senator of the Philippines, see Ferdinand Marcos, Jr.
Ferdinand Edralin Marcos | |
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Ferdinand E. Marcos in 1982. | |
10th President of the Philippines 6th President of the Third Republic 1st President of the Fourth Republic | |
In office December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986 | |
Prime Minister | Himself (1978–1981) Cesar Virata (1981–1986) |
Vice President | Fernando López (1965–1973) Arturo Tolentino (Feb. 16–25, 1986) |
Preceded by | Diosdado Macapagal |
Succeeded by | Corazon Aquino |
3rd Prime Minister of the Philippines | |
In office June 12, 1978 – June 30, 1981 | |
Preceded by | Office established (Position previously held by Jorge B. Vargas) |
Succeeded by | Cesar Virata |
Secretary of National Defense | |
In office August 28, 1971 – January 3, 1972 | |
President | Himself |
Preceded by | Juan Ponce Enrile |
Succeeded by | Juan Ponce Enrile |
In office December 31, 1965 – January 20, 1967 | |
President | Himself |
Preceded by | Macario Peralta |
Succeeded by | Ernesto Mata |
11th President of the Senate of the Philippines | |
In office April 5, 1963 – December 30, 1965 | |
President | Diosdado Macapagal |
Preceded by | Eulogio Rodriguez |
Succeeded by | Arturo Tolentino |
Senator of the Philippines | |
In office December 30, 1959 – December 30, 1965 | |
Member of the Philippine House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte's Second District | |
In office December 30, 1949 – December 30, 1959 | |
Preceded by | Pedro Albano |
Succeeded by | Simeon M. Valdez |
Personal details | |
Born | Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr (1917-09-11)September 11, 1917 Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, Philippine Islands |
Died | September 28, 1989(1989-09-28) (aged 72) Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S. |
Resting place | Marcos Museum and Mausoleum, Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines |
Political party | Kilusang Bagong Lipunan |
Other political affiliations | Liberal Party (1946–1965) Nacionalista Party (1965–1978) |
Spouse | Imelda Romuáldez (1954–1989; his death) |
Children | Ma. Imelda Marcos Ferdinand Marcos, Jr. Irene Marcos-Araneta Aimee Marcos |
Alma mater | University of the Philippines College of Law |
Profession | Politician |
Signature | |
Military service | |
Allegiance | Commonwealth of the Philippines |
Rank | First lieutenant Major |
Battles/wars | World War II |
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Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr. (September 11, 1917 – September 28, 1989) was a Filipino politician from 1965 to 1986. He was an authoritarian ruler under martial law from 1972 until 1981. While his regime started an unprecedented and hitherto unequaled number of infrastructure projects and monuments, it also became infamous for its alleged corruption, listed in multiple publications by Amnesty International and Transparency International that only cites newspapers and news agencies but no resolved court documents.
Prior to Marcos's presidency, he served as a member of the Philippine House of Representatives from 1949 to 1959 and of the Philippine Senate from 1959 to 1965, where he was also Senate President from 1963 to 1965. As part of his election campaign, he would later claim to have been "the most decorated war hero in the Philippines", a claim which was later proven to be a hoax, and according to the United States Army, was "fraudulent" and "absurd".
He was elected President in 1965. During his term, the Philippine national debt grew from $2 billion to almost $30 billion—while used to fund development projects, about $5 to $10 billion of which the Marcos family had plundered, according to source documents provided by the Corazon Aquino-created Presidential Commission on Good Government.
On September 23, 1972, Marcos placed the Philippines under martial law, during which he revamped the constitution, silenced the media, and used violence and oppression against political opposition. A 1976 Amnesty International report had listed 88 government torturers. The same report mentioned "President Ferdinand E. Marcos, Secretary of National Defense Juan Ponce Enrile, Solicitor General Estelito P. Mendoza, Major General Fidel V. Ramos (Commanding General of The Philippine Constabulary), Brigadier General Guillermo Santos, Judge Advocate General of the Armed Forces of the Philippines and other senior officials" with responsibility for the administration of prisoners arrested under martial law.
Public outrage led to the snap elections of 1986 and to the People Power Revolution in February 1986, which removed him from power. To avoid what could have been a military confrontation in Manila between pro- and anti-Marcos troops, Marcos was advised by President Ronald Reagan through Sen. Paul Laxalt to "cut and cut cleanly", after which Marcos fled to Hawaii. Marcos was succeeded by Corazon (Cory) Aquino, widow of the assassinated opposition leader Senator Benigno (Ninoy) Aquino, Jr., who was dismissed as a research fellow from Harvard University in 1983 and forced to go back to the Philippines after Michael Dukakis, the governor of Massachusetts, revealed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation that Ninoy was organizing communist cells in Boston.
The Marcos's family enjoyed a decadent lifestyle—taking away billions of dollars from the country in the course of their US-backed rule between 1965 and 1986. In 2008, Philippines trial court judge Silvino Pampilo, acquitted Imelda Marcos, then widow of Ferdinand Marcos, of 32 counts of illegal money transfer. She is still active in Philippine politics, along with two of his four children, Imee Marcos and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos, Jr..
Early life
Ferdinand Edralin Marcos was born on September 11, 1917, in the town of Sarrat, Ilocos Norte, to Mariano Marcos and Josefa Edralin. He was later baptized into the Philippine Independent Church, but was first baptized in the Roman Catholic Church at the age of three.
In December 1938, Ferdinand Marcos was prosecuted for the murder of Julio Nalundasan. He was not the only accused from the Marcos clan; also accused was his father, Mariano, his brother, Pio, and his brother-in-law Quirino Lizardo. Nalundasan, one of the elder Marcos' political rivals, had been shot and killed in his house in Batac on September 21, 1935 – the day after he had defeated Mariano Marcos a second time for a seat in the National Assembly. According to two witnesses, the four had conspired to assassinate Nalundasan, with Ferdinand Marcos eventually pulling the trigger. In late January 1939, they were finally denied bail and later in the year, they were convicted. Ferdinand and Lizardo received the death penalty for premeditated murder, while Mariano and Pio were found guilty of contempt of court. The Marcos family took their appeal to the Supreme Court of the Philippines, which overturned the lower court's decision on 22 October 1940, acquitting them of all charges except contempt.
Marcos studied law at the University of the Philippines, attending the prestigious College of Law. He excelled in both curricular and extra-curricular activities, becoming a valuable member of the university's swimming, boxing, and wrestling teams. He was also an accomplished and prolific orator, debater, and writer for the student newspaper. He also became a member of the University of the Philippines ROTC Unit (UP Vanguard Fraternity) where he met some of his future cabinet members and Armed Forces Chiefs of Staff. When he sat for the 1939 Bar Examinations, he received a near-perfect score of 98.8%, although some have disputed this score. The Philippine Supreme Court felt justified in altering his scoring. He graduated cum laude despite the fact that he was incarcerated while reviewing. Had he not been in jail for 27 days, he would have graduated magna cum laude. He was elected to the Pi Gamma Mu and the Phi Kappa Phi international honor societies, the latter giving him its Most Distinguished Member Award 37 years later.
In Seagrave's book The Marcos Dynasty, he mentioned that Marcos possessed a phenomenal memory and exhibited this by memorizing complicated texts and reciting them forward and backward, even such as the 1935 Constitution of the Philippines. Sen. Miriam Defensor-Santiago, in an interview with the Philippine Star on March 25, 2012, shared her experience as a speech writer to President Marcos: "One time, the Secretary of Justice forgot to tell me that the President had requested him to draft a speech that the President was going to deliver before graduates of the law school. And then, on the day the President was to deliver the speech, he suddenly remembered because Malacañang was asking for the speech, so he said, 'This is an emergency. You just have to produce something.' And I just dictated the speech. He liked long speeches. I think that was 20 or 25 pages. And then, in the evening, I was there, of course. President Marcos recited the speech from memory."
Personal life
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He was married to Imelda Romualdez-Marcos, on May 1, 1954 and the marriage produced three children:
- Maria Imelda "Imee" Marcos (born 12 November 1955), Governor of Ilocos Norte
- Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos, Jr. (born 13 September 1957), Senator of the Philippines
- Irene Marcos (born 16 September 1960)
- Aimee Romualdez Marcos (adopted)
Ancestry
Marcos claimed that he was a descendant of Antonio Luna, a Filipino general during the Philippine–American War. He also claimed that his ancestor was a 15th-century pirate who used to raid the coasts of the South China Sea.
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Military career
Hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 8, 1941, the Japanese simultaneously bombed many places in the Philippines, including Clark Field. The 14th Army began its invasion with a landing on Batan Island (not to be confused with Bataan Peninsula), 120 miles (190 km) off the north coast of Luzon on the same day, by selected naval infantry units. Landings on Camiguin Island and at Vigan, Aparri, and Gonzaga in northern Luzon followed two days later. Marcos would be one of the 78,000 Filipino and American troops who surrendered at Bataan on April 9, 1942, four months after the Japanese initiated their invasion of the Philippines. He survived the Bataan Death March that followed the surrender. In 1962, Marcos would claim to be the "most decorated war hero of the Philippines" by garnering almost every medal and decoration that the Filipino and American governments could give to a soldier. Included in his 27 war medals and decorations are that of the Distinguished Service Cross (allegedly pinned by General Douglas MacArthur) and the Medal of Honor (allegedly pinned by General Jonathan M. Wainwright). This was proven to be a hoax. Marcos only had three war medals: the Purple Heart, the Silver Star, and the Philippine Medal of Valor.
Later research showed the wartime exploits of Marcos to be mostly propaganda, being inaccurate or untrue. In 1986, research by historian Alfred W. McCoy into United States Army records showed most of Marcos's medals to be fraudulent. According to Ricardo Jose, former chairman of the Department of History of the University of the Philippines, Marcos's claims in his self-commissioned autobiography Marcos of the Philippines that Gen. Douglas MacArthur pinned on him the Distinguished Service Cross medal for delaying Japanese at Bataan for 3 months was highly improbable. In fact, his father Mariano Marcos was a known Japanese collaborator, who was executed by Filipino guerillas in April 1945, and the younger Marcos was accused of being a collaborator as well.
Marcos also claimed to have led a 9,000-man guerrilla force called Ang Mahárlika (Tagalog, "The Freeman") in northern Luzon during World War II. His account of events was later cast into doubt after a United States military investigation exposed many of his claims as either false or inaccurate. Meanwhile, Marcos claimed that he was able to get the United States Adjutant General to recognize 3,500 individual claims of soldiers then under his command.
Congressional career
House of Representatives
When the Philippines was granted independence on July 4, 1946 by the American government, the Philippine Congress was established. Marcos ran and was three times elected as representative of the 2nd district of Ilocos Norte, 1949–1959. He was named chairman of the House Committee on Commerce and Industry and member of the Defense Committee headed by Ramon Magsaysay. He was chairman, House Neophytes Bloc in which (President) Diosdado Macapagal, (Vice President) Emmanuel Pelaez and (Manila Mayor) Arsenio J. Lacson were members. He was also a member of the House Committee on Industry; LP spokesman on economic matters; member, Special Committee on Import and Price Controls and on Reparations; House Committees on Ways and Means, Banks Currency, War Veterans, Civil Service, Corporations and Economic Planning; and the House Electoral Tribunal.
Senate
Marcos won his senate seat in the elections in 1959 and became the Senate minority floor leader in 1960. He became the executive vice president of the Liberal Party in and served as the party president from 1961–1964; Senate President, 1963–1965. During his term as Senate President, former Defense Secretary Eulogio B. Balao was also closely working with Marcos. Marcos led a controversial political career both before and after his term as Senate President. He became Senator after he served as member of the House of Representatives for three terms, then later as Minority Floor Leader before gaining the Senate Presidency. He introduced a number of significant bills, many of which found their way into the Republic statute books.
Presidency
Presidential styles of Ferdinand E. Marcos | |
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Reference style | His Excellency |
Spoken style | Your Excellency |
Alternative style | Mr. President |
First term (1966–1969)
Presidential campaign
Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1965Marcos ran on a popular campaign as being a bemedalled war hero emerging from World War II. In 1962, Marcos would claim to be the most decorated war hero of the Philippines by garnering almost every medal and decoration that the Filipino and American governments could give to a soldier. Included in his 27 war medals and decorations are that of the Distinguished Service Cross and the Medal of Honor. However, the Liberal Party would later confirm that many of his war medals were only acquired in 1962 to aid in his reelection campaign for the Senate, not for his presidential campaign. Marcos won the presidency in 1965.
Vietnam War
To the surprise of many, soon after becoming president, Marcos wanted the Philippines to become involved, although limited, in the Vietnam War. He asked Congress to approve sending a combat engineer unit to South Vietnam. The so-called "surprise of many" is an unsubstantiated claim by Teodoro Agoncillo, with no primary sources whatsoever because he never did a survey or poll. When the previous Philippine president, Macapagal, suggested in 1964–1965 to send troops it had been Marcos who had led the opposition against this plan on both legal and moral grounds. Despite opposition against the new plan, the Marcos government gained Congressional approval and Philippine troops were sent from the middle of 1966 as the Philippines Civic Action Group (PHILCAG). PHILCAG reached a strength of some 1,600 troops in 1968 and between 1966 and 1970 over 10,000 Filipino soldiers served in South Vietnam, mainly being involved in civilian infrastructure projects.
Second term (1969–1972)
1969 Presidential Election
Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1969In 1969, Marcos was reelected for a second term — the first and the last Filipino president to win a second full term. His running mate, incumbent Vice President Fernando Lopez was also elected to a third full term as Vice President of the Philippines.
First Quarter Storm
Main article: First Quarter Storm1970 was a period of leftist unrest in the Philippines, composed of a series of heavy demonstrations, protests, and marches against the government from January to March 1970, or the first quarter of 1970. It was one of the factors leading to the declaration of Martial Law in 1972. The protests later became known as the First Quarter Storm.
Martial Law and the New Society (1972–1981)
Main article: Martial law in the PhilippinesIt is easier perhaps and more comfortable to look back to the solace of a familiar and mediocre past. But the times are too grave and the stakes too high for us to permit the customary concessions to traditional democratic processes.
— Ferdinand Marcos, January 1973
Marcos declared martial law on September 23, 1972, by virtue of Proclamation № 1081 which he signed on September 21, 1972, extending his rule beyond the constitutional two-term limit. He justified this by exposing the threats of Communist and Muslim insurgencies. He would later tell historians that he signed Proclamation No. 1081 as early as September 17. Ruling by decree, he curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, closed down Congress and media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including senators Benigno Aquino, Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating his Bagong Lipunan, a "New Society" based on new social and political values.
A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1970 to replace the Commonwealth era 1935 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973.
After putting in force amendments to the constitution, legislative action, and securing his sweeping powers and with the Batasan, his supposed successor body to the Congress, under his control, President Marcos lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus continued in the autonomous regions of Western Mindanao and Central Mindanao. The opposition dubbed the lifting of martial law as a mere "face lifting" as a precondition to the visit of Pope John Paul II.
Marcos had a vision of a Bagong Lipunan (New Society) similar to Indonesian president Suharto's "New Order administration". He used the years of martial law to implement this vision. According to Marcos' book Notes on the New Society, it was a movement urging the poor and the privileged to work as one for the common goals of society and to achieve the liberation of the Filipino people through self-realization.
During his martial law regime, Marcos confiscated and appropriated by force and duress many businesses and institutions, both private and public, and redistributed them to his own family members and close personal friends. Two of these friends were Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco, Jr., who would go on to control San Miguel Corporation, and Ramon Cojuangco, late businessman and chairman of PLDT, and father of Antonio "Tony Boy" Cojuangco (who would eventually succeed his father in the telecommunications company). These relatives and associates of Marcos then used these as fronts to launder proceeds from institutionalized graft and corruption in the different national governmental agencies as "crony capitalism" for personal benefit. Graft and corruption via bribery, racketeering, and embezzlement became more prevalent during this era; allegations that still remain unproven, undocumented, and unsubstantiated by primary source documents for the past 30 years. Marcos also silenced the free press, making the state press the only legal one, which was a common practice for governments around the world that sought to fight communism.
By 1977, the armed forces had quadrupled and over 60,000 Filipinos had been arrested for political reasons. In 1981, Vice President George H. W. Bush praised Marcos for his "adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic processes". No American military or politician in the 1970s ever publicly questioned the authority of Marcos to help fight communism in South East Asia.
Marcos and his close Rolex 12 associates like Juan Ponce Enrile used their powers to settle scores against old rivals such as the Lopezes who were always opposed to the Marcos administration. Enrile and the Lopezes (Eugenio Lopez Sr. and Eugenio Lopez Jr.) were Harvard-educated Filipino leaders. Leading opponents such as Senators Benigno Aquino, Jr., Jose Diokno, Jovito Salonga and many others were imprisoned for months or years. This practice considerably alienated the support of the old social and economic elite and the media, who criticized the Marcos administration endlessly. The old social and economic elite, all of whom relied on trade and agricultural and industrial exports to the United States such as the families of Enrile, Lopez, Cojuangco, and Aquino, sought a free-market economy. At this point, Marcos controlled both the oligarchy and the oligopoly.
Between 1972 and 1976, Marcos increased the size of the Philippine military from 65,000 to 270,000 personnel, in response to the fall of South Vietnam to the communists and the growing tide of communism in South East Asia. Military officers were placed on the boards of a variety of media corporations, public utilities, development projects, and other private corporations, most of whom were highly educated and well-trained graduates of the Philippine Military Academy. At the same time, Marcos made efforts to foster the growth of a domestic weapons manufacturing industry and heavily increased military spending.
From the declaration of martial law in 1972 until 1983 the U.S. government provided $2.5 billion in bilateral military and economic aid to the Marcos regime, and about $5.5 billion through multilateral institutions such as the World Bank.
In a 1979 U.S. Senate report it was stated that U.S. officials were aware, as early as 1973, that Philippine government agents were in the United States to harass Filipino dissidents. In June 1981, two anti-Marcos labor activists were assassinated outside of a union hall in Seattle. On at least one occasion, CIA agents blocked FBI investigations of Philippine agents.
The Marcos regime instituted a mandatory youth organization, known as the Kabataang Barangay, which was led by Marcos' eldest daughter Imee. Presidential Decree 684, enacted in April 1975, required that all youths aged 15 to 18 be sent to remote rural camps and do volunteer work.
Along with Marcos, members of his Rolex 12 circle like Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile, Chief of Staff of the Philippine Constabulary Fidel Ramos, and Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces of the Philippines Fabian Ver were the chief administrators of martial law from 1972 to 1981, and the three remained President Marcos' closest advisers until he was ousted in 1986. Other peripheral members of the Rolex 12 included Eduardo "Danding" Cojuangco, Jr. and Lucio Tan. Enrile and Ramos would later abandon Marcos' 'sinking ship' and seek protection behind the 1986 People Power Revolution, backed by fellow-American educated Eugenio Lopez, Jr., Jaime Augusto Zobel de Ayala, and the old political and economic elites. The Catholic hierarchy and Manila's middle class were crucial to the success of the massive crusade, but only within Metro Manila because no mass demonstrations or protests against Marcos happened in the provinces and islands of Visayas and Mindanao.
Cabinet
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Prime Minister
In 1978, the position returned when Ferdinand Marcos became Prime Minister. Based on Article 9 of the 1973 constitution, it had broad executive powers, that would be typical of modern prime ministers in other countries. The position was the official head of government, and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. All of the previous powers of the President from the 1935 Constitution were transferred to the newly restored office of Prime Minister. The Prime Minister also acted as head of the National Economic Development Authority. Upon his reelection to the Presidency, Marcos was succeeded as Prime Minister by another American-educated leader and Wharton graduate, Cesar Virata, in 1981.
Cabinet under Martial Law
Third term (1981–1986)
Main article: Philippine presidential election and referendum, 1981We love your adherence to democratic principles and to the democratic process, and we will not leave you in isolation.
— U.S. Vice-President George H. W. Bush during Ferdinand E. Marcos inauguration, June 1981
On June 16, 1981, six months after the lifting of martial law, the first presidential election in twelve years was held. President Marcos ran and won a massive victory over the other candidates. The major opposition parties, the United Nationalists Democratic Organizations (UNIDO), a coalition of opposition parties and LABAN, boycotted the elections.
Aquino's assassination
Main article: Assassination of Benigno Aquino, Jr.On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated at Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after three years in exile in the United States, where he had a heart bypass operation to save his life after Marcos allowed him to leave the Philippines to seek medical care. A few months before his assassination, Ninoy was forced to go back to the Philippines after his student visa was terminated, as a result of being dismissed as a research fellow from Harvard University after Michael Dukakis, the governor of Massachusetts, revealed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation that Ninoy was organizing communist cells in Boston. The opposition blamed Marcos directly for the assassination while others blamed the military and his wife, Imelda. Popular speculations pointed to three suspects; first was Marcos himself through his trusted military chief Fabian Ver; the second theory pointed to his wife Imelda who had her own burning ambition now that her ailing husband seemed to be getting weaker and the third was that Danding Cojuangco planned the assassination because of his own political ambitions. The 1985 acquittals of Chief of Staff General Fabian Ver as well as other high-ranking military officers charged with the crime were widely seen as a whitewash and miscarriage of justice.
Impeachment attempt
In August 1985, 56 Assemblymen signed a resolution calling for the impeachment of President Marcos for alleged diversion of U.S. aid for personal use, citing a July 1985 San Jose Mercury News exposé of the Marcos' multimillion-dollar investment and property holdings in the United States.
The properties allegedly amassed by the First Family were the Crown Building, Lindenmere Estate, and a number of residential apartments (in New Jersey and New York), a shopping center in New York, mansions (in London, Rome and Honolulu), the Helen Knudsen Estate in Hawaii and three condominiums in San Francisco, California.
The Assemblymen also included in the complaint the misuse and misapplication of funds "for the construction of the Film Center, where X-rated and pornographic films are exhibited, contrary to public morals and Filipino customs and traditions." The impeachment attempt gained little real traction, however, even in the light of this incendiary charge; the committee to which the impeachment resolution was referred did not recommend it, and any momentum for removing Marcos under constitutional processes soon died.
Physical decline
See also: People Power RevolutionCritics considered Marcos the quintessential kleptocrat, having looted billions of dollars from the Filipino treasury. The large personality cult in the Philippines surrounding Marcos also led to widespread disdain.
During his third term, Marcos' health deteriorated rapidly due to kidney ailments, often described as lupus erythematosus. He was absent for weeks at a time for treatment, with no one to assume command, especially problematic for a centralized, autocratic system. Marcos' regime was sensitive to publicity of his condition; a palace physician who alleged that during one of these periods Marcos had undergone a kidney transplant was shortly afterwards found murdered. Many people questioned whether he still had capacity to govern, due to his grave illness and the ballooning political unrest. With Marcos ailing, his powerful wife, Imelda, emerged as the government's main public figure. Marcos dismissed speculations of his ailing health as he used to be an avid golfer and fitness buff who liked showing off his physique.
By 1984, U.S. President Ronald Reagan started distancing himself from the Marcos regime that he and previous American presidents had strongly supported even after Marcos declared martial law. The United States, which had provided hundreds of millions of dollars in aid, was crucial in buttressing Marcos's rule over the years, although during the Carter administration the relationship with the U.S. had soured somewhat when President Jimmy Carter targeted the Philippines in his human rights campaign.
Snap election, revolution, and exile
Main article: Philippine presidential election, 1986In late 1985, in the face of escalating public discontent and under pressure from foreign allies, Marcos called a "snap election" with more than a year left in his term. He selected Arturo Tolentino as his running mate. The opposition to Marcos united behind two American-educated leaders, Aquino's widow, Corazon, and her running mate, Salvador Laurel.
The elections were held on February 7, 1986. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (COMELEC), declared Marcos the winner. The final tally of the COMELEC had Marcos winning with 10,807,197 votes against Aquino's 9,291,761 votes. On the other hand, the final tally of the National Movement for Free Elections (NAMFREL), an accredited poll watcher, had Aquino winning with 7,835,070 votes against Marcos' 7,053,068 points. Cheating was reported on both sides. This electoral exercise was marred by widespread reports of violence and tampering of election results.
Main article: People Power RevolutionThe failed election process gave a decisive boost to the "People Power movement." At the height of the revolution, Juan Ponce Enrile revealed that a purported and well-publicized ambush attempt against him years earlier was in fact faked, in order for Marcos to have a pretext for imposing martial law. However, Marcos never ceased to maintain that he was the duly elected and proclaimed president of the Philippines for a fourth term, but unfairly and illegally deprived of his right to serve it. On February 25, 1986, rival presidential inaugurations were held, but as Aquino supporters overran parts of Manila and seized state broadcaster PTV-4, Marcos was forced to flee.
At 15:00 PST (GMT+8) on February 25, 1986, Marcos talked to United States Senator and close associate of the US President Paul Laxalt, asking for advice from the White House. Laxalt advised him to "cut and cut cleanly", to which Marcos expressed his disappointment after a short pause. In the afternoon, Marcos talked to Enrile, asking for safe passage for him and his family including his close allies like General Ver. Finally, at 9:00 p.m., the Marcos family was transported by four Sikorsky HH-3E helicopters to Clark Air Base in Angeles City, Pampanga, about 83 kilometers north of Manila, before boarding US Air Force C-130 planes bound for Andersen Air Force Base in Guam, and finally to Hickam Air Force Base in Hawaii where Marcos arrived on February 26.
When protestors stormed Malacañang Palace shortly after Marcos' departure, it was famously discovered that Imelda had left behind over 2,700 pairs of shoes in her closet.
Economy
To help finance a number of economic development projects, the Marcos government borrowed large amounts of money from international lenders. The Philippines' external debt rose from $360 million (U.S.) in 1962 to $28.3 billion in 1986, making the Philippines one of the most indebted countries in Asia. A sizable amount of this money went to Marcos family and friends in the form of behest loans, none of which was ever proven in a court of law. These loans were assumed by the government and are still being serviced by taxpayers, to this day because they are part of macroeconomic practices known as deficit spending. These loans were ostensibly funded to construct the Bataan Nuclear Power Plant but after Marcos' ouster, the plant was not utilized even though the same technology was used in Japan, South Korea, and the United States. Today, more than half of the country's revenues go toward the payment of interest on these loans, with the principal amounts remaining largely untouched because of the failure of governments that succeeded Marcos to structure payments in financially-sound ways. During the time of the late Pres. Corazon Aquino, these debts were repudiated and finance secretary Jaime Ongpin, threatened to resign unless they were because Aquino declared a "revolutionary" government. The "revolutionary" nature of Aquino's government allowed for a rare opportunity to repudiate the loans. Ongpin had a personal reason: Aurita Villoso, DBP internal auditor, said loans were granted to Ongpin's Delta Ventures Resources Inc (DVRI) amounting to P660 million (citation needed). The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (the central bank of the Republic of the Philippines) tried to resist the repudiation bill's passage in the Congress, but due to international pressure mostly from Harvard- and Yale-educated financial advisers Aquino did allow the denial of these debts.
Foreign capital was invited to invest in certain industrial projects. They were offered incentives, including tax exemption privileges and the privilege of bringing out their profits in foreign currencies. One of the most important economic programs in the 1980s was the Kilusang Kabuhayan at Kaunlaran (Movement for Livelihood and Progress). This program was started in September 1981. It aimed to promote the economic development of the barangays by encouraging its residents to engage in their own livelihood projects. The government's efforts resulted in the increase of the nation's economic growth rate to an average of six percent or seven percent from 1970 to 1980.
In 1981, Ferdinand Marcos issued a Letter of Instructions No. 1107 mandating the Central Bank of the Philippines to analyze the probability of establishing and funding the operation of a credit bureau in the Philippines due to the disturbing increase of failures on corporate borrowers.
In adherence to the order, Central Bank of the Philippines organized the Credit Information Exchange System under the department of Loans and Credit. It was created to engage in collating, developing and analyzing credit information on individuals, institutions, business entities and other business concerns. It aims to develop and undertake the continuing exchange of credit data within its members and subscribers and to provide an impartial source of credit information for debtors, creditors and the public. This will also cooperate and guide government agencies in their credit information requirements.
On April 14, 1982, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated as a non-stock, non-profit corporation. CIBI was created pursuant to LOI No. 1107 dated February 16, 1981 and was further strengthened by PD No. 1941 which recognizes and supports CIBI as a suitable credit bureau to promote the development and maintenance of rational and efficient credit processes in the financial system and in the economy as a whole.
In 1997, Credit Information Bureau, Inc. was incorporated and transformed into a private entity and became CIBI Information, Inc. CIBI is a provider of information and intelligence for business, credit and individuals. The company also supplies compliance reports before accrediting suppliers, industry partners and even hiring professionals.
As a former colony of the United States, the Philippines was heavily reliant on the American economy to purchase agricultural goods such as sugar, tobacco, coconut, bananas, and pineapple and US corporations prospered.
The Philippine economy, heavily reliant on exports to the United States, suffered a great decline after the Aquino assassination in August 1983 because Filipino business and political leaders who studied in Harvard, Yale, and other US universities began lobbying American and foreign firms to discourage them from investing in the Philippines. This was taking place at the same time that China was beginning to accept free-market capitalism and American businesses were jockeying to establish manufacturing plants in the communist country. The political troubles of the Philippines hindered the entry of foreign investments, and foreign banks stopped granting loans to the Philippine government. In an attempt to launch a national economic recovery program and despite his growing isolation from American businesses, Marcos negotiated with foreign creditors including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund (IMF), for a restructuring of the country's foreign debts – to give the Philippines more time to pay the loans. Marcos ordered a cut in government expenditures and used a portion of the savings to finance the Sariling Sikap (Self-Reliance), a livelihood program he established in 1984.
However, the economy experienced negative economic growth from the beginning of 1984 and continued to decline despite the government's recovery efforts because American investors were discouraged by the Filipino economic elite. The failure of the recovery program was caused by civil unrest, rampant graft and corruption within the government, and Marcos' lack of credibility. Marcos himself diverted large sums of government money to his party's campaign funds, which was never proven in a court of law. The unemployment rate ballooned from 6.30% in 1972 to 27.65% in 1985.
Between 1972 and 1980, the average monthly income of wage workers had fallen by 20%. By 1981, the wealthiest 10% of the population was receiving twice as much income as the bottom 60%.
With help from the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations, Marcos brought the "Green Revolution" (industrialized, chemical agriculture) to the Philippines. These reforms resulted in high profits for transnational corporations, but were generally harmful to small, peasant farmers who were often pushed into poverty. After declaring martial law in 1972, Marcos promised to implement agrarian reforms. However, the land reforms "served largely to undermine Marcos' landholder opponents, not to lessen inequality in the countryside", and "encouraged conversion to cash tenancy and greater reliance on farm workers". From 1972 to 1980, agricultural production fell by 30%.
Under Marcos, timber products were among the nation's top exports. Little attention was paid to the environmental impacts of deforestation. By the early 1980s, the industry collapsed because most of the Philippines' accessible forests had been depleted.
Infrastructure Projects
Marcos' many infrastructure projects include the following:
- San Juanico Bridge
- Folk Arts Theater
- Cultural Center of the Philippines
- Philippine Heart Center
- Lung Center
- National Children's Hospital
- Philippine International Convention Center
- South Luzon (first superhighway in South East Asia)
- North Luzon Expressway(first superhighway in South East Asia) 1
- Light Rail Transit (LRT)
Death
Marcos died in Honolulu on the morning of September 28, 1989, of kidney, heart, and lung ailments.
Marcos was interred in a private mausoleum at Byodo-In Temple on the island of Oahu, visited daily by the Marcos family, political allies and friends. His remains are currently interred inside a refrigerated crypt in Ilocos Norte, where his son, Ferdinand, Jr., and eldest daughter, Imee have since become the local governor and representative, respectively. A large bust of Ferdinand Marcos (resembling Mount Rushmore) was commissioned by the tourism minister, Jose Aspiras, and carved into a hillside in Benguet. It was subsequently destroyed; suspects included left-wing activists, members of a local tribe who had been displaced by construction of the monument, and looters hunting for the Marcos' legendary hidden treasure.
Honors
- National honors
- : Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (September 11, 1972)
- Foreign honors
- Gabon: Grand Cross of the Order of the Equatorial Star (July 8, 1976)
- Indonesia: Star of Indonesia, First Class (January 12, 1968)
- Japan: Grand Cordon of the Supreme Order of the Chrysanthemum (September 20, 1966)
- Jordan: Grand Collar of the Order of al-Hussein bin Ali (March 1, 1976)
- Sovereign Military Order of Malta: Grand Cross of the Order pro merito Melitensi
- Romania: Order of the Star of the Romanian Socialist Republic (April 9, 1975)
- Singapore: Order of Temasek, First Class (January 15, 1974)
- Spain:
- Knight of the Collar of the Order of Isabella the Catholic (December 22, 1969)
- Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit- White Decoration (February 18, 1974)
- Thailand: Knight of the The Most Auspicious Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (January 15, 1968)
- Guinness World Records: largest-ever theft - $860.8 million in 1986
Honorary Degree
- Thammasat University – Doctor of Laws (LLD) honoris causa (January 15, 1968)
Works
- National discipline: the key to our future (1970)
- Today's Revolution: Democracy (1971)
- Notes on the New Society of the Philippines (1973)
- Tadhana: the history of the Filipino People (1977, 1982)
- The democratic revolution in the Philippines (1977)
- Five years of the new society (1978)
- President Ferdinand E. Marcos on law, development and human rights (1978)
- President Ferdinand E. Marcos on agrarian reform (1979)
- An Ideology for Filipinos (1980)
- An introduction to the politics of transition (1980)
- Marcos' Notes for the Cancun Summit, 1981 (1981)
- Progress and Martial Law (1981)
- The New Philippine Republic: A Third World Approach to Democracy (1982)
- Toward a New Partnership: The Filipino Ideology (1983)
- A Trilogy on the Transformation of Philippine Society (1988)
Reparations
In 1995, some 10,000 Filipinos won a U.S. class-action lawsuit filed against the Marcos estate. The charges were filed by victims or their surviving relatives for torture, execution, and disappearances. By 2016, twenty years after the court cases were filed, no reliable list of so-called victims has ever been published nor declared by any court as the official tally of the so-called Martial Law victims.
The Swiss government, initially reluctant to respond to allegations that stolen funds were held in Swiss accounts, has returned US$684 million of Marcos' wealth. By 2016, none of the US$684 million alleged Marcos' wealth has ever been accounted for. Under the Benigno Aquino III government, there is no document to prove that the supposed US$684 million returned to the Philippines was used for the benefit of the Filipino people.
Corazon Aquino reportedly repealed many of the repressive laws that had been enacted during Marcos' dictatorship. In truth, she only restored the right of access to habeas corpus, repealed anti-labor laws, which was unconstitutional because the Executive branch of government did not have the mandate to change or eliminate statutes, and freed hundreds of political prisoners only to replace them with her own persecuted political prisoners.
From 1989 to 1996, a series of suits were brought before U.S. courts against Marcos and his daughter Imee, charging them with executions, torture, and disappearances committed under their command. A jury in the Ninth Circuit Court awarded $2 billion to the plaintiffs and to a class composed of human rights victims and their families. On June 12, 2008, the U.S. Supreme Court (in a 7–2 ruling penned by Justice Anthony Kennedy in Republic of the Philippines v. Mariano Pimentel) held that: "The judgment of the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit is reversed, and the case is remanded with instructions to order the District Court to dismiss the interpleader action." The court dismissed the interpleader lawsuit filed to determine the rights of 9,500 Filipino human rights victims (1972–1986) to recover $35 million, part of a $2 billion judgment in U.S. courts against the Marcos estate, because the Philippines is an indispensable party, protected by sovereign immunity. It claimed ownership of the funds transferred by Marcos in 1972 to Arelma S.A., which invested the money with Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc., in New York.
Human rights groups place the number of victims of extrajudicial killings under martial law at 1,500 and Karapatan, a local human rights group's records show 759 involuntarily disappeared (their bodies never found). Military historian Alfred McCoy in his book Closer than Brothers: Manhood at the Philippine Military Academy and in his speech "Dark Legacy" cites 3,257 extrajudicial killings, 35,000 torture victims, and 70,000 incarcerated during the Marcos years. The newspaper Bulatlat (lit. "to open carelessly") places the number of victims of arbitrary arrest and detention at 120,000. However, McCoy's book and research only proves the direct link of atrocities perpetrated by the Philippines' military, which persisted up to 2016. Also, McCoy's figures about incarceration do not have primary sources.
Legacy
In the 2004 Global Transparency Report, Marcos appeared in the list of the World's Most Corrupt Leaders, listed in second place behind Suharto, the former President of Indonesia. However, academic scrutiny of the sources and historiography of the Global Transparency Report shows that Transparency International sources the information from the Sunday Mail, a newspaper published in Australia, and does not cite any court-resolved document from any Philippine or international court. The same 2004 Global Transparency Report mentions the name "Marcos" at least eight times, but cites CNN and Time Asia as the sources of Transparency International's information, further supporting the trial by publicity technique of accusing Marcos without any legal or legitimate documents. Another source cited in the 2004 Global Transparency Report mentions the United Nation's Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) and the Anti-Corruption Toolkit. Further academic scrutiny of the sources used by the UN revealed that the one and only source about Marcos came from a footnote stating a "1989 RICO claim brought in California" that was never resolved in court.
According to Jovito Salonga, Aquino-appointed chief of the Presidential Commission on Good Government, monopolies in several vital industries have been created and placed under the control of former Marcos cronies, such as the coconut industries (under Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr. and Juan Ponce Enrile), the tobacco industry (under Lucio Tan), the banana industry (under Antonio Floirendo), the sugar industry (under Roberto Benedicto), and manufacturing (under Herminio Disini and Ricardo Silverio). The Marcos and Romualdez families became owners, directly or indirectly, of the nation's largest corporations, such as the Philippine Long Distance Company (PLDC), of which the present name is Philippine Long Distance Telephone (PLDT), Philippine Airlines (PAL), Meralco (an electric company), Fortune Tobacco, the San Miguel Corporation (Asia's largest beer and bottling company), numerous newspapers, radio and TV broadcasting companies (such as ABS-CBN), several banks (most notably the Philippine Commercial and Industrial Bank; PCIBank of the Lopezes ), and real estate in New York, California and Hawaii.
Massive foreign loans also enabled Marcos to build more schools, hospitals and infrastructure than all of his predecessors combined, such as the San Juanico Bridge, Heart Center, Lung Center, National Children's Hospital, North Luzon and South Luzon Expressways (the first superhighways in Southeast Asia), the Philippine International Convention Center (PICC), and the Light Rail Transit (LRT). Today, Filipino citizens are still bearing the heavy burden of servicing public debts incurred during Marcos' administration, with ongoing interest payments on the loan schedule by the Philippine government estimated to last until 2025–59 years after Marcos assumed office and 39 years after he was kicked out.
During the ICIJ's (International Consortium of Investigative Journalists) expose of offshore leaks in April 2013, the name of his eldest daughter, Imee Marcos, appeared on the list of wealthy people involved in offshore financial secrecy. It was revealed that she is hiding parts of her father's ill-gotten wealth in tax havens in the British Virgin Islands.
Comparisons have also been made between Ferdinand Marcos and Lee Kuan Yew's authoritarian style of governance and Singapore's success, but in his autobiography, "From Third World to First: The Singapore Story: 1965-2000", Lee relates:
It is a soft, forgiving culture. Only in the Philippines could a leader like Ferdinand Marcos, who pillaged his country for over 20 years, still be considered for a national burial. Insignificant amounts of the loot have been recovered, yet his wife and children were allowed to return and engage in politics.
—
See also
Notes
- ^ There is some disagreement between sources about whether President Bush said principle or principles
References
- National Security Archive (U.S.); Philippines. President (1965–1986 : Marcos) (1990). The Philippines: U.S. policy during the Marcos years, 1965–1986. Chadwyck-Healey. p. 37.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Lacsamana, Leodivico Cruz (1990). Philippine History and Government (Second ed.). Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. ISBN 971-06-1894-6.
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(help) p. 189. - Lico, Gerard (January 30, 2003). Edifice Complex: Power, Myth And Marcos State Architecture. Ateneo de Manila University Press.
- "Global Corruption Report" (PDF). Transparency International. Retrieved August 6, 2009.
- ^ "Global Corruption Report, p. 106". Transparency International. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- "Global Programme Against Corruption, p. 274" (PDF). Transparency International. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- Carlos H. Conde (July 8, 2007). "Marcos family returning to the limelight in the Philippines". The New York Times.
- ^ "Report of an Amnesty International Mission to the Republic of the Philippines 22 November – 5 December 1975" (PDF). Amnesty International Publications. September 1976.
- Benjamin Maynigo. "MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part I)". Asian Journal USA.
- Benjamin Maynigo. "MARCOS FAKE MEDALS REDUX (Part II)". Asian Journal USA.
- Jarius Bondoc (April 8, 2011). "Suspicions resurface about Marcos heroism". Philippine Star.
- ^ Jeff Gerth and Joel Brinkley (January 23, 1986). "MARCOS'S WARTIME ROLE DISCREDITED IN U.S. FILES". New York Times.
- Peter Gillespie. "Lethal Liabilities: The Human Costs of Debt and Capital Flight". Third World Quarterly.
- Fox Butterfield (March 29, 1986). "Marcos's Fortune: Inquiry in Manila Offers Picture of How it was Acquired". The New York Times.
- "Chronology of the Marcos Plunder". Asian Journal. Retrieved March 1, 2016.
- ^ Edsel Tupaz and Daniel Wagner (October 13, 2014). "The Missing Marcos Billions and the Demise of the Commission on Good Government". The World Post.
- Dona Z. Pazzibugan (February 13, 2014). "PCGG recovers $29M from Marcos loot". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
- ^ Manuel Mogato (February 24, 2016). "Philippines still seeks $1 billion in Marcos wealth 30 years after his ouster". Reuters.
- ^ Amando Doronila (September 24, 2014). "The night Marcos declared martial law". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
- ^ "Declaration of Martial Law". The Official Gazette.
- ^ "FM Declares Martial Law". Philippines Sunday Express. September 24, 1972.
- Rohan Rivett (March 13, 1973). "The Mark of Marcos – Part I: A deafening silence in the Philippines". The Age.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
Hartford-hwp.com
was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - Kenji Kushida (2003). "The Political Economy of the Philippines Under Marcos – Property Rights in the Philippines from 1965–1986" (PDF). Stanford Journal of East Asian Affairs.
- Amnesty International (September 1, 1976). "REPORT OF AN AI MISSION TO THE REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES. 22 NOVEMBER – 5 DECEMBER 1975". New York Times.
- ^ Alexander Martin Remollino (September 17, 2006). "Marcos Kin, Allies Still within Corridors of Power". Bulatalat. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- David Hoffman, Lou Cannon, Washington Post Staff Writers; Staff writers Milton Coleman, Helen Dewar, John M. Goshko, Don Oberdorfer and George C. W (February 26, 1986). "In Crucial Call, Laxalt Told Marcos: 'Cut Cleanly'". The Washington Post.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Joseph A. Reaves. Chicago Tribune, date=February 26, 1986 .
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value (help); Missing or empty|title=
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(help) - Alejandrino, Jose. The Journal of an Unknown Knight.
- Aya Tantiangco and Jannielyn Ann Bigtas (February 25, 2016). "What Marcoses brought to Hawaii after fleeing PHL in '86: $717-M in cash, $124-M in deposit slips". GMA News Online.
- John Heilprin (April 13, 2015). "Political Will guides Marcos case in Philippines". Swiss Broadcasting Corporation.
- The New York Times (March 11, 2008). "Imelda Marcos Acquitted, Again". the New York Times.
- Katherine Ellison (October 6, 2012). "The Steel Butterfly Still Soars". the New York Times.
- David Joel Steinberg (2000). The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place. Basic Books. pp. 115–116. ISBN 978-0-8133-3755-5.
- Celoza, Albert F. (1997). Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: the political economy of authoritarianism. Greenwood Publishing. p. 23. ISBN 978-0-275-94137-6.
- Mijares (1976), p. 237.
- "CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY: PHILIPPINE SUPREME COURTDECISIONS ON-LINE".
- Justice Jose P. Laurel penned the ponencia (in People vs. Mariano Marcos, et al., 70 Phil. 468) with which Chief Justice Ramón Avanceña, Justices Imperial, Díaz and Horilleno all concurred.
- See page 32, http://www.utoledo.edu/as/pdfs/100years.pdf
- Miriam Santiago on love, loss and her home, Philippine Star, March 25, 2012.
- Ocampo, Ambeth (2010). Looking Back. Anvil Publishing, Inc. pp. 20–22. ISBN 978-971-27-2336-0.
- Mijares (1976), p. 255.
- "Ferdinand Emmanuel Edralin Marcos, Sr". October 8, 2007. Retrieved June 22, 2015.
- Agoncillo (1990), pp. 404–409.
- ^ Mijares (1976), pp. 246–254.
- ^ Mijares (1976).
- Global Balita referencing an article that suggests Marcos did not earn the vast majority of the medals he claimed. http://globalbalita.com/2011/04/28/marcos-medals-only-2-of-33-given-in-battle/
- Inquirer.net Opinion piece citing Bonifacio Gillego's book critical of Marcos's wartime history. http://opinion.inquirer.net/76363/sunset-boulevard
- Bulatlat piece questioning the Marcos exploits during the war. http://bulatlat.com/news/5-19/5-19-bessang.htm
- Orlando Sentinel article which claims the Marcos war history records as untrue. http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/1986-01-23/news/0190270164_1_marcos-army-records-philippines
- PCIJ.ORG article about which claims Marcos's wartime history as propaganda. http://pcij.org/i-report/2007/dynasty-building3.html
- Asian Journal San Diego which has an article also claiming Marcos's exploits during world war two as untrue. http://asianjournalusa.com/marcos-fake-medals-redux-part-iii-p10829-168.htm
- "Alfred W. McCoy Biography". University of Wisconsin-Madison Department of History. Archived from the original on August 28, 2011.
- Jeff Gerth and Joel Brinkley (January 23, 1986). "MARCOS'S WARTIME ROLE DISCREDITED IN U.S. FILES". New York Times.
- Robles, Raissa (May 17, 2011). "Eminent Filipino war historian slams Marcos burial as a "hero"". Raissa Robles: Inside Politics and Beyond.
{{cite web}}
: Missing or empty|url=
(help) - ^ Joseph A. Reaves (September 29, 1989). "Marcos Was More Than Just Another Deposed Dictator". Chicago Tribune."US Department of Defense official database of Distinguished Service Cross recipients".
- Robert Lapham, Bernard Norling. Lapham's Raiders: Guerrillas in the Philippines, 1942–1945. University Press of Kentucky.
- Scott, William Henry (1992). Looking for the Prehispanic Filipino and Other Essays in the Philippine History. Quezon City: New Day Publishers. ISBN 971-10-0524-7.
- McCoy, Alfred W. (1999). Closer than brothers: manhood at the Philippine Military Academy. Yale University Press. pp. 167–170. ISBN 978-0-300-07765-0.
- Mijares (1976), p. 261.
- ^ Ferdinand Edralin Marcos. Philippines Senate
- Abinales, P.N. (2000). Making Mindanao: Cotabato and Davao in the formation of the Philippine nation-state. Ateneo de Manila University Press. p. 156. ISBN 978-971-550-349-5.
- Agoncillo (1990), pp. 508–510.
- Lieutenant General Larsen, Stanley Robert (1985) "Chapter III: The Philippines" in Allied Participation in Vietnam, U.S. Department of the Army
- Timberman, David G. (1991). A changeless land: continuity and change in Philippine politics. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 63.
- Boudreau, Vincent (2004). Resisting dictatorship: repression and protest in Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-521-83989-1.
- Hedman, Eva-Lotta E. (2006). In the name of civil society: from free election movements to people power in the Philippines. University of Hawaii Press. p. 70. ISBN 978-0-8248-2921-6.
- McCoy, Alfred W. (2009). Policing America's empire: the United States, the Philippines, and the rise of the surveillance state. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-299-23414-0.
- "Introduction". Organizing for democracy: NGOs, civil society, and the Philippine State. University of Hawaii Press. 1998. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-8248-2043-5.
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ignored (help) - "THE PHILIPPINES: Farewell to Democracy". Time. January 29, 1973.
- Mendoza Jr, Amado (2009). "'People Power' in the Philippines, 1983–1986". Civil resistance and power politics: the experience of non-violent action from Gandhi to the present. Oxford University Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6.
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ignored (|editor=
suggested) (help) - Mijares (1976), pp. 59.
- Brands, H.W. (1992). Bound to empire: the United States and the Philippines. Oxford University Press. p. 298. ISBN 978-0-19-507104-7.
- Dolan, Ronald E., ed. (1991). "28. Proclamation 1081 and Martial Law". Philippines: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress.
- "In many tongues, pope championed religious freedoms". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved August 21, 2006.
- Smith, Tony (2012). America's Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy. Princeton University Press. p. 281. ISBN 1-4008-4202-6.
- Shain, Yossi (1999). Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the U.S. and Their Homelands. Cambridge University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-0-521-64225-5.
- Schmitz, David F. (2006). The United States and Right-Wing Dictatorships, 1965–1989. Cambridge University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-1-139-45512-1.
- Mother Jones Magazine. Mother Jones. June 1983. p. 35. ISSN 0362-8841.
- For a detailed treatment of corruption under Marcos, see "The Marcos Kleptocracy". Corruption and money laundering: a symbiotic relationship. Macmillan. 2009. ISBN 978-0-230-61360-7.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - Moran, Jon (June 1999). "Patterns of Corruption and Development in East Asia". Third World Quarterly. 20 (3): 579. doi:10.1080/01436599913695.
- Bello, Walden (Winter 1985–1986). "Edging toward the Quagmire: The United States and the Philippine Crisis". World Policy Journal. 3 (1): 31.
- Shalom, Stephen R. (1993). Imperial alibis: rationalizing U.S. intervention after the cold war. South End Press. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-89608-448-3.
- McCoy, Alfred W. (2009). An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-299-22984-9.
- Wurfel, David (1988). Filipino Politics: Development and Decay. Cornell University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-8014-9926-5.
- The Ministry of Industry and Ministry of Trade were merged by President Ferdinand Marcos in 1981 as the Ministry of Trade and Industry.
- The Ministry of Public Works, Transportation and Communications and Ministry of Public Highways were merged by President Ferdinand Marcos in 1981 as the Ministry of Public Works and Highways.
- "Philippines: Together Again". Time. July 13, 1981.
- Steinberg, David Joel (2000). The Philippines: a singular and a plural place. Westview Press. p. 135. ISBN 978-0-8133-3755-5.
- Alejandrino, Jose. The Journal of an Unknown Knight, p. 65.
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- Blitz, Amy (2000). The contested state: American foreign policy and regime change in the Philippines. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 167–168. ISBN 978-0-8476-9934-6.
- See for example Wintrobe, Ronald (2000). The Political Economy of Dictatorship. Cambridge University Press. pp. 11, 132. ISBN 978-0-521-79449-7.
- Wurfel, David (1988). Filipino Politics: Development and Decay. Cornell University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-8014-9926-5.
- Pace, Eric (September 29, 1989). "Autocrat With a Regal Manner, Marcos Ruled for 2 Decades". The New York Times. Retrieved January 24, 2011.
- Pollard, Vincent Kelly (2004). Globalization, democratization and Asian leadership: power sharing, foreign policy and society in the Philippines and Japan. Ashgate Publishing. p. 50. ISBN 978-0-7546-1539-2.
- Parnell, Philip C. (2003). "Criminalizing Colonialism: Democracy Meets Law in Manila". Crime's power: anthropologists and the ethnography of crime. Palgrave-Macmillan. p. 214. ISBN 978-1-4039-6179-2.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|editors=
ignored (|editor=
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- Peter Ackerman; Jack DuVall (2001), A Force More Powerful: A Century of Nonviolent Conflict, Macmillan, p. 384, ISBN 978-0-312-24050-9;
^ Isabelo T. Crisostomo (1987), Cory--profile of a president, Branden Books, p. 193, ISBN 978-0-8283-1913-3 (showing a reproduction of NAMFREL's announcement of the results). - Crisostomo, Isabelo T. (April 1, 1987), Cory, Profile of a President: The Historic Rise to Power of Corazon., Branden Books, p. 257, ISBN 978-0-8283-1913-3, retrieved December 3, 2007.
- Paul Sagmayao, Mercado; Tatad, Francisco S. (1986), People Power: The Philippine Revolution of 1986: An Eyewitness History, Manila, Philippines: The James B. Reuter, S.J., Foundation, OCLC 16874890
- George de Lama; Dorothy Collin (February 26, 1986). "Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
{{cite news}}
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ignored (|url-status=
suggested) (help) - Halperin, Jonathan J. (1987). The Other Side: How Soviets and Americans Perceive Each Other. Transaction Publishers. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-88738-687-9.
- "Ferdinand E. Marcos". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- ^ Boyce, James K. (1993). The political economy of growth and impoverishment in the Marcos era. Ateneo de Manila University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-971-550-096-8.
- See Hutchcroft, Paul David (1998). Booty capitalism: the politics of banking in the Philippines. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3428-0.
- "Breaking News". Sun.Star.
- Aniceto C. Orbeta Jr., Structural Adjustment and Poverty Alleviation in the Philippines, Philippine Institute for Development Studies, April 1996.
- Ronald Echalas Diaz. "PHILIPPINE LAWS, STATUTES AND CODES – CHAN ROBLES VIRTUAL LAW LIBRARY". chanrobles.com.
- http://acraa.com/images/pdf/DCRA.pdf
- http://www.philstar.com/business/142269/rp%C2%92s-biggest-credit-research-firms-form-alliance
- John A. Larkin (1993). "Sugar and the Origins of Modern Philippine Society". University of California Press.
- Carlos Quirino (1974). "History of the Philippine Sugar Industry". Kalayaan.
- Kathleen M. Nadeau, p.xiv, 57 Quirino (2008). "The History of the Philippines". Greenwood Publishing Group.
{{cite web}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - "Ferdinand E. Marcos, Twentieth State of the Nation Address, July 22, 1985". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
- ^ Alagappa, Muthiah, ed. (1998). "The Philippines: State Versus Society?". Asian security practice: material and ideational influences. Stanford University Press. p. 554. ISBN 978-0-8047-3348-9.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|authors=
ignored (help) - Nadeau, Kathleen M. (2002). Liberation theology in the Philippines: faith in a revolution. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-275-97198-4.
- Kang, David C. (2002). Crony capitalism: corruption and development in South Korea and the Philippines. Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-521-00408-4.
- Sidel, John Thayel (1999). Capital, coercion, and crime: bossism in the maPhilippines. Stanford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-0-8047-3746-3.
- Boyce, James K. (2002). The political economy of the environment. Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-84376-108-2.
- "Philippines blast wrecks Marcos bust". BBC News. December 29, 2002. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- "Briefer on the Philippine Legion of Honor". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - "Briefer: Bintang Republik Indonesia (Star of the Republic of Indonesia)". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - "Filipino recipients of Japanese decorations and Japanese recipients of Philippine decorations". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - "President's Week in Review: March 1 – March 9, 1976". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
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(help) - "The Order of pro Merito Melitensi". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
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(help) - "President's Week in Review: April 7 – April 13, 1975". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - ^ "Filipino recipients of Spanish Decorations". Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines.
{{cite web}}
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(help) - The Guinness Book of World Records 1999. Bantam. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-553-58075-4.
- Ted Laguatan (June 30, 2013). "Adding insult to injury: UP College named after Marcos' Prime Minister". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
- Ma. Ceres P. Doyo (March 18, 2004). "Thief and Dictator". Philippine Daily Inquirer.
- ^ "Ferdinand Marcos". University of the Philippines Integrated Library System. Retrieved August 31, 2015.
- Brysk, Alison (2005). Human rights and private wrongs: constructing global civil society. Psychology Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-415-94477-9.
- Hrvoje Hranjski (September 12, 2006). "No hero's resting place as Imelda Marcos finds site for husband's grave". The Scotsman. UK. Archived from the original on January 5, 2008. Retrieved November 19, 2007.
- Corruption and anti-corruption. Asia-Pacific Press. 2001. pp. 99–110. ISBN 978-0-7315-3660-3.
{{cite book}}
: Unknown parameter|editors=
ignored (|editor=
suggested) (help) - "Article Index – INQUIRER.net". Archived from the original on November 12, 2005.
- "Honolulu Star-Bulletin Editorials". Starbulletin.com. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
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- Schirmer, Daniel B. & Shalom, Stephen R. (1987). The Philippines reader: a history of colonialism, neocolonialism, dictatorship, and resistance. South End Press. p. 361. ISBN 978-0-89608-275-5.
{{cite book}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Stephens, Beth (2008). International human rights litigation in U.S. courts. BRILL. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-57105-353-4.
- jurist.law.pitt.edu, Supreme Court rules in Marcos assets
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- "Court ruling hinders Marcos victims seeking funds". USA Today. June 12, 2008.
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was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - "Global Programme Against Corruption, p. 274" (PDF). Transparency International. Retrieved February 25, 2016.
- "Jovito R. Salonga, Some highlights". Hartford-hwp.com. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
- Arnold Padilla. "Taxpayers To Pay Marcos Debt Until 2025, IBON features Vol X No. 42". Ibon Foundation.
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Sources
- Mijares, Primitivo (1976). The Conjugal Dictatorship of Ferdinand and Imelda Marcos. Union Square.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help) - Agoncillo, Teodoro (1990). History of the Filipino People (8th ed.). Quezon City: C & E Publishing.
{{cite book}}
: Invalid|ref=harv
(help)
Further reading
- Aquino, Belinda, ed. (1982). Cronies and Enemies: the Current Philippine Scene. Philippine Studies Program, Center for Asian and Pacific Studies, University of Hawaii.
- Bonner, Raymond (1987). Waltzing with a Dictator: The Marcoses and the Making of American Policy. Times Books, New York ISBN 978-0-8129-1326-2
- Celoza, Albert F. (1997). Ferdinand Marcos and the Philippines: the political economy of authoritarianism. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-275-94137-6.
- Salonga, Jovito (2001). Presidential Plunder: The Quest for Marcos Ill-gotten Wealth. Regina Pub. Co., Manila
- Seagrave, Sterling (1988): The Marcos Dynasty, Harper Collins
- Library of Congress Country Studies: Philippines. The Inheritance from Marcos
External links
- Bantayog ng mga Bayani – Monument to the Heroes & victims of martial law during the Marcos regime
- GMA News Research: Batas Militar (Martial Law: September 21, 1972 – January 17, 1981)
- Archived 2008-08-04 at the Wayback Machine
- Archived 2004-09-23 at the Wayback Machine
- Heroes and Killers of the 20th century: killer file: Ferdinand Marcos
- Ferdinand Marcos at IMDb
- [REDACTED] Media from Commons
- [REDACTED] Quotations from Wikiquote
- [REDACTED] Texts from Wikisource
Political offices | ||
---|---|---|
Preceded byEulogio Rodriguez | President of the Senate 1963–1965 |
Succeeded byArturo Tolentino |
Preceded byDiosdado Macapagal | President of the Philippines December 30, 1965 – February 25, 1986 |
Succeeded byCorazon Aquino |
Preceded byNone | Presiding Officer of the Legislative Advisory Council 1976–1978 |
Succeeded byPosition abolished |
Preceded byJorge B. Vargas (Ministries involved) |
Prime Minister of the Philippines 1978–1981 |
Succeeded byCesar Virata |
House of Representatives of the Philippines | ||
Preceded byPedro Albano | Member of the House of Representatives from Ilocos Norte's 2nd 1949–1959 |
Succeeded bySimeon Valdez |
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- Ferdinand Marcos
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