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| Defined as David Diaz. | |||
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| '''Negroid''' (also known as '''Congoid'''<ref>Joseph Ki-Zerbo, ''Methodology and African Prehistory'', UNESCO (1981), .</ref>) is a grouping of human beings historically regarded as a biological ].<ref name=Molnar>{{cite book|last=Molnar|first=Stephen|title=Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups|year=2006|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|isbn=0-13-192765-5|pages=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMO0AAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y}}</ref> The term has been used by ] and ] to refer to individuals and populations that share certain ] and ] traits that are frequent among populations in most of ] and isolated parts of ] and ] (]s).<ref name=Molnar2>{{cite book|last=Molnar|first=Stephen|title=Human Variation: Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups|year=2006|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|isbn=0-13-192765-5|pages=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bMO0AAAAIAAJ&redir_esc=y}}</ref><ref name=Fish>{{cite book|last=Fish|first=Jacqueline T.|title=Crime Scene Investigation|year=2010|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=1-4224-6331-1|page=395|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QOU710F3kB4C&pg=PA395#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Within ], a racial dividing line separating Caucasoid physical types from Negroid physical types was held to have existed, with Negroid groups forming most of the population south of the area which stretched from the southern ] desert in the west to the ] in the southeast.<ref>"A very prominent racial dividing line between African Caucasian and Negroid groups runs west to east, south of the Sahara Desert into Sudan before curving southward toward the Kenyan-Somali border." Stephen Emerson, Hussein Solomon, ''African security in the twenty-first century: Challenges and opportunities'', Oxford University Press (2018), .</ref> | |||
| First introduced in early ] and ], ''Negroid'' denoted one of the three purported major races of humankind (alongside ] and ]).<ref name="Pickering">{{cite book|last=Pickering|first=Robert|title=The Use of Forensic Anthropology|year=2009|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=1-4200-6877-6|page=82|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=V0JheWC85h4C&pg=PA82#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref> Many ] have argued that such analyses are rooted in sociopolitical and historical processes rather than in empirical observation.<ref>{{cite book|authors=Susanne Berthier-Foglar, Sheila Collingwood-Whittick, Sandrine Tolazzi|title=Biomapping Indigenous Peoples: Towards an Understanding of the Issues|date=2012|publisher=Rodopi|isbn=9401208662|page=186|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=CW5rbC40IVEC|accessdate=11 July 2016|quote=The statement is representative of the prevailing view in the contemporary social sciences. Many social scientists have questioned the assumption that race is a scientific or objective reality, contending that it is forged from the discourses of politics, society, and history.}}</ref> However, ''Negroid'' as a biological classification remains in use in ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Roberts|first=C. A.|title=Studies in Crime: An Introduction to Forensic Archaeology|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=1-135-86287-7|page=116|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=p-jZ6nwokdwC&pg=PA116#v=onepage&q&f=false|quote=The concept of biological race has different meanings to many people and often becomes confused with social, political and religious concepts of race. Biological race is the result of an adaptive response to success (Gill, 1986, p. 143) with resulting physical variation. Race can be described in terms of appearance (phenotype) and genetics or units of inheritance (genotype). The biological anthropologist examines skeletal remains to assess human racial variation assigning individuals to three main races, Caucasoid, Negroid and Mongoloid}}</ref> | |||
| == Etymology == | |||
| ''Negroid'' has both ] and ] etymological roots. It literally translates as "black resemblance" from '']'' (]), and οειδές ''-oeidēs'', equivalent to ''-o-'' + είδες ''-eidēs'' "having the appearance of", derivative of είδος ''eîdos'' "appearance".<ref>{{cite book|title=The American Heritage guide to contemporary usage and style|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Company|year=2005|page=512|isbn=0-618-60499-5|url=https://books.google.com/?id=xb6ie6PqYhwC|author1=Company, Houghton Mifflin}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/oid |title=Oid | Define Oid at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |accessdate=2012-06-12}}</ref> The earliest recorded use of the term "Negroid" came in 1859.<ref>{{cite web| last = Harper| first = Douglas | title = Online Etymological Dictionary|date=November 2001| url = http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=negroid&searchmode=none| accessdate = 2007-11-06}}</ref> In modern usage, it is associated with populations that on the whole possess the suite of typical ] physical characteristics.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Karen T.|title=Forensic Art and Illustration|year=2010|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=1-4200-3695-5|page=62|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=5QQwAsJkBiEC}}</ref> | |||
| == History of the concept == | |||
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| In the 19th century, ] posited a "Negro Family", which he grouped with the Caffrian, Hottentot, Oceanic-Negro, Australian, and Alforian families.<ref name=Morton>{{cite book|last=Morton|first=Samuel George|title=Crania Americana: or a comparatif view of the skulls of various aboriginal nations of America|date=1839|pages=86–95|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=sBBCAAAAcAAJ}}</ref> | |||
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| In ] the term is one of the three general racial classifications of ] — '']'', '']'' and ''Negroid''. Under this classification scheme, humans are divisible into broad sub-groups based on ] characteristics such as ] and ] ]. Later iterations of the terminology, such as ]'s ''Origin of Races'', placed this theory in an ] context. Coon divided the species '']'' into five groups: ''Caucasoid'', '']'', ''Congoid'', '']'' and ''Mongoloid'', based on the timing of each taxon's evolution from '']'' Positing the ] as a separate racial entity, and labeling the two major divisions of what he called the ''Congoid race'' as being the "African Negroes" and the "Pygmies", he divided indigenous Africans into distinct ''Congoid'' and ''Capoid'' groups based on their date of ancestral origin rather than just phenotype.<ref name="ways">{{cite journal| last = Jackson Jr.| first = John| title="In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races| journal = Journal of the History of Biology| volume = 34| issue = 2| pages = 247–285|date=June 2001| doi = 10.1023/A:1010366015968}}</ref><ref name="myth">{{cite journal| last = Keita| first = S.O.Y.|author2=Rick A. Kittles| title = The Persistence of Racial Thinking and the Myth of Racial Divergence| journal = American Anthropologist| volume = 99| issue = 3| pages = 534–544|date=September 1987| doi = 10.1525/aa.1997.99.3.534}}</ref> | |||
| ] author ] contrasted "Negroid" with "Cro-Magnoid" in his publications arguing for "Negroid" primacy. ], Upper Paleolithic fossils found in Italy in 1901, had been classified as Negroid by Boule and Vallois (1921). The identification was obsolete by the 1960s, but was controversially revived by Diop (1989).<ref name=Masset>Masset, C. (1989): , Bulletin de la Société préhistorique française, vol. 86, n° 8, pp. 228–243. "Cornevin seems to ignore the depth of morphological differences that exist between the Black and the White when he dates these differences back to Antiquity as recent as the eleventh millennium B.C. By doing so he opposes the one hypothesis at the disposal of scholars to confer upon the Whites an antiquity equal to that of the Blacks. He errs most regrettably in claiming that the Asselar man looks more like the Cro-Magnoid European of Grimladi and the Bushman than like modern Blacks. By definition, the Grimaldi Negorid is not Cro-Magnoid, and he si the only one the Asselar man could possibly resemble; he shares no feature with the so-called Cro-Magnon man who lived later in the same cave and is the prototype of the White race as the 'Negroid' is the prototype of the Black race." C. A. Diop, ''The African Origin of Civilization: Myth Or Reality'' (1989), p. 266.</ref> | |||
| In the context of the first ], there was a debate in the 1970s whether the non-negroid, mixed, or negroid fossils found in the region were older.<ref name=Fage1975>J. D. Fage, John Desmond Clark, Roland Anthony Oliver, ''The Cambridge History of Africa'' vol. 2, Cambridge University Press (1975) .</ref> ], a 6,400 year old fossil discovered in 1927 in the ] near ] (now the ] of ]), was claimed as the oldest known anatomically modern human skeleton of Negroid type.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bassey W. Andah|author2=Alex Ikechukwu Okpoko|title=Foundations of Civilization in Tropical Africa|date=2009|publisher=Concept Publications|isbn=9788406033|page=107|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=Dz87AQAAIAAJ|accessdate=15 June 2016}}</ref> | |||
| == Subraces == | |||
| ], 1839).]] | |||
| In the first half of the 20th century, the traditional subraces of the Negroid race were regarded as being the ], the ], the ], the ], the ] (also known as the African Pygmy), the ] (often historically referred to as ] and ]), the ] (also known as the Asiatic Pygmy), and the ] (consisting of the ] and ]).<ref name=Montagu>{{cite book|last=Ashley|first=Montagu|title=An Introduction to Physical Anthropology – Second Edition|date=1951|publisher=Charles C. Thomas Publisher|pages=302–312|url=https://archive.org/download/introductiontoph033240mbp/introductiontoph033240mbp.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| By the 1960s, some scholars regarded the Khoisan as a separate race known as the ], while others continued to regard them as a Negroid subrace.<ref name=Jenkins>{{cite book|last=Jenkins (M.D.)|first=Trefor|title=The Peoples of Southern Africa: Studies in Diversity and Disease|date=1988|publisher=Witwatersrand University Press for the Institute for the Study of Man in Africa|page=6|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=YF8KAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> The term "Congoid" was frequently used interchangeably with "Negroid", with the main difference being that Congoid excluded the Capoid taxon.<ref name=Pearson>{{cite book|last=Pearson|first=Roger|title=Anthropological glossary|date=1985|publisher=R.E. Krieger Pub. Co.|page=38|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=HjANAAAAYAAJ}}</ref> | |||
| == Physical features == | |||
| === Craniofacial traits === | |||
| {{multiple image|direction=vertical|width=160|image1=MPP-Ne1.jpg|alt1=A Hausa man of Western Sudanese Negroid type.|caption1=A ] man of ]ese Negroid type|image2=MPP-Ne2.jpg|alt2=A Zulu woman of Bantu Negroid type|caption2=A ] woman of ] Negroid type}} | |||
| In modern ], Negroid describes features that typify skulls of ]. These include a broad and round ]; no dam or nasal sill; ]-shaped ]s; notable facial projection in the jaw and mouth area (]); a rectangular-shaped palate; a square or rectangular ] shape;<ref>{{cite book|authors=George W. Gill, Stanley Rhine (eds.)|title=Skeletal Attribution of Race: Methods for Forensic Anthropology|date=1990|publisher=Maxwell Museum of Anthropology|isbn=0-912535-06-7|url=http://www.worldcat.org/title/skeletal-attribution-of-race-methods-for-forensic-anthropology/oclc/671604288|accessdate=4 November 2016}}</ref> a large interorbital distance; a more undulating ];<ref name=Wilkinson>{{cite book|last1=Wilkinson|first1=Caroline|title=Forensic Facial Reconstruction|date=2004|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-82003-0|pages=84–85|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=NKWm9Q0vbT4C|accessdate=2 June 2015}}</ref> and large, ] teeth.<ref name=Brace1993>Brace CL, Tracer DP, Yaroch LA, Robb J, Brandt K, Nelson AR, , (1993), Yrbk Phys Anthropol 36:1–31, p.18</ref> | |||
| According to ] and other modern forensic anthropologists, physical traits of Negroid crania are generally distinct from those of the ] and ] races. They assert that they can identify a Negroid skull with an accuracy of up to 95%.<ref>Gill, George W. 1998. "Craniofacial Criteria in the Skeletal Attribution of Race. " In Forensic Osteology: Advances in the Identification of Human Remains. (2nd edition) Reichs, Kathleen l(ed.), pp. 293–315.</ref> However, ] cautions that this precision estimate is often based on methodologies using subsets of samples. He also argues that scientists have a professional and ethical duty to avoid such biological analyses since they could potentially have sociopolitical effects.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Diana Smay, George Armelagos|title=Galileo wept: A critical assessment of the use of race of forensic anthropolopy|journal=Transforming Anthropology|date=2000|volume=9|issue=2|pages=22–24|url=http://www.anthropology.emory.edu/FACULTY/ANTGA/Web%20Site/PDFs/Galileo%20Wept-%20A%20Critical%20Assessment%20of%20the%20Use%20of%20Race%20in%20Forensic%20Anthropology.pdf|accessdate=12 November 2016|doi=10.1525/tran.2000.9.2.19}}</ref> Although widely used in forensic anthropology, some have also challenged the accuracy of craniofacial anthropometry vis-a-vis different human populations that have developed in close proximity to one another and those of mixed ethnic heritage.<ref>{{cite journal| last = L’engle Williams| first = Frank| author2 = Robert L. Belcher| author3 = George J. Armelagos| title = Forensic Misclassification of Ancient Nubian Crania: Implications for Assumptions about Human Variation| journal = Current Anthropology| volume = 46| issue = 2| pages = 340–346| date = April 2005| url = http://monarch.gsu.edu/WebRoot$/fwilliams/CurrAnth%202005%20Williams%20et%202.pdf| accessdate = 2007-11-06| doi = 10.1086/428792| format = PDF| deadurl = yes| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20070703004349/http://monarch.gsu.edu/WebRoot$/fwilliams/CurrAnth%202005%20Williams%20et%202.pdf| archivedate = 2007-07-03| df = }}</ref> Since the distinguishing racial traits are not set until ], they are also difficult to ascertain in ] skulls.<ref name=Wilkinson /> | |||
| Variation in craniofacial form between humans has been found to be largely due to differing patterns of biological inheritance. Modern cross-analysis of osteological variables and genome-wide ] has identified specific genes, which control this craniofacial development. Of these genes, ], ], ], ] and ] were found to determine ], whereas ] impacts chin protrusion.<ref>{{cite journal|authors=Adhikari, K., Fuentes-Guajardo, M., Quinto-Sánchez, M., Mendoza-Revilla, J., Chacón-Duque, J. C., Acuña-Alonzo, V., Gómez-Valdés, J.|title=A genome-wide association scan implicates DCHS2, RUNX2, GLI3, PAX1 and EDAR in human facial variation|journal=Nature Communications|date=2016|volume=7|url=http://www.nature.com/ncomms/2016/160519/ncomms11616/full/ncomms11616.html|accessdate=12 November 2016|doi=10.1038/ncomms11616|page=11616}}</ref> | |||
| === Neoteny === | |||
| ] lists "] structural traits in which...Negroids differ from Caucasoids... flattish nose, flat root of the nose, narrower ears, narrower joints, frontal skull eminences, later closure of ]ry ], less hairy, longer eyelashes, ] pattern of second and third molars".<!--pg. 254--><ref name=Montagu2>Montagu, Ashley <u>Growing Young</u> Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 1988 | |||
| {{ISBN|0-89789-166-X}}</ref> He also suggested that in the extinct Negroid group termed the "]", pedomorphic traits proceeded further than in other Negroids.<ref name=Montagu2 /> Additionally, Montagu wrote that the Boskopoids had larger brains than modern humans (1,700 cubic centimeters cranial capacity compared to 1,400 cubic centimeters in modern-day humans), and the projection of their mouth was less than in other Negroids.<ref name=Montagu2 /> He believed that the Boskopoids were the ancestors of the Khoisan.<ref name=Montagu2 /> | |||
| === Hair === | |||
| ] | |||
| ] is tightly coiled, kinky hair. It is a ubiquitous trait among Negroid populations. By consequence, the presence of looser, frizzly hair texture in other populations has often been considered an indication of possible admixture with Negroid peoples.<ref name=Keane>{{cite book|last=Keane|first=A.H.|title=Man, Past and Present|year=1899|url=https://archive.org/download/cu31924014120814/cu31924014120814.pdf}}</ref> | |||
| Commenting on the lack of body hair (]) of Negroids and Mongoloids, ] wrote that "oth negroid and mongoloid skin conditions are ] to excessive hair development except upon the ]".<!--This is on the top of page 278.--><ref>Coon, C.S. (1939). The Races of Europe. USA: The Macmillan Company.</ref> | |||
| === Skin pigmentation === | |||
| Skin pigmentation in Negroid populations varies from very dark brown to light brown.<ref name=Taylor>{{cite book|last=Taylor|first=Karen T.|title=Forensic Art and Illustration|year=2010|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=1-4200-3695-5|page=62|url=https://www.google.com/books?id=5QQwAsJkBiEC}}</ref> | |||
| As ] is also relatively common in human groups that have historically not been defined as "Negroid", including many populations in both Africa and Asia, it is only when present with other typical Negroid physical traits such as broad facial features, Negroid cranial and dental characteristics, prognathism, afro-textured hair and neoteny, that it has been used in Negroid classification.<ref name=Keane /> Populations with frequently dark skin yet on the whole lacking the suite of Negroid physical traits were thus usually not regarded as "Negroid", but instead as either "dark ]" (e.g. ]/] and ]) or "]" depending on their other salient physical attributes. By contrast, populations with relatively ] yet generally possessing typical Negroid physical characteristics, such as the ], were still regarded as "Negroid".<ref name=Keane /> | |||
| == Criticism of the term == | |||
| ])</center> | |||
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| The term "Negroid" is still used in certain disciplines such as ] and ].<ref name=Fish /> In a ] context, some scholars have recommended that the term Negroid be avoided in scientific writings because of its association with ].<ref>{{cite journal| last = Agyemang| first = Charles |author2=Raj Bhopal |author3=Marc Bruijnzeels | title = Negro, Black, Black African, African Caribbean, African American or what? Labelling African origin populations in the health arena in the 21st century| journal = Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health| volume = 59| issue = 12| pages = 1014–1018|year=2005| url = http://jech.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/59/12/1014| doi = 10.1136/jech.2005.035964| pmc = 1732973| accessdate = 2007-11-06| pmid = 16286485}}</ref> This mirrors the decline in usage of the term ] in English, which fell out of favor following the campaigns of the ], but was later re-introduced in the ] of 2010 because it was found that members of the older generation of ] continued to identify with it.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/US/2010/01/06/Census-Bureau-defends-negro-addition/UPI-70241262798663/|title=Census Bureau defends 'negro' addition|date=2010-01-06|work=UPI|accessdate=7 January 2010}}</ref> The '']'' website as of 2018 indicates that "the term Negroid belongs to a set of terms introduced by 19th-century anthropologists attempting to categorize human races(....) such terms are associated with outdated notions of racial types, and so are now potentially offensive and best avoided".<ref name="oxford">{{cite web| title = Ask Oxford – Definition of Negroid| publisher = ]|year=2018| url = https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/negroid| accessdate = 2018-05-10}}</ref> | |||
| C.S. Coon's evolutionary approach was criticized on the basis that such sorting criteria generally do not produce meaningful results, and that evolutionary divergence was extremely improbable over the given time-frames.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Carlson| first = David| last2 = Armelagos| first2 = George | title = Problems in Racial Geography| journal = Annals of the Association of American Geographers| volume = 61| issue = 3| pages = 630–633|date=September 1971 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1971.tb00812.x }}</ref> Monatagu (1963) argued that Coon's theory on the speciation of Congoids and other ''Homo sapiens'' was unlikely because the transmutation of one species to another was a markedly gradual process.<ref>{{cite journal| last = Dobzhansky| first = Theodosius |author2=Ashley Montagu |author3=C. S. Coon| title = Two Views of Coon's "Origin of Races" with Comments by Coon and Replies| journal = Current Anthropology| volume = 4| issue = 4| pages = 360–367| doi = 10.1086/200401| year = 1963}}</ref> | |||
| == See also == | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| *] | |||
| == References == | |||
| {{reflist}} | |||
| {{Historical definitions of race}} | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
| ] | |||
Revision as of 19:57, 16 July 2018
Defined as David Diaz.