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Revision as of 21:04, 2 December 2018 view sourcePeter K Burian (talk | contribs)Extended confirmed users47,849 edits It was NOT PRC for the majority of China's history← Previous edit Revision as of 02:58, 3 December 2018 view source Miss Kan oor (talk | contribs)38 edits Created by translating the page "República Popular China"Tags: nowiki added ContentTranslationNext edit →
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{| class="infobox geography vcard" style="padding: 0.23em; width: 22.7em; text-align: left; line-height: 1.4em; margin-bottom: 10px;"
{{about|the People's Republic of China|the Republic of China|Taiwan|other uses}}
! class="cabecera adr" id="8" style="text-align:center;background-color:transparent;color:black;padding:0;" colspan="3" |República Popular China<br /><small style="line-height:130%"><span lang="zh">中华人民共和国</span><br />''Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó''</small>
{{redirect|PRC||PRC (disambiguation)}}
|- id="10"
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
| id="11" style="align:center;" colspan="3" |<br />
{{pp-move-indef}}
{| class="mergedrow" id="13" style="width:100%;"
{{short description|State in East Asia}}
| id="16" style="text-align:center;background-color:transparent;align:center;vertical-align:middle;" |]<br /><div id="17" style="display:inline;">Bandera ]</div>
{{good article}}
| id="19" style="text-align:center;align:center;vertical-align:middle;background-color:transparent;" |]<br /><div id="20" style="display:inline;">Emblema nacional </div>
{{Use American English|date=August 2016}}
<br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = People's Republic of China
| common_name = China
| native_name = {{ubl|{{native name|zh|<big>中华人民共和国</big>|italics=off}} <br/> ''Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó'' {{small|(])}}}}<!--Please do not add official regional/minority languages here; use the langbox template directly below, included specifically for that purpose-->
| image_flag = Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg
| image_coat = People's Republic of China National Emblem.svg
| symbol_type = National Emblem
| national_motto =
| national_anthem = {{vunblist|"]"<br>{{lang|zh-hans|义勇军进行曲}}<br>''Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ''}}<div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|]}}</div>
| image_map = People's Republic of China (orthographic projection).svg
| map_width = 220px
| map_caption = Area controlled by the People's Republic of China shown in dark green; claimed but uncontrolled regions shown in light green.
| capital = ]{{efn|] as "Peking" prior to the adoption of ].}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|39|55|N|116|23|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = ]<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chan, Kam Wing |title=Misconceptions and Complexities in the Study of China's Cities: Definitions, Statistics, and Implications |journal=] |year=2007 |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=383–412 |url=http://courses.washington.edu/chinageo/ChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf |format=PDF|accessdate=7 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115173048/http://courses.washington.edu/chinageo/ChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf|archivedate=15 January 2013|doi=10.2747/1538-7216.48.4.383}} p. 395</ref>
| official_languages = {{nowrap|]<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |publisher=Chinese Government|date=31 October 2000|accessdate=21 June 2013 |quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.}}</ref>{{efn|] (] only), ] (] only).}}}}
| languages_type = ]
| languages = ]{{efn|In the ]s of ] and Macau, ] are used}}
| regional_languages = {{hlist |] |] |] | ] |]<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.chinatoday.com/general/a.htm#LANGU|title=General Information of the People's Republic of China (PRC): Languages|publisher=chinatoday.com|accessdate=17 April 2008}}</ref>}}
| religion = See '']''
| ethnic_groups = {{vunblist
|91.51% ]<ref name=census/>
|{{collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;font-size:100%;
|title = ]{{efn|Ethnic minorities that are recognized officially.}}
|1.30% ] |0.86% ] |0.79% ] |0.79% ] |0.72% ] |0.65% ] |0.62% ] |0.47% ] |0.44% ] |0.26% ] |0.15% ] |1.05% others
}}
}}
| demonym = Chinese
<!---- NOTE FOR THE FOLLOWING: Describing the PRC's *GOVERNMENT TYPE* has been a contentious issue. PLEASE READ THE ARCHIVES of past discussions BEFORE MAKING/SUGGESTING CHANGES! ----->| government_type = ] ] ] ] ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China|url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/englishnpc/Constitution/2007-11/15/content_1372963.htm|publisher=The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China|date=15 November 2007|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref>
| leader_title1 = ]<br />and ]
| leader_name1 = ]{{efn|Xi Jinping holds four concurrent positions: ] (''de facto'' ]), ] (''de jure'' ]), and ] (]) for both state and party.<ref>. RT.com. 15 November 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2013.</ref>}}
| leader_title2 = ]
| leader_name2 = ]
| leader_title3 = {{nowrap|]}}
| leader_name3 = ]
| leader_title4 = {{nowrap|]}}
| leader_name4 = ]
| leader_title5 = First Secretary of the ]
| leader_name5 = ]
| leader_title6 = ]
| leader_name6 = ]
| leader_title7 = First ]
| leader_name7 = ]
| leader_title8 = ]
| leader_name8 = ]{{efn|According to the official ] (i.e. party comes first), the order of Wang would be inferior to the members of the Standing Committee of Politburo of CPC as he was not appointed office in the 19th Central Committee.}}
| legislature = ]
| sovereignty_type = ]
| established_event1 = ]
| established_date1 = 221&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}
| established_event2 = ]
| established_date2 = 1 January 1912
| established_event3 = ]
| established_date3 = 21 September 1949<ref name=prcfounding/><ref name=prcf2>{{citation |last=Peaslee |first=Amos J. |contribution=Data Regarding the 'People's Republic of China'|p=533|url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=9ATxCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA533|title=Constitutions of Nations, ''Vol. I, 2nd ed.'' |date=1956 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-94-017-7125-2}}</ref><ref name=prcf3>{{citation |last=Chaurasia |first=Radhey Shyam |contribution=Introduction |contribution-url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=D2auy-nwS5IC&pg=PA1 |p= |title=History of Modern China |url=https://books.google.fr/books?id=D2auy-nwS5IC |publisher=Atlantic |location=New Delhi |date=2004 |isbn=9788126903153 }}</ref>
| established_event4 = ]
| established_date4 = 1 October 1949
| established_event5 = ]
| established_date5 = 4 December 1982
| established_event6 = ] ]
| established_date6 = 20 December 1999
| area_km2 = 9,596,961
| area_footnote = {{efn|The area given is the official United Nations figure for ] and excludes ], ] and ].<ref name="UN Stat">{{cite web|url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf |title=Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density |publisher=UN Statistics |year=2007 |accessdate=31 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101224063215/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2007/Table03.pdf |archivedate=24 December 2010 |df= }}</ref> It also excludes the ] ({{convert|5800|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=or|sp=us}}), ] ({{convert|37244|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|disp=or|sp=us}}) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as {{convert|9572900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} by the ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/111803/China |title=China |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 November 2012}}</ref> For further information, see ].}}
| area_rank = 3rd/4th
| area_sq_mi = 3,705,407 <!--Do not remove per ]-->
| percent_water = 2.8%{{efn|This figure was calculated using data from the CIA World Factbook.<ref name=CIA/>}}
| population_estimate = {{increase}}{{UN_Population|China}} {{UN_Population|ref}}
| population_census = 1,339,724,852<ref name="groups"/>
| population_estimate_year = {{UN_Population|Year}}
| population_estimate_rank = 1st
| population_census_year = 2010
| population_census_rank = 1st
| population_density_km2 = 145<ref>{{cite web|title=Population density (people per sq. km of land area)
|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EN.POP.DNST|publisher=IMF|accessdate=16 May 2015}}</ref>
| population_density_sq_mi = 373 <!-- Do not remove per ] -->
| population_density_rank = 83rd
| GDP_PPP = $25.238 trillion<ref name="imf.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/datasets/WEO/1 |title=IMF Data Mapper|publisher=IMF |date=April 2018}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year = 2018
| GDP_PPP_rank = 1st
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $18,066<ref name="imf.org"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 79th
| GDP_nominal = $14.092 trillion<ref name="imf.org"/>
| GDP_nominal_year = 2018
| GDP_nominal_rank = 2nd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $10,087<ref name="imf.org"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 71st
| Gini = 46.2 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year = 2015
| Gini_change = <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref = <ref name=NBS2015>{{cite web|title=China's Economy Realized a Moderate but Stable and Sound Growth in 2015|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/201601/t20160119_1306072.html|publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China|accessdate=20 January 2016|date=19 January 2016|quote=Taking the per capita disposable income of nationwide households by income quintiles, that of the low-income group reached 5,221 yuan, the lower-middle-income group 11,894 yuan, the middle-income group 19,320 yuan, the upper-middle-income group 29,438 yuan, and the high-income group 54,544 yuan. The Gini Coefficient for national income in 2015 was 0.462.}}</ref>
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.752 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year = 2017<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf|title=Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical update|publisher=United Nations Development Programme|date=15 September 2018|accessdate=15 September 2018}}</ref>
| HDI_rank = 86th
| currency = ] (yuan; ¥){{efn|The ] is used in ] and ] while the ] is used in Macau only.}}
| currency_code = CNY
| time_zone = ]
| utc_offset = ]
| date_format = {{vunblist |yyyy-mm-dd |''or'' yyyy{{lang|zh|年}}m{{lang|zh|月}}d{{lang|zh|日}} |(]; ])}}
| drives_on = right{{efn|Except ] and ].}}
| calling_code = ]
| cctld = {{vunblist| ] |] |]}}
}}
'''China'''<!-- Please do not add official regional/minority languages here; use the langbox template directly above, included specifically for that purpose. -->, officially the '''People's Republic of China''' ('''PRC''') since 1949, is a country in ] and the ], with a population of around ].{{UN_Population|ref}} Covering approximately {{convert|9600000|km2|sp=us}}, it is the third- or fourth-largest country by total area,{{efn|The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of China and the United States. See ] for more information.}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html|title=The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|website=www.cia.gov}}</ref> depending on the source consulted. Governed by the ], the state exercises jurisdiction over 22 ]<!-- these are ONLY the provinces the PRC has jurisdictional control over. It is already mentioned as disputed in the "Administrative divisions" section below. -->, five ], four ] (], ], ], and ]), and the ] of ] and ].

China emerged as one of the world's ], in the fertile basin of the ] in the ]. For millennia, China's political system was based on hereditary monarchies, or ], beginning with the semi-legendary ] in 21st century BCE.<ref>] by People's Republic of China</ref> Since then, China has ] numerous times. In the 3rd century BCE, ] and established ]. The succeeding ], which ruled from 206 BC until 220 AD, saw some of the ] at that time, including ] and the ],<ref>Tom (1989), 99; Day & McNeil (1996), 122; Needham (1986e), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228.</ref> along with agricultural and medical improvements. The invention of ] and ] in the ] (618–907) and ] (960–1127) completed the ]. Tang culture spread widely in ], as the new ] brought traders to as far as ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Bowman|first=John S.|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|year=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|location=New York|pages=104–105}}</ref> Dynastic rule ended in 1912 with the ], when a ] replaced the ]. The ] resulted in a division of territory in 1949, when the ] established the People's Republic of China, a ] ] ] on ], while the ]-led government retreated to the island of ]. The ] remains disputed.

Since the introduction of ], ] has been one of the world's ] with annual growth rates consistently above 6 percent.<ref>{{cite web|title=GDP growth (annual %)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2016&locations=CN&start=1961&year_high_desc=true|website=World Bank|accessdate=25 May 2018}}</ref> {{As of|2016}}, it is the world's second-largest economy by ] and largest by ] (PPP).<ref>{{cite web|title=GDP, PPP (current international $)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=CN&year_high_desc=true|website=World Bank|accessdate=25 May 2018}}</ref> China is also the world's largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods.<ref name="ChinaBiggestTrader">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/9860518/China-trade-now-bigger-than-US.html|title=China trade now bigger than US|work=Daily Telegraph|date=10 February 2013|accessdate=15 February 2013|location=London|first=Garry|last=White}}</ref> China is a recognized ] and has the world's ] and ].<ref name="ChineseNukes"/><ref name=SIPRI2014/> The PRC is a ] of the ] as it replaced the ROC in 1971, as well as an active global partner of ]. China is also a leading member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the ], ], ], ], the ], and the ]. China is a ] and a major ] within Asia, and has been characterized as a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/events/index.cfm?fa=eventDetail&id=851&prog=zch |title=From Rural Transformation to Global Integration: The Environmental and Social Impacts of China's Rise to Superpower|last=Muldavin|first=Joshua|date=9 February 2006|publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace|accessdate=17 January 2010 }}</ref><ref name="ChinaFuture">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-19995218|title=A Point Of View: What kind of superpower could China be?|publisher=BBC|date=19 October 2012|accessdate=21 October 2012}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Names{{anchor|Etymology|Name}}==
{{Main|Names of China}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|collapse=no
|title=China
|pic=China (Chinese characters).svg
|piccap="China" in ] (top) and ] (bottom) Chinese characters
|picupright=0.45
| t={{linktext|中國}}
| s={{linktext|中国}}
| p=Zhōngguó
| w=Chung¹-kuo²
| mi={{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|g|wo|2}}
| sic=Zong<sup>1</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup>
| bpmf=ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
| xej=ﺟْﻮﻗُﻮَع
| tp=Jhongguó
| mps=Jūngguó
| gr=Jonggwo
| myr=Jūnggwó
| zh-dungan=Җунгуй
| poj=Tiong-kok
| tl=Tiong-kok
| gan=Tung-koe̍t
| hsn=Tan<sup>33</sup>-kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/
| wuu=Tson<sup>平</sup>-koh<sup>入</sup>
| j=Zung1gwok3
| y=Jùnggwok ''or'' Jūnggwok
| ci={{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|gw|ok|3}} ''or'' {{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|gw|ok|3}}
| h=Dung<sup>24</sup>-gued<sup>2</sup>
| phfs=Chûng-koet
| buc=Dṳ̆ng-guók
| hhbuc=De̤ng-go̤h
| mblmc=Dô̤ng-gŏ
| showflag=p
| order=st
| l={{nowrap|Middle or Central State<ref name=zg>{{citation |contribution=Reconstructing China beyond Homogeneity |p= |series=''Political Theories in East Asian Context'' |title=Patriotism in East Asia |editor=Jun-Hyeok Kwak |editor2=Koichiro Matsuda |display-editors=0 |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |date=2015 |last=Bilik |first=Naran }}</ref>}}}}
{{Infobox Chinese|title=People's Republic of China
|pic=PRC (Chinese characters.svg|
|piccap="People's Republic of China" in Simplified (top) and Traditional (bottom) Chinese characters
|picupright=1.15
|t={{linktext|中華人民共和國}}
|s={{linktext|中华人民共和国}}
|p=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
|gr=Jonghwa Renmin Gonqhergwo
|mps=Jūnghuá Rénmín Gùnghéguó
|w=Chung¹-hua² Jên²-min²<br />Kung⁴-ho²-kuo²
|tp=Jhonghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó
|myr=Jūnghwá Rénmín Gùnghégwó
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|h|wa|2|-|r|en|2|.|m|in|2|-|g|ong|4|.|h|e|2|.|g|wo|2}}
|sic=Zong<sup>1</sup> hua<sup>2</sup> Zen<sup>2</sup> min<sup>2</sup><br />Gong<sup>4</sup> hwe<sup>2</sup> gwe<sup>2</sup>
|bpmf=ㄓㄨㄥ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄨㄚˊ<br />ㄖㄣˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄇㄧㄣˊ<br />ㄍㄨㄥˋ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄏㄜˊ&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;ㄍㄨㄛˊ
|xej=ﺟْﻮﺧُﻮَ ژٌمٍ ﻗْﻮحْقُوَع
|zh-dungan=Җунхуа Жынмин Гунхәгуй
|poj=Tiong-hôa Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok
|tl=Tiong-huâ Jîn-bîn Kiōng-hô-kok
|gan=Chungfa Ninmin Khungfokoet
|wuu=Tson<sup>平</sup> gho<sup>平</sup> zin<sup>平</sup> min<sup>平</sup><br />gon<sup>去</sup> ghu<sup>平</sup> koh<sup>入</sup>
|j=Zung1waa4 Jan4man4 Gung6wo4gwok3
|ci={{IPAc-yue|z|ung|7|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}}<br />''or''<br />{{IPAc-yue|z|ung|1|.|w|aa|4|-|j|an|4|.|m|an|4|-|g|ung|6|.|w|o|4|.|gw|ok|3}}
|y=Jùng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok<br />''or''<br />Jūng'wàh Yàhnmàhn Guhng'wòhgwok
|hsn=/tan<sup>33</sup> go<sup>13</sup> ŋin<sup>13</sup> min<sup>13</sup><br />gan<sup>45</sup> gu<sup>13</sup> kwɛ<sup>24</sup>/
|h=Dung<sup>24</sup> fa<sup>11</sup> ngin<sup>11</sup> min<sup>11</sup> kiung<sup>55</sup> fo<sup>11</sup> gued<sup>2</sup>
|phfs=Chûng-fà Ngìn-mìn<br />Khiung-fò-koet
|buc=Dṳ̆ng-huà Ìng-mìng<br />Gê̤ṳng-huò-guók
|hhbuc=De̤ng-huá Cíng-míng<br />Gē̤ng-hó̤-go̤h
|mblmc=Dô̤ng-uǎ Nêng-měng<br />Gō̤ng-uǎ-gŏ
|mon=]
|monr=Bügüde nayiramdaqu dumdadu arad ulus
|tib={{bo-textonly|ཀྲུང་ཧྭ་མི་དམངས་སྤྱི<br />མཐུན་རྒྱལ་ཁབ}}
|wylie=krung hwa mi dmangs spyi mthun rgyal khab
|zwpy=Zhunghua Mimang Jitun Gyalkab
|uig=جۇڭخۇا خەلق جۇمھۇرىيىتى
|uly=Jungxua Xelq Jumhuriyiti
|uyy=Junghua Həlⱪ Jumⱨuriyiti
|sgs=Junghua Hälk̂ Jumĥuriyiti
|usy=Җуңхуа Хәлқ Җумһурийити
|zha=Cunghvaz Yinzminz Gunghozgoz
|showflag=p
|order=st
}}

The English word "China" is first attested in ]'s 1555 translation{{efn|" Next vnto this, is found the great China, whose kyng is thought to bee the greatest ] in the worlde, and is named Santoa Raia".<ref>] (1555), ''Decades of the New World'', .</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1 | publisher=Asian Research Service | year=1984 | page=34 |first=Henry Allen |last=Myers}}</ref>}} of the 1516 journal of the ] ] ].{{efn|" The Very Great Kingdom of China".<ref>{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=edzW9fuOF-cC&pg=PA211|p=211|title=The Book of Duarte Barbosa, ''Vol. II'' |last=Barbosa |first=Duarte |display-authors=0 |editor-last=Dames |editor-first=Mansel Longworth |location=London |date=1918 |isbn=978-81-206-0451-3 }}</ref> ({{lang-pt|...O Grande Reino da China...}}).<ref>{{citation|first=Duarte |last=Barbosa |title=Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente |editor=Augusto Reis Machado |display-editors=0 |location=Lisbon |date=1946 |url=http://purl.pt/435 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20081022202824/http://purl.pt/435 |archivedate= 22 October 2008 |df=dmy }}. {{pt icon}}</ref>}}<ref>"China" in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' (1989). {{ISBN|0-19-957315-8}}.</ref> The ], that is, the name for the people, and adjectival form "Chinese" developed later on the model of Portuguese ''{{lang|pt|chinês}}'' and French ''{{lang|fr|chinois}}''.<ref>"-ese, ''suffix''", and "Chinese, ''adj.'' and ''n.''", in the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>{{efn|Eden used the now obsolete form ''Chinish'': "...whence the Chinishe nation haue theyr prouision for shppyng..."<ref>] in R. Willes (1577). ''The History of Trauayle in the West and East Indies'', p. 260</ref>}} Portuguese ''China'' is thought to derive from ] ''Chīn'' ({{lang|fa|{{linktext|چین}}}}), which may be traced further back to ] '']'' ({{lang|sa|{{linktext|चीन}}}}).<ref name="AmHer">"". ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.</ref> ''Cīna'' was first used in early ] scripture, including the '']'' (5th century&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}) and the '']'' (2nd century&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}).<ref name=wade>Wade, Geoff. "". '']'', No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.</ref> In 1655, ] suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the ] (221–206 BC),<ref name="Martini">Martino, Martin, ''Novus Atlas Sinensis'', Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.</ref> a proposal supported by many later scholars,<ref>{{cite book |author=Bodde, Derk |editors=Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=A2HKxK5N2sAC&pg=PA20|title = The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220 |page = 20 |isbn = 978-0-521-24327-8|year=1978 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title= The Name China |author = Berthold Laufer |journal= T'oung Pao |volume= 13 |issue =1 |pages = 719–726 |year= 1912 |doi= 10.1163/156853212X00377 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Paul|last= Pelliot |title = L'origine du nom de "Chine" |pages = 727–742 |journal=T'oung Pao, Second Series|volume = 13|number= 5 |date=1912|jstor= 4526318 }}</ref> although there are also a number of alternative suggestions.<ref name=wade/><ref>{{cite book |author=Yule, Henry |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SAqgAb41ifIC&pg=PA3 |title = Cathay and the Way Thither |pages= 3–7 |isbn = 978-8120619661|year = 1866 }}</ref>

The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" ({{zh| s={{linktext|中华人民共和国}}| hp={{linktext|Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó}}}}). The shorter form is "China" ''{{linktext|Zhōngguó}}'' {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|中国}}}}),}} from ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|zhōng}}'' ("central") and ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|guó}}'' ("state"),{{efn|Although this is the present meaning of ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|guó}}'', in ] (when its pronunciation was something like {{nowrap|/*qʷˤək/}})<ref name=bs>].</ref> it meant the walled city of the Chinese and the areas they could control from them.<ref name=wilx/>}} a term which developed under the ] dynasty in reference to its ].{{efn|Its use is attested from the 6th-century ], which states "] bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" ({{lang|zh|皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王}}).<ref>{{lang|zh|], ].}} {{zh icon}}</ref>}} It was then applied to the area around ] (present-day Luoyang) during the ] and then to China's ] before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the ].<ref name=wilx>{{citation |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion |title=Chinese History: A Manual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ERnrQq0bsPYC&pg=PA132|date=2000 |location=] |publisher=Harvard University Asia Center |series=Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52 |p=132|isbn=978-0-674-00249-4}}</ref> It was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the ] people from ].<ref name=wilx/> The name ''Zhongguo'' is also translated as {{nowrap|"Middle Kingdom"}} in English.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tang|first=Xiaoyang|title=Greater China in an Era of Globalization| url = https://books.google.nl/books?id=4n8u0HG-iYEC&pg=PA52 |year=2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|location=Lanham, MD|isbn=978-0-7391-3534-1|pages=52–53|editor=Guo, Sujian |editor2=Guo, Baogang}}</ref>

A more literary or inclusive name, alluding to the "land of Chinese civilization", is ''{{lang|zh-latn-pinyin|Zhōnghuá}}'' {{nowrap|({{lang|zh|{{linktext|中华}}}}).}}<ref>{{citation |series=''Routledge Research on Taiwan'' |publisher=Routledge |location=Abingdon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wjaLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT220|p=220|title=Language, Politics, and Identity in Taiwan: Naming China |author=Hui-Ching Chang |author2=Richard Holt |display-authors=1 |isbn=978-1-135-04634-7|date=2014}}</ref> It developed during the ] and ] dynasties as a contraction of "the central state of the ]".<ref name=wilx/> Before the PRC's establishment, the proposed name of the country was the ''People's Democratic Republic of China'' ({{zh| s={{linktext|中华|人民|民|主|共和国}}| t={{linktext|中華|人民|民|主|共和國}}| hp=Zhōnghuá Rénmín Mínzhǔ Gònghéguó}}) during the first ] held on 15 June 1949.<ref> ('']'' – Chinese)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.people.com.cn/item/lianghui/zlhb/zx/1jie/newfiles/a1070.html |title=Dong Biwu Report: Central People Committee of the People's Republic of China (Chinese) |publisher=People.com.cn |date= |accessdate=15 September 2017}}</ref> During the 1950s and 1960s, after the defeat of the ] in the ], it was also referred to as "Communist China" or "Red China", to be differentiated from "Nationalist China" or "]".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garver|first=John W. |title=The Sino-American Alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War Strategy in Asia|publisher=M.E. Sharp|date=April 1997|isbn=978-0-7656-0025-7}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of China|Timeline of Chinese history}}

===Prehistory===
{{main|Chinese prehistory}}
] culture (18000–7000 {{sc|bce}}).]]
Archaeological evidence suggests that early ] inhabited China between 2.24 million and 250,000 years ago.<ref>. Archaeological Institute of America. 2000. Retrieved 30 November 2012.</ref> The hominid fossils of ], a '']'' who ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm|title=The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian|publisher=UNESCO|accessdate=6 March 2013}}</ref> were discovered in a cave at ] near ]; they have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 ].<ref name="autogenerated198">{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1038/nature07741|date=Mar 2009|author1=Shen, G |author2=Gao, X |author3=Gao, B |author4=Granger, De | title = Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating| volume = 458| issue = 7235| pages = 198–200| issn = 0028-0836| pmid = 19279636| journal = Nature|bibcode = 2009Natur.458..198S }}</ref> The fossilized teeth of ''Homo sapiens'' (dated to 125,000–80,000 ]) have been discovered in ] in ], ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-34531861|title=Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=14 October 2015}}</ref> Chinese ] existed in ] around 7000&nbsp;{{sc|bce}},<ref name="earliest writing">{{cite news |title='Earliest writing' found in China |first=Paul |last=Rincon |date=17 April 2003 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2956925.stm |work=BBC News }}</ref> ] around 6000&nbsp;{{sc|bce}},<ref>] (2000). ''Chinese Writing''. English translation of {{lang|zh-hant|文字學概論}} by Gilbert L. Mattos and ]. Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. {{ISBN|978-1-55729-071-7}}.</ref> ] from 5800–5400&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}, and ] dating from the 5th millennium&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}. Some scholars have suggested that the ] (7th millennium&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.<ref name="earliest writing"/>

===Early dynastic rule===
{{Further|Dynasties in Chinese history}}
], the ruins of the capital of the late ] (14th century&nbsp;{{sc|bce}})]]
According to Chinese tradition, the ] was the ], which emerged around 2100&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}.<ref>{{cite book|last=Tanner|first=Harold M.|title=China: A History|year=2009|publisher=Hackett Publishing|pages=35–36|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VIWC9wCX2c8C&pg=PA35 |isbn=978-0872209152}}</ref> The dynasty was considered ] by historians until scientific excavations found early ] sites at ], Henan in 1959.<ref>. ]. Retrieved 11 July 2013.</ref> It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia dynasty or of another culture from the same period.<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization|year=2007|publisher=City University of HK Press|page=25|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z-fAxn_9f8wC&pg=PA25 |isbn=9789629371401}}</ref> The succeeding ] is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pletcher|first=Kenneth|title=The History of China|year=2011|publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A1nwvKNPMWkC&pg=PA35 |isbn=9781615301812}}</ref> The Shang ruled the plain of the ] in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fowler|first1=Jeaneane D. |first2=Merv |last2=Fowler |title=Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices|year=2008|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|page=17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpJNfIAZltoC&pg=PA17 |isbn=9781845191726}}</ref> Their ] (from {{c.|lk=no|1500}}&nbsp;{{sc|bce}})<ref>William G. Boltz, Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology, Vol. 17, No. 3, Early Writing Systems. (Feb. 1986), pp. 420–436 (436).</ref><ref>David N. Keightley, "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China", ''Representations'', No. 56, Special Issue: The New Erudition. (Autumn, 1996), pp.68–95 (68).</ref> represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA904 | page=904 | first=Pam |last=Hollister |title=Zhengzhou | encyclopedia=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |editor1-first=Paul E. |editor1-last=Schellinger |editor2-first=Robert M. |editor2-last= Salkin |publisher= Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |year=1996| isbn=9781884964046}}</ref> and is a direct ancestor of modern ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Allan|first=Keith|title=The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BzfRFmlN2ZAC&pg=PA4 |isbn=9780199585847}}</ref>

The Shang were conquered by the ], who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}, though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300-year ], only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the ] of the 5th–3rd centuries&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}, there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China, each with its own king, ministry and army.

===Imperial China===
], is famed for having united the ]' walls to form the ]. Most of the present structure, however, dates to the ].]]

The ] ended in 221&nbsp;{{sc|bce}} after the ] conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state. ] proclaimed himself the ] of the ]. He enacted Qin's ] reforms throughout China, notably the forced standardization of ], ], road widths (i.e., cart axles' length), and ]. His dynasty also ] in ], ], and ].<ref>Sima Qian, Translated by Burton Watson. ''Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I'', p. 11-12. {{ISBN|0-231-08165-0}}.</ref> The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death, as his harsh authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion.<ref name="Bodde1986">Bodde, Derk. (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in", in ''The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220''. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-24327-0}}.</ref><ref name="Lewis2007">{{cite book|title=The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han|first=Mark Edward|last=Lewis|publisher=Belknap Press|location=London|year=2007|isbn=978-0-674-02477-9}}</ref>

Following a ] during which the imperial library at ] ],{{efn|Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "]", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the ] of the ] in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.<ref>{{citation |last=Cotterell |first=Arthur |title=The Imperial Capitals of China |pp= |publisher=Pimlico |date=2011 }}</ref> The ] of the ] were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in ]. ]'s "rediscovered" edition of the ] was ].}} the ] emerged to rule China between 206&nbsp;{{sc|bce}} and {{sc|ce}}&nbsp;220, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the ].<ref name="Bodde1986"/><ref name="Lewis2007"/> The Han ], with military campaigns reaching ], ], and ], and the ] from ]. Han involvement in Central Asia and ] helped establish the land route of the ], replacing the earlier path over the ] to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052 |title=Dahlman, Carl J; Aubert, Jean-Eric. ''China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st century''|publisher=World Bank Publications via Eric.ed.gov|accessdate=22 October 2012}}</ref> Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of ] in favor of ], Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.<ref>{{cite book|first1=Candice |last1=Goucher |first2= Linda |last2=Walton|title=World History: Journeys from Past to Present – Volume 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zdwpAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 |isbn=9781135088224}}</ref>
] ({{c.|lk=no|210}}&nbsp;{{sc|bce}}) discovered outside the ], now ]]]
After the ], a period of strife known as ] followed,<ref>Whiting, Marvin C. (2002). ''Imperial Chinese Military History.'' iUniverse. p. 214</ref> whose central figures were later immortalized in ] of the ] of ]. At its end, ] was swiftly overthrown by the ]. The Jin fell to ] upon the ascension of a ]; the ] then ] and ruled northern China as the ]. The ] unified them as the ], whose ] reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and ], largely integrating them into Chinese culture. In the south, the general ] secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the ]. The various successors of these states became known as the ], with the two areas finally reunited by the ] in 581. The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture and economy, constructed the ], and patronized ]. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a ] with ] provoked widespread unrest.<ref>Ki-Baik Lee (1984). ''A new history of Korea.'' Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-61576-2}}. p.47.</ref><ref>David Andrew Graff (2002). ''Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900.'' Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-23955-9}}. p.13.</ref>

Under the succeeding ] and ] dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.<ref>Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). ''T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54</ref> The Tang Empire returned control of the ] and the Silk Road,<ref>{{citation|last=Nishijima|first=Sadao|editor1-last=Twitchett|editor1-first=Denis|editor2-last=Loewe|editor2-first=Michael|chapter=The Economic and Social History of Former Han|title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220|year=1986|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-24327-8|pages=545–607}}</ref> and made the capital ] a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the ] in the 8th century.<ref>City University of HK Press (2007). ''China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization''. {{ISBN|962-937-140-5}}. p.71</ref> In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the ] in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and ]. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese ] to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.<ref>Paludan, Ann (1998). ''Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors''. London: Thames & Hudson. {{ISBN|0-500-05090-2}}. p. 136.</ref>
]'', a 12th-century painting showing everyday life in the ]'s capital, ] (present-day ])]]
Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a ], in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,<ref>{{cite book|title=Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sjzPPg8eK7sC&pg=PA3|isbn=9780313264498}}</ref> and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as ] and ] were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity.<ref>{{cite web|title=Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/nsong/hd_nsong.htm|publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=27 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Thesis_Y1795153.aspx |script-title=zh:从汝窑、修内司窑和郊坛窑的技术传承看宋代瓷业的发展 |website=wanfangdata.com.cn |date=15 February 2011 |accessdate=15 August 2015}}</ref> However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the ] ]. In 1127, ] and the capital ] were captured during the ]. The remnants of the Song retreated to ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276|year=1962|publisher=Stanford University Press|page=22|url=|isbn=978-0-8047-0720-6}}</ref>

The 13th century brought the ]. In 1271, the ] leader ] established the ]; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.<ref>Ping-ti Ho. "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in ''Études Song'', Series 1, No 1, (1970). pp. 33–53.</ref> A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the ] as the ]. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that ] led the ] throughout the world, reaching as far as Africa.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/jul/25/kenya-china | work=The Guardian | first=Xan | last=Rice | title=Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral | date=25 July 2010 | location=London}}</ref>

In the early years of the Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from ] to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as ] further critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of ] and equality of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Wang Yangming (1472—1529)|url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|work=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|accessdate=9 December 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109100108/http://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/|archivedate=9 November 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ] stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against ] and ] led to an exhausted treasury.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.docin.com/p-378667223.html |script-title=zh:论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系 |website=docin.com |date=8 April 2012 |accessdate=2 September 2015}}</ref>

In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by ]. The ] committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu ], then allied with Ming dynasty general ], overthrew Li's short-lived ] and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.

===End of dynastic rule===
] (1850–1864)]]
The ], which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. Its conquest of the Ming (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives and the ].<ref>John M. Roberts (1997). ''''. Oxford University Press. p. 272. {{ISBN|0-19-511504-X}}.</ref> After the ] ended, the further conquest of the ] added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.<ref>The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Part 1, by John K. Fairbank, p37</ref> The centralized autocracy was strengthened to crack down on ] with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, the '']'' ("sea ban"), and ideological control as represented by the ], causing social and technological stagnation.<ref>{{cite book |script-title=zh:中国通史·明清史|year=2010|publisher=九州出版社|pages=104–112|url=|isbn=978-7-5108-0062-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |script-title=zh:中华通史·第十卷|year=1996|publisher=花城出版社|page=71|url=|isbn=978-7-5360-2320-8}}</ref> In the mid-19th century, the dynasty experienced Western imperialism in the ] with Britain and France. China was forced to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow ] for foreign nationals, and cede ] to the British<ref>], ] (1997). ''''. M.E. Sharpe. p.597. {{ISBN|1-56324-265-6}}.</ref> under the 1842 ], the first of the ]. The ] (1894–95) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the ], as well as the cession of Taiwan to ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/546176/Sino-Japanese-War|title=Sino-Japanese War (1894–95)|work=]|accessdate=12 November 2012}}</ref>

] invaded China to defeat the anti-foreign ] and their Qing backers.]]
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing ] in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the ], the failed ] that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the ] (1862–77) in the northwest. The initial success of the ] of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.

In the 19th century, the great ] began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the ], in which between 9 and 13 million people died.<ref>. 1995. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Retrieved 3 July 2013.</ref> The ] drafted a ] in 1898 to establish a modern ], but these plans were thwarted by the ]. The ill-fated anti-foreign ] of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms, the ] of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the ].

===Republic of China (1912–1949)===
{{main|Republic of China (1912–1949)}}
]
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and ] of the ] (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president.<ref>Eileen Tamura (1997). ''China: Understanding Its Past.'' Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press. {{ISBN|0-8248-1923-3}}. p.146.</ref> However, the presidency was later given to ], a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself ]. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own ], he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic.<ref>], (2006). Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|0-415-39906-8}}. p.143.</ref>
]
After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.<ref>Bruce Elleman (2001). ''Modern Chinese Warfare''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-21474-2}}. p.149.</ref><ref>Graham Hutchings (2003). ''Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change''. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-01240-2}}. p.459.</ref> In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang, under ], the then Principal of the ], was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings, known collectively as the ].<ref>Peter Zarrow (2005). ''China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-36447-7}}. p.230.</ref><ref>M. Leutner (2002). ''The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-7007-1690-4}}. p.129.</ref> The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to ] and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's ] program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.<ref>Hung-Mao Tien (1972). ''Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937 (Volume 53)''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-0812-6}}. pp.&nbsp;60–72.</ref><ref>Suisheng Zhao (2000). ''China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-92694-7}}. p.43.</ref> The ] in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the ], ] (PLA) against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the ]. This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang, especially after the PLA retreated in the ], until Japanese aggression and the 1936 ] forced Chiang to confront ].<ref>David Ernest Apter, Tony Saich (1994). ''Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic''. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-76780-2}}. p.198.</ref>

] and ] toasting together in 1946 following the end of World War II]]
The ] (1937–1945), a ] of ], forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the PLA. Japanese forces committed numerous ] against the civilian population; in all, as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.<ref>. BBC&nbsp;— History. Retrieved 14 July 2013.</ref> An estimated 200,000 Chinese ] in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.<ref>. ''Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities).'' November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.</ref> During the war, China, along with the UK, the US and the Soviet Union, were referred to as "trusteeship of the powerful"<ref name = Justus>{{cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7}}</ref> and were recognized as the Allied "]" in the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947|date=1947|publisher=United Nations|location=Lake Success, NY|oclc=243471225|page=3|url=http://www.unmultimedia.org/searchers/yearbook/page.jsp?volume=1946-47&page=38|accessdate=25 April 2015|chapter=The Moscow Declaration on general security}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-charter/1942-declaration-united-nations/|title=Declaration by United Nations|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=20 June 2015}}</ref> Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major ], and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.<ref>Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley. ''FDR and the Creation of the U.N.'' (Yale University Press, 1997)</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=John Lewis|last=Gaddis|title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947|year=1972|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-12239-9|pages=24–25|ref=harv}}</ref> After the ] in 1945, Taiwan, including the ], was returned to Chinese control. China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ] were never implemented in mainland China.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China|year=1991|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCxMn-2msr8C&pg=PA3 |first=Hung-mao |last=Tien |editor-first= Harvey |editor-last=Feldman|title=Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China|isbn=9780873328807}}</ref>

===People's Republic of China (1949–present)===
{{Main|History of the People's Republic of China}}
] proclaiming the establishment of the PRC in 1949]]
Major combat in the ] ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of ], and the Kuomintang retreating offshore, reducing the ROC's territory to only ], ], and their surrounding islands. On 21 September 1949, ] ] proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China.<ref name=prcfounding>{{cite web|url=http://www.isop.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm|title=The Chinese people have stood up|publisher=UCLA Center for East Asian Studies|accessdate= 16 April 2006|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218071231/http://www.international.ucla.edu/eas/documents/mao490921.htm|archivedate=18 February 2009}}</ref><ref name=prcf2/><ref name=prcf3/> This was followed by a mass celebration in ] on 1 October, which became the new country's first ]. In 1950, the People's Liberation Army succeeded in ] from the ROC<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19500509&id=FUw_AAAAIBAJ&sjid=skwMAAAAIBAJ&pg=3627,3301880|title=Red Capture of Hainan Island|newspaper=The Tuscaloosa News|publisher=Google News Archive|date=9 May 1950|accessdate=20 July 2013}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf |title=The Tibetans |publisher=University of Southern California |accessdate=20 July 2013 |format=PDF |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016102314/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/ir/cews/database/Tibet/tibet.pdf |archivedate=16 October 2013 |df= }}</ref> However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage ] throughout the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZNCghCIbyVAC&pg=PA169&q=C.I.A%20%20Ma%20bufang|title=The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia|author=John W. Garver|year=1997|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|location=|isbn=978-0-7656-0025-7|page=169|pages=|accessdate=20 July 2013}}</ref> In modern US history studies, the founding of PRC China is often termed as "the loss of China" as reflected in US state policy documents of the time, which thinkers such as ] call the beginning of ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Noam Chomsky on the so called rise of China – Interview on 6 April 2017|url=http://www.youtube.com}}</ref>

The regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through land reform, which resulted in the execution of between 1 and 2 million ]s.<ref>Busky, Donald F. (2002). ''''. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.11.</ref> China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons.<ref>{{cite web|title= A Country Study: China |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/87600493/|website=www.loc.gov|accessdate=3 October 2017}}</ref> The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Madelyn Holmes |url=https://books.google.com/?id=lJK-GRriJAoC |title=Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews |publisher=McFarland |accessdate=7 November 2011 | year=2008 |page=185 |isbn= 978-0-7864-3288-2}}</ref> However, the ], a large-scale economic and social reform project, resulted in ] between 1958 and 1961, mostly from starvation.<ref name="Akbar2010">{{Cite news|url =https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/maos-great-leap-forward-killed-45-million-in-four-years-2081630.html |title= Mao's Great Leap Forward 'killed 45 million in four years'|accessdate=30 October 2010 |work=The Independent |location=London |first=Arifa|last=Akbar|date=17 September 2010}}</ref> In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the ], sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC ] in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.<ref>Michael Y.M. Kao. "Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification" in Harvey Feldman and Michael Y. M. Kao (eds., 1988): ''Taiwan in a Time of Transition''. New York: Paragon House. p.188.</ref>

After Mao's death, the ] was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution. ] took power in 1978, and instituted significant ]. The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens' personal lives, and the ] were gradually disbanded in favor of working contracted to households. This marked China's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an ].<ref name="Ref_e">Hart-Landsberg, Martin; and Burkett, Paul. . Monthly Review. Retrieved 30 October 2008.</ref> China adopted its current ] on 4 December 1982. In 1989, the ] of ] brought sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy |url=http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |publisher=The National Bureau of Asian Research |accessdate=28 November 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404193656/http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.aspx?id=73 |archivedate=4 April 2014 |df= }}</ref>

], ] and ] led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China's economic performance pulled an estimated 150&nbsp;million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2%.<ref name="Ref_h"> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814035102/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-07/11/content_244499.htm |date=14 August 2011 }}. ''China Daily''. 11 July 2003. Retrieved 10 July 2013.</ref><ref name="Ref_i">. ''People's Daily''. 1 March 2000. Retrieved 10 July 2013.</ref> The country formally joined the ] in 2001, and maintained its high rate of economic growth under ] and ]'s leadership in the 2000s. However, rapid growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2007/08/26/world/asia/20070826_CHINA_GRAPHIC.html|title=China's Environmental Crisis|work=]|date=26 August 2007|accessdate=16 May 2012}}</ref><ref name="Ref_j">. BBC. Retrieved 16 April 2006.</ref> and caused ].<ref name="Ref_k">. Migration News. January 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_l">. ''Washington Post''. 28 January 2006.</ref> Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the ], but centralized political control remained tight.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/tankman/etc/transcript.html
| title=''Frontline'': ''The Tank Man'' transcript
| accessdate=12 July 2008 |date=11 April 2006 |work=Frontline |publisher=PBS }}</ref>

Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-17673505|title=Bo Xilai scandal: Timeline|publisher=BBC|date=5 September 2012|accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref> During China's ] in November 2012, Hu Jintao was replaced as ] by ].<ref name="XiJinpingLiKeqiang">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9679477/Xi-Jinping-crowned-new-leader-of-China-Communist-Party.html|title=Xi Jinping crowned new leader of China Communist Party|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=15 November 2012|accessdate=15 November 2012|location=London|first=Malcolm|last=Moore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/asia/7912682/New-China-leadership-tipped-to-be-all-male |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515105756/http%3A//www.stuff.co.nz/world/asia/7912682/New%2DChina%2Dleadership%2Dtipped%2Dto%2Dbe%2Dall%2Dmale |dead-url=yes |archive-date=15 May 2016 |title=New China leadership tipped to be all male |publisher=Stuff.co.nz |date=6 November 2012 }}</ref> Under Xi, the Chinese government began large-scale efforts to reform its economy,<ref name="BBC19July2013a">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23377060|title=China frees up bank lending rates|publisher=BBC|date=19 July 2013|accessdate=19 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/china-business/10198410/China-eyes-fresh-stimulus-as-economy-stalls-sets-7pc-growth-floor.html|title=China eyes fresh stimulus as economy stalls, sets 7pc growth floor|work=Daily Telegraph|date=23 July 2013|accessdate=25 July 2013|location=London|first=Ambrose|last=Evans-Pritchard}}</ref> which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.ft.com/gavyndavies/2012/11/25/the-decade-of-xi-jinping/|title=The decade of Xi Jinping|work=]|date=25 November 2012|accessdate=27 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="9Dec2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20657311|title=China sees both industrial output and retail sales rise|publisher=BBC|date=9 December 2012|accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23251089|title=China's exports and imports decline|publisher=BBC|date=10 July 2013|accessdate=10 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23486466|title=China orders government debt audit|publisher=BBC|date=29 July 2013|accessdate=29 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Chinese Imports: What’s Behind the Slowdown?|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2016/wp16106.pdf|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> The ] also announced major reforms to the ] and prison system.<ref name=SlateChina2013/>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of China}}
] of China|alt=|center|500x500px]]
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the ] and ]s in the arid north to ] forests in the wetter south. The ], ], ] and ] mountain ranges separate China from much of ] and ]. The ] and ]s, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the ] to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is {{convert|14500|km|mi|sp=us}} long and is bounded by the ], ], ] and ] seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the ] which has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the ] – the ancestor of the terrestrial ](s).

===Landscape and climate===
{{Multiple image
|direction=vertical
| image1 =九寨沟五花海.jpg
| caption1 = Five Flower Sea at ], ]
| image2 =Mondsichelsee.JPG
| caption2 = ] in ] in ], ]
| image3 =Muztagh Ata Xinjiang China.jpg
| caption3=] of ] in ], ]
}}

The territory of China lies between ]s ] and ], and ]s ] and ]. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width. In the east, along the shores of the ] and the ], there are extensive and densely populated ], while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad ]s predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the ] of China's two major rivers, the ] and the ]. Other major rivers include the ], ], ] and ]. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High ]s feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the ] and the ]. The world's highest point, ] (8,848m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.<ref>{{cite news|title=Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8608913.stm|newspaper=BBC News|date=8 April 2010}}</ref> The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of ] (−154m) in the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Lowest Places on Earth|url=http://www.nps.gov/deva/naturescience/lowest-places-on-earth.htm|publisher=National Park Service|accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref>

China's climate is mainly dominated by ]s and wet ], which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.<ref>{{cite book|title=Regional Climate Studies of China|year=2008|publisher=Springer|page=1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SEO_RyNDJ0gC&pg=PA1|isbn=9783540792420}}</ref> The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country's highly complex ].

A major environmental issue in China is the continued ], particularly the Gobi Desert.<ref>{{cite news|title=Fighting Desertification|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/terrywaghorn/2011/03/07/fighting-desertification/|newspaper=Forbes|date=7 March 2011|first=Terry|last=Waghorn}}</ref><ref name="Ref_au">. BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of ], prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in ] plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of east Asia, including Korea and Japan. China's environmental watchdog, ], stated in 2007 that China is losing {{convert|4000|km2|abbr=on}} per year to desertification.<ref name="Ref_av">{{cite journal | last=Coonan | first=Cliff | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html | title=The gathering sandstorm: Encroaching desert, missing water | journal=The Independent | date=9 November 2007 | accessdate=23 July 2014 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424052106/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-gathering-sandstorm-encroaching-desert-missing-water-399653.html | archivedate=24 April 2008}}</ref> Water quality, ], and ] have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting ] in the Himalayas could potentially lead to ]s for hundreds of millions of people.<ref name="msnbc">{{cite news|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27894721/|title=Himalaya glaciers melting much faster|publisher=MSNBC|date=24 November 2008|accessdate=21 September 2011}}</ref>{{-}}

===Biodiversity===
{{Main|Wildlife of China}}
], China's most famous ] and ] species, at the ] in ]|alt=|left]]
China is one of 17 ],<ref name="Ref_2009a">{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html |title=Biodiversity Theme Report |publisher=Environment.gov.au |date=10 December 2009 |accessdate=27 April 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110811045957/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html|archivedate=11 August 2011}}</ref> lying in two of the world's major ]s: the ] and the ]. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after ] and ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326060253/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03highest_biodiversity.htm |date=26 March 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> The country signed the ] ] on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list|title=List of Parties |accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref> It later produced a ], with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/cn/cn-nbsap-v2-zh.pdf |title= |accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref>

China is home to at least 551 species of ] (the third-highest such number in the world),<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512150801/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/mammals/analysis/geographic-patterns |date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> 1,221 species of birds (eighth),<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216152146/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03birds.htm |date=16 February 2013 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> 424 species of reptiles (seventh)<ref>. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512145131/http://www.iucnredlist.org/initiatives/amphibians/analysis/geographic-patterns |date=12 May 2013 }}. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.</ref> Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world's largest population of '']''. At least 840 ] in China, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and ingredients for ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424182826/http://www.mnn.com/earth-matters/animals/stories/infographic-top-20-countries-with-most-endangered-species |date=24 April 2013 }}. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and {{As of|2005|lc=y}}, the country has over 2,349 ], covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nature Reserves|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Brief/193257.htm|publisher=China.org.cn|accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref> The ] has recently been confirmed extinct.

China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112001508/http://rainforests.mongabay.com/03plants.htm |date=12 January 2014 }}. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.</ref> and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold ] forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as ] and ], along with over 120 bird species.<ref name="rough guide"/> The understorey of moist ] forests may contain thickets of ]. In higher montane stands of ] and ], the bamboo is replaced by ]s. ] forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support as many as 146,000 species of flora.<ref name="rough guide"/> Tropical and seasonal ]s, though confined to ] and ], contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.<ref name="rough guide">{{cite book|title=China|year=2003|publisher=Rough Guides|page=1213|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dA_QbQiZkB4C&pg=PA1213|edition=3|isbn=9781843530190}}</ref> China has over 10,000 recorded species of ],<ref>{{cite book|title=Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics|year=2013|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|page=208|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OeqjKhDml6wC&pg=PA208|isbn=9781118679814}}</ref> and of them, nearly 6,000 are ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Liu |first=Ji-Kai |title=Secondary metabolites from higher fungi in China and their biological activity |journal=Drug Discoveries & Therapeutics |year=2007 |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=94 |url=http://www.ddtjournal.com/action/downloaddoc.php?docid=57 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207114833/http://www.ddtjournal.com/action/downloaddoc.php?docid=57 |archivedate=7 December 2013 |df= }}</ref>

===Environmental issues===
{{Main|Environmental issues in China}}
{{See also|Water resources of China|Energy policy of China}}
]s in ]]]
]]]

In recent decades, China has suffered from ].<ref name="Ma2002">{{Cite book |author=Ma, Xiaoying |author2=Ortalano, Leonard |title=Environmental Regulation in China |year=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQTbZRWgC74C&pg=PA1|page=1|isbn=978-0-8476-9399-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21545868|title=China acknowledges 'cancer villages'|publisher=BBC|date=22 February 2013|accessdate=23 February 2013}}</ref> While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, they are poorly enforced, as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favor of rapid economic development.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20114306|title=Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant|publisher=BBC|date=28 October 2012}}</ref> Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country; the ] estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world's 20 most-polluted cities are located in China.<ref>{{cite news|title=Beijing Orders Official Cars Off Roads to Curb Pollution|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-01-12/beijingers-told-to-stay-indoors-as-pollution-hits-record.html|accessdate=27 July 2013|publisher=]|date=14 January 2013}}</ref> And China is the country with the highest death toll because of air pollution. There are 1.14 million deaths caused by exposure to ambient air pollution.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/phe/publications/air-pollution-global-assessment/en/|title=WHO {{!}} Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease|website=WHO|access-date=2018-04-28}}</ref> China is the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012 |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2013/06/10/us-iea-emissions-idUSBRE95908S20130610|accessdate=3 November 2013|publisher=Reuters|date=10 June 2013}}</ref> The country also has significant ] problems: 40% of China's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030005341/http://blogs.ei.columbia.edu/2011/10/24/chinas-decade-plan-for-water/ |date=30 October 2011 }}. The Earth Institute. ]. 24 October 2011. Retrieved 23 November 2011.</ref> In 2014, the internal freshwater resources per capita of China reduced to 2,062m<sup>3</sup>, and it was below 500m<sup>3</sup> in the ], while 5,920m<sup>3</sup> in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.H2O.INTR.PC?end=2014&start=1962&view=chart&year_high_desc=true|title = Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (cubic meters)|date = |accessdate = 29 August 2016|website = |publisher = The World Bank }}</ref><ref name="Desalination">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-22815145|title=China works to ease water woes|publisher=BBC|date=11 June 2013|accessdate=11 June 2013}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2004">{{Cite news |url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200412/23/eng20041223_168329.html |title=300&nbsp;million Chinese drinking unsafe water |date=23 December 2004 |work=People's Daily |accessdate=27 March 2009 }}</ref>

In China, heavy metals also cause environmental pollution. Heavy metal pollution is an inorganic chemical hazard, which is mainly caused by lead (Pb), chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni). Five metals among them, Pb, Cr, As, Cd, and Hg, are the key heavy metal pollutants in China. Heavy metal pollutants mainly come from mining, sewage irrigation, the manufacturing of metal-containing products, and other related production activities. High level of heavy metal exposure can also cause permanent intellectual and developmental disabilities, including reading and learning disabilities, behavioral problems, hearing loss, attention problems, and disruption in the development of visual and motor function. According to the data of a national census of pollution, China has more than 1.5 million sites of heavy metals exposure. The total volume of discharged heavy metals in the waste water, waste gas and solid wastes are around 900,000 tons each year from 2005–2011.<ref>Hu, Hui, Qian Jin, and Philip Kavan. "A study of heavy metal pollution in China: Current status, pollution-control policies and countermeasures." Sustainability 6.9 (2014): 5820–5838.</ref>

However, China is the world's leading investor in ] and ], with ]52&nbsp;billion invested in 2011 alone;<ref name="By2010">{{Cite news |first=Lisa|last=Friedman |url=https://www.nytimes.com/cwire/2010/03/25/25climatewire-china-leads-major-countries-with-346-billion-15729.html |title=China Leads Major Countries With $34.6&nbsp;Billion Invested in Clean Technology |work=The New York Times
|date=25 March 2010 |accessdate=27 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name="Black2010">{{Cite news |last=Black |first=Richard |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8587319.stm |title=China steams ahead on clean energy |publisher=BBC News |date=26 March 2010|accessdate=27 April 2010 }}</ref><ref name="ChinaLeadingEnergy">{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jackperkowski/2012/07/27/china-leads-the-world-in-renewable-energy-investment/|title=China Leads The World In Renewable Energy Investment|work=]|date=27 July 2012|accessdate=5 December 2012|first=Jack|last=Perkowski}}</ref> it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.<ref name="bradsher">{{cite news|last=Bradsher|first=Keith|date=30 January 2010|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/31/business/energy-environment/31renew.html|title=China leads global race to make clean energy|newspaper=New York Times}}</ref><ref>. '']''. 4 August 2008. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-energy-renewables/china-to-plow-361-billion-into-renewable-fuel-by-2020-idUSKBN14P06P|website=Reuters|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> By 2015, over 24% of China's energy was derived from renewable sources, while most notably from ]: a total installed capacity of 197 GW makes China the ] in the world.<ref> Ecosensorium. 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref><ref name="IEA2015">{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/KeyWorld_Statistics_2015.pdf |title=2015 Key World Energy Statistics |date= |accessdate=1 June 2016 |work=report |format=PDF |publisher=International Energy Agency (IEA) |author=}}</ref> China also has the largest power capacity of ] and ] in the world.<ref name="IEA-PVPS-2016">, p.7, International Energy Agency, 2017</ref><ref name="aweaQ4_2016">{{cite web|title=AWEA 2016 Fourth Quarter Market Report|url=http://www.awea.org/MediaCenter/pressreleasev2.aspx?ItemNumber=9812|website=AWEA|publisher=American Wind Energy Association|accessdate=9 February 2017}}
</ref> In 2011, the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan (US$619 billion) in water infrastructure and ] projects over a ten-year period, and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti-drought system by 2020.<ref name="Desalination"/><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151105210017/http://www.wantchinatimes.com/news-subclass-cnt.aspx?id=20110711000040&cid=1105&MainCatID=11 |date=5 November 2015 }}. Want China Times. 11 July 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2011.</ref> In 2013, China began a five-year, US$277 billion effort to reduce air pollution, particularly in the north of the country.<ref>{{cite web|title=China to spend big to clean up its air|url=http://grist.org/news/china-to-spend-big-to-clean-up-its-air|work=Grist Magazine|accessdate=27 July 2013|first=John|last=Upton|date=25 July 2013}}</ref>

===Political geography===
{{main|Borders of China|Territorial changes of the People's Republic of China}}
]
The People's Republic of China is the ] country in the world by land area<ref>{{cite book|last=Amitendu|first=Palit|title=China-India Economics: Challenges, Competition and Collaboration|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sz12DTzuhk0C&pg=PA4|isbn=9781136621628}}</ref> after ], and is either the third- or fourth-largest by total area, after Russia, Canada and, depending on the definition of total area, the ].{{efn|According to the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', the total area of the United States, at {{convert|9522055|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the ] was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as {{convert|9372610|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to {{convert|9629091|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to {{convert|9631418|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2004, to {{convert|9631420|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2006, and to {{convert|9826630|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} in 2007 (territorial waters added).}} China's total area is generally stated as being approximately {{convert|9600000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/229567.htm |title=Geography – china.org.cn |publisher=china.org.cn |accessdate=31 May 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913000139/http://www.china.org.cn/english/travel/229567.htm |archivedate=13 September 2015 |df= }}</ref> Specific area figures range from {{convert|9572900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the '']'',<ref name="archive">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/616563/United-States |title=United States |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=25 March 2008}}</ref> {{convert|9596961|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,<ref name="UN Stat"/> to {{convert|9596961|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to the ].<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=23 November 2013}}</ref>

China has the ], measuring {{convert|22117|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} from the mouth of the ] to the ].<ref name="CIA"/> China ], ] except Russia, which also borders 14.<ref>{{cite web|title=Which country borders the most other countries? |url=http://geography.about.com/library/faq/blqzmostneighbors.htm |publisher=About.com |accessdate=5 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131019064146/http://geography.about.com/library/faq/blqzmostneighbors.htm |archivedate=19 October 2013 |df= }}</ref> China extends across much of East Asia, bordering ], ], and ] in Southeast Asia; ], ], ], ], and ]{{efn|China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of ]. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.}} in South Asia; ], ] and ] in Central Asia; and ], ], and ] in ] and ]. Additionally, China shares maritime boundaries with ], Japan, Vietnam, and the ].

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of China}}{{See also|List of current Chinese provincial leaders}}<!-- Please add new information to relevant articles of the series -->

{{multiple image
| align =right
| direction = vertical
| caption_align = center
| image1 = China Senate House.jpg
| caption1 = The ]<br/>where the ] convenes
| image2 = Zhongnanhai06.jpg
| caption2 = The ], home and workplace of the ]
}}
] states that The People's Republic of China "is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants," and that the state organs "apply the principle of democratic centralism."<ref>Chapter 1, Articles !, 3 </ref> The PRC is one of the world's only ] (see ]). The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist, but also as authoritarian and ],<ref>{{cite journal|title=China, Corporatism, and the East Asian Model |first1=Jonathan |last1=Unger |first2= Anita |last2=Chan |journal= The Australian Journal of Chinese Affairs |volume=33 |issue= 33 |date=January 1995 |pages= 29–53|doi=10.2307/2950087|jstor=2950087 }}</ref> with heavy restrictions in many areas, most notably against ], ], ], ], ] and ].<ref name="freedomhouse">{{cite web|url=http://freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&year=2011&country=8016|title=Freedom in the World 2011: China|publisher=Freedom House|year=2011|accessdate=19 June 2013}}</ref> Its current political, ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the "]", "]" (which is ] adapted to Chinese circumstances) and the "]" respectively.<ref>{{cite news|title=Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2013-01/05/c_132082389.htm|newspaper=Xinhua|date=5 January 2013}}</ref>

===Communist Party===
] marking the 90th anniversary of the Communist Party of China|alt=]]
] declares that the country is ruled "under the leadership" of the ] (CPC).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html
| title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China
|work=People's Daily |accessdate=14 July 2009 }}</ref> As China is a ''de facto'' ], the ] (]) holds ultimate power and authority over state and government serving as the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=China’s ‘Chairman of Everything’: Behind Xi Jinping’s Many Titles|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/25/world/asia/china-xi-jinping-titles-chairman.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=25 October 2016|quote=Mr. Xi’s most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China’s one-party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.}}</ref> The ] is pyramidal. Local People's Congresses are ], and higher levels of People's Congresses up to the ] (NPC) are ] by the People's Congress of the level immediately below.<ref name="a97">Article 97 of the ]</ref> The political system is decentralized, and provincial and sub-provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy.<ref name="cfr">{{cite web |url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/14482/communist_party_of_china.html |title=CFR.org |publisher=CFR.org |accessdate=27 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511033229/http://www.cfr.org/publication/14482/communist_party_of_china.html |archivedate=11 May 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> ], have representatives in the NPC and the ] (CPPCC).<ref>{{cite web|title=Democratic Parties|url=http://english.people.com.cn/data/China_in_brief/Political_Parties/Democratic%20Parties.html|work=People's Daily|accessdate=8 December 2013}}</ref> China supports the Leninist principle of "]",<ref>'']''. (1982)</ref> but critics describe the elected National People's Congress as a "]" body.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/china_politics/government/html/7.stm |title=BBC, Country Report: China |publisher=BBC News |accessdate=14 July 2009 }}</ref>

===Government===
{{Main|Government of China}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:left; float:right; margin-right:9px; margin-left:2px;"
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| ]
| style="text-align:left;"| ]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|]<br /><small>]<br/>and ]</small>
| style="text-align:center;"|]<br /><small>]</small>
|} |}
|- id="24"
The ] is the titular ], elected by the ]. The ] is the ], presiding over the ] composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions. The incumbent president is ], who is also the ] and the ], making him China's ]. The incumbent premier is ], who is also a senior member of the ], China's ''de facto'' top decision-making body.<ref>{{cite news|first = Susan| last = Shirk|title=China's Next Leaders: A Guide to What's at Stake|url=http://www.chinafile.com/chinas-next-leaders-guide-whats-stake|accessdate=31 May 2015|newspaper=China File|date=13 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="XiJinpingLiKeqiang"/>
| id="25" style="text-align:center;font-size: 95%;" colspan="3" |
Himno: 义勇军进行曲 / 義勇軍進行曲<br />''Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ''<br />(en chino: «Marcha de los voluntarios»).<br /> ]<div class="problemas_sonido" id="35" style="line-height:1.1em; text-align:center;"><small>''¿Problemas al reproducir este archivo?''</small></div>
|- id="38"
| id="39" style="text-align:center;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="3" |
]
|- id="41"
! id="42" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Capital
| id="45" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Pekín<br /><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"></span><span id="coordinates">Coordenadas: <span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"></span></span> ]
|- id="48"
! id="49" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Ciudad más poblada
| id="52" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Shanghái<ref name="ciudad"><span class="broken-link"><span class="citation publicación" id="CITAREFChan,_Kam_Wing2007">Chan, Kam Wing (2007). (pdf). ''Eurasian Geography and Economics'' (en inglés) '''48''' (4): 383-412. <small>:</small>. Archivado desde el 15 de enero de 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Misconceptions+and+Complexities+in+the+Study+of+China%27s+Cities%3A+Definitions%2C+Statistics%2C+and+Implications&rft.au=Chan%2C+Kam+Wing&rft.aulast=Chan%2C+Kam+Wing&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.issue=4&rft.jtitle=Eurasian+Geography+and+Economics&rft.pages=383-412&rft.volume=48&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcourses.washington.edu%2Fchinageo%2FChanCityDefinitionsEGE2007.pdf&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2747%2F1538-7216.48.4.383&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></span> ( disponible en ; véase el y la ).</ref>
|- id="55"
! id="56" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Idioma oficial
| id="59" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Chino mandarín<ref name="langlaw"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFGobierno_de_la_República_Popular_China19_de_septiembre_de_2005">Gobierno de la República Popular China (19 de septiembre de 2005). . ''Gov.cn'' (en inglés)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Law+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+on+the+Standard+Spoken+and+Written+Chinese+Language+%28Order+of+the+President+No.37%29&rft.au=Gobierno+de+la+Rep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.aulast=Gobierno+de+la+Rep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.date=19+de+septiembre+de+2005&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Gov.cn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.gov.cn%2Fenglish%2Flaws%2F2005-09%2F19%2Fcontent_64906.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
|- id="62"
! id="63" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Hablados
| id="65" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Lenguas de China
|- id="68"
! id="69" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Gentilicio
| id="72" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Chino, -na<ref><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFReal_Academia_Española">Real Academia Española. . ''Diccionario de la Real Academia Española''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Chino&rft.au=Real+Academia+Espa%C3%B1ola&rft.aulast=Real+Academia+Espa%C3%B1ola&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Diccionario+de+la+Real+Academia+Espa%C3%B1ola&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flema.rae.es%2Fdrae%2F%3Fval%3Dchino&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
|- id="74"
! id="75" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Forma de gobierno
| id="78" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Estado socialista de partido único con economía de mercado<ref name="CIA" />
|- class="mergedbottomrow" id="83"
! class="mergedbottomrow" id="84" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;Secretario general
| id="87" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Xi Jinping
|- class="mergedbottomrow" id="90"
! class="mergedbottomrow" id="91" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;Presidente
| id="94" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Xi Jinping
|- class="mergedbottomrow" id="97"
! class="mergedbottomrow" id="98" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;Premier
| id="101" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Li Keqiang
|- class="mergedbottomrow" id="104"
! class="mergedbottomrow" id="105" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;Presidente de la Asamblea
| id="108" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Zhang Dejiang
|- class="mergedbottomrow" id="111"
! class="mergedbottomrow" id="112" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022;&nbsp;Presidente de la Conferencia
| id="115" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Yu Zhengsheng
|- id="118"
! id="119" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Órgano legislativo
| id="122" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Asamblea Popular Nacional de China ]
|- id="124"
! id="125" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Historia<br />• Dinastía Xia<br />• Dinastía Qin<br />• República<br />• Guerra Civil<br />• Rep. Popular
| id="134" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
<br />2070 a. C.<br />221 a. C.<br />1 de enero de 1912<br />1927-1949<br />1 de octubre de 1949
|- id="146"
! id="147" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Superficie
| id="150" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Puesto 3.º
|- id="154"
! id="155" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Total
| id="157" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
9&nbsp;596&nbsp;960 <ref name="superficie"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFCIA">CIA. <span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 28 de febrero de 2017</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.au=CIA&rft.aulast=CIA&rft.btitle=China+-+Geograf%C3%ADa+-+Libro+Mundial+de+Hechos&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oratlas.com%2Flibro-mundial%2Fchina%2Fgeografia&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref> <sup class="reference" id="ficha_ref-1"></nowiki></span>]]</sup> km²
|- id="160"
! id="161" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Agua (%)
| id="163" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
2,8
|- id="165"
! id="166" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Fronteras
| id="169" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
22&nbsp;457 km<ref name="superficie" />
|- id="172"
! id="173" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Línea de costa
| id="176" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
14&nbsp;500 km <ref name="superficie" />
|- id="179"
! id="180" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Punto más alto
| id="183" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Everest ]
|- id="185"
! id="186" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Población total
| id="189" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Puesto 1.º
|- id="193"
! id="194" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Estimación
| id="196" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
1&nbsp;403&nbsp;500&nbsp;365<ref name="PB"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFNaciones_Unidas">. (en inglés)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.au=Naciones+Unidas&rft.aulast=Naciones+Unidas&rft.btitle=World+Population+Prospects+2017&rft.genre=book&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpopulation.un.org%2Fwpp%2FDataQuery%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>&nbsp;hab.&nbsp;(2016)
|- id="198"
! id="199" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Censo
| id="201" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
1&nbsp;339&nbsp;724&nbsp;852<ref name="groups"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFOficina_Nacional_de_Estadísticas_de_China28_de_abril_de_2011">Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas de China (28 de abril de 2011). (en inglés)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.au=Oficina+Nacional+de+Estad%C3%ADsticas+de+China&rft.aulast=Oficina+Nacional+de+Estad%C3%ADsticas+de+China&rft.btitle=Press+Release+on+Major+Figures+of+the+2010+National+Population+Census&rft.date=28+de+abril+de+2011&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stats.gov.cn%2Fenglish%2FNewsEvents%2F201104%2Ft20110428_26448.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>&nbsp;hab.&nbsp;(2010)
|- id="203"
! id="204" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Densidad&nbsp;<small>(est.</small><small>)</small>
| id="208" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
139,6&nbsp;hab./km²
|- id="210"
! id="211" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |PIB (PPA)
| id="215" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Puesto 1.º
|- id="219"
! id="220" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Total <small>(2018)</small>
| id="222" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
US$ 25,238 billones<ref name="imf2" />
|- id="225"
! id="226" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Per cápita
| id="229" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
US$ 18&nbsp;066<ref name="imf2" />
|- id="232"
! id="233" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |PIB (nominal)
| id="235" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Puesto 2.º
|- id="239"
! id="240" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Total <small>(2018)</small>
| id="242" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
US$ 14,092 billones<ref name="imf2"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREF"> (en inglés). Fondo Monetario Internacional<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.btitle=Data+%26+Statistics&rft.genre=book&rft.pub=Fondo+Monetario+Internacional&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.imf.org%2Fexternal%2Fdatamapper%2Fdatasets%2FWEO%2F1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
|- id="245"
! id="246" style="text-align:left;border:0;padding:1px 7px;font-weight:100;" scope="row" |&nbsp;&#x2022; Per cápita
| id="248" style="border:0;padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
US$ 10&nbsp;087<ref name="imf2" />
|- id="251"
! id="252" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |IDH (2017)
| id="255" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
<span title="Crecimiento">]</span> 0,752<ref name="IDH"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFPNUD14_de_septiembre_de_20178">PNUD (14 de septiembre de 20178). pnud, ed. (pdf) (en inglés). , <span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.au=PNUD&rft.aulast=PNUD&rft.btitle=Informe+sobre+Desarrollo+Humano+2018&rft.date=14+de+septiembre+de+20178&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Nueva+York%2C+Estados+Unidos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhdr.undp.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref> (86.º)&nbsp;–&nbsp;'''Alto'''
|- id="259"
! id="260" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Moneda
| id="263" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
Yuan o Renminbi (¥, CNY)<ref name="MON"><span class="citation web">. ''Universia.net''. Archivado desde el 8 de junio de 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Moneda+en+China&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Universia.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finternacional.universia.net%2Fasia-pacifico%2Fchina%2Fvivir%2Fmoneda%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
|- id="267"
! id="268" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Huso horario
| id="271" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
CST (UTC +8)<ref name="HH"><span class="citation web">. ''Universia.net''. Archivado desde el 6 de marzo de 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Husos+horarios+en+China&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Universia.net&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finternacional.universia.net%2Fasia-pacifico%2Fchina%2Fvivir%2Fhorarios%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
|- id="274"
! id="275" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Código ISO
| id="278" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
156 / CHN / CN
|- id="280"
! id="281" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Dominio internet
| id="284" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
<code>.cn</code>, <code>.中国</code> y<code>.中國 ]</code>
|- id="286"
! id="287" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Prefijo telefónico
| id="290" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
<code>+86</code>
|- id="292"
! id="293" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Prefijo radiofónico
| id="296" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
<small><code>+3HA-3UZ</code></small>
|- id="298"
! id="299" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Siglas país para aeronaves
| id="302" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
B, B-H, B-K, B-L, B-M
|- id="304"
! id="305" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Siglas país para automóviles
| id="308" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
CN
|- id="310"
! id="311" style="text-align:left;padding:1px 7px;;" scope="row" |Código del COI
| id="314" style="padding:1px 7px 1px 1px;" colspan="2" |
CHN ]
|- id="315"
| id="316" style="text-align:center;text-align:left;" colspan="3" |
<div class="NavFrame collapsed" id="317" style="border:none; padding: 0;">
<div align="left" class="NavHead" id="318" style="width:100%; background:transparent">Membresía</div><div class="NavContent" id="320" style="text-align:left;">BRICS, ONU,<ref name="ONU"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFOrganización_de_las_Naciones_Unidas">Organización de las Naciones Unidas. . ''UN.org''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Miembros&rft.au=Organizaci%C3%B3n+de+las+Naciones+Unidas&rft.aulast=Organizaci%C3%B3n+de+las+Naciones+Unidas&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=UN.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fes%2Fmembers%2F&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
APEC,<ref name="APEC"><span class="citation web">. ''Terra.com.pe''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=APEC+-+Pa%C3%ADses+participantes&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Terra.com.pe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.terra.com.pe%2Fnoticias%2Fapec%2Fpaises.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>
OMC,<ref name="omc"><span class="citation web" id="CITAREFOrganización_Mundial_del_Comercio">Organización Mundial del Comercio. . ''WTO.org''<span class="reference-accessdate">. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014</span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.atitle=Miembros&rft.au=Organizaci%C3%B3n+Mundial+del+Comercio&rft.aulast=Organizaci%C3%B3n+Mundial+del+Comercio&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=WTO.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wto.org%2Fspanish%2Fthewto_s%2Fwhatis_s%2Ftif_s%2Forg6_s.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>


G-8+5, G-20, Cons. Seguridad ONU<sup class="reference" id="ficha_ref-4"></nowiki></span>]]</sup></div>
There have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels.<ref name="poll">{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2003-12/08/content_288018.htm
</div>
| title=Beijingers Get Greater Poll Choices
|- id="333"
| accessdate=18 February 2007 |work=China Daily |year=2003}}</ref><ref name="Ref_p">Lohmar, Bryan; and Somwaru, Agapi; . 1 May 2006. USDA Economic Research Service. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref> However, the party retains effective control over government appointments: in the absence of meaningful opposition, the CPC wins by default most of the time. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.<ref name="Ref_q">. Associated Press via Highbeam (subscription required to see full article). 11 May 2002. Retrieved 1 February 2013.</ref><ref>Hasmath, R. (2012) " {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130920173311/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2012/nov/9/red-chinas-iron-grip-on-power/ |date=20 September 2013 }}", The Washington Times, 12 November, p. B4.</ref> Nonetheless, the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high, with 80–95% of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government, according to a 2011 survey.<ref>{{cite news|title=A Point Of View: Is China more legitimate than the West?|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-20178655|newspaper=BBC News|date=2 November 2012}}</ref>
| id="334" style="text-align:center;text-align:left;" colspan="3" |
# ] El área total de China es de 9&nbsp;572&nbsp;900 km² según la ''Enciclopedia Británica''.<ref><span class="citation web">.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fes.wikipedia.org%3ARep%C3%BAblica+Popular+China&rft.btitle=China&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2FEBchecked%2Ftopic%2F111803%2FChina&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988">&nbsp;</span></ref>


<br />
===Administrative divisions===
# ] Las estimaciones pueden variar según la fuente.
{{Main|Administrative divisions of China|Districts of Hong Kong|Municipalities of Macau}}
The People's Republic of China is divided into 22 ], five ], each with a designated minority group; four ]; and two ]s (SARs) which enjoy a degree of political autonomy. These 31 provincial-level divisions can be collectively referred to as "]", a term which usually excludes two SARs of ] and ]. Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions can be grouped into six regions, including ], ], ], ], ] and ].


<br />
China considers ] to be ], although Taiwan is governed by the ], which rejects the PRC's claim.<ref name="Ref_ap">Gwillim Law (2 April 2005). . Retrieved 15 April 2006.</ref> None of the divisions are recognized by the ROC government, which claims the entirety of the PRC's territory.
# ] El dominio <code>.cn</code> es para sitios chinos internacionales y <code>.中國</code> para sitios chinos nacionales.


<br />
{{PRC provinces big imagemap alt}}
# ] Miembro permanente.
{{PRC provinces small imagemap/province list}}{{-}}


<br />
===Foreign relations===
|- id="349"
{{Main|Foreign relations of China}}
| id="350" style="text-align:left;" colspan="3" |<div class="plainlinks" id="351" style="font-size: 0.85em">&#x5B;]&#x5D;</div>
] met with U.S. President ] and their wives at the Mar Lago resort in Florida]]
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 175 countries and maintains ]. Its ] is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries; it is thus the largest and most populous ]. In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the ].<ref name="Ref_r">Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070806100002/http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2004/08/22/2003199768 |date=6 August 2007 }}, ''The Taipei Times''.</ref> China was also a former member and leader of the ], and still considers itself an advocate for ].<ref name="Ref_2009">{{Cite news|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/90776/90883/6847341.html|title=China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent|date=21 December 2009|accessdate=20 August 2010|work=People's Daily}}</ref> Along with Brazil, Russia, India and South Africa, China is a member of the ] group of emerging major economies and hosted the group's ] at ], ] in April 2011.<ref>. BBC. 14 April 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.</ref>

] (SCO)<br/>{{legend2|#346733|Members}} {{legend2|#000080|Observers}} {{legend2|#800080|Dialogue partners}} {{legend2|#00A0A0|Observer applicants}} {{legend2|#00FF00|Disputed territories}}]]
Under its interpretation of the ], Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China. Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834
|title=Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report
|work=mysinchew.com
|date=12 January 2010
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150909170723/http://www.mysinchew.com/node/33834
|archivedate=9 September 2015
|df=
}}</ref> especially in the matter of armament sales.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article7010435.ece |work=The Times |location=London |date=1 February 2010
| title=China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations
| author=Macartney, Jane }}</ref>
]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier ]'s ], and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.<ref name="Keith">{{Cite book|last=Keith|first=Ronald C.|title=China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world|publisher=PlutoPress |pages=135–136}}</ref> This policy may have led China to support states that are ] or repressive by Western nations, such as ], North Korea and ].<ref>{{cite news|title=An Authoritarian Axis Rising? |url=http://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |newspaper=The Diplomat |date=29 June 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045110/http://thediplomat.com/2012/06/an-authoritarian-axis-rising/ |archivedate=16 December 2013 |df= }}</ref> China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.de/china-russia-launch-largest-ever-joint-military-exercise/a-16931106|title=China, Russia launch largest ever joint military exercise|work=Deutsche Welle|date=5 July 2013|accessdate=5 July 2013}}</ref> and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-18327632|title=Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit|publisher=BBC|date=5 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/20/world/middleeast/russia-and-china-veto-un-sanctions-against-syria.html|title=Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions|work=]|date=19 July 2012|accessdate=15 November 2012|first=Rick|last=Gladstone}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-21911842|title=Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'|publisher=BBC|date=23 March 2013|accessdate=23 March 2013}}</ref>

====Trade relations====
In recent decades, China has played an increasing role in calling for ]s and security pacts amongst its Asia-Pacific neighbours. China became a member of the ] (WTO) on 11 December 2001. In 2004, it proposed an entirely new ] (EAS) framework as a forum for regional security issues.<ref name="Ref_s">Dillon, Dana; and Tkacik, John, Jr.; . ''Policy Review''. December 2005 and January 2006. Issue No. 134. Retrieved 22 April 2006.</ref> The EAS, which includes ], India, Australia and New Zealand, held its inaugural summit in 2005. China is also a founding member of the ] (SCO), along with Russia and the Central Asian republics.

In 2000, the ] approved "permanent normal trade relations" (PNTR) with China, allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries.<ref>{{cite news|title=Clinton signs China trade bill|url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/|publisher=CNN|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090505165947/http://transcripts.cnn.com/2000/ALLPOLITICS/stories/10/10/clinton.pntr/|archivedate=5 May 2009|date=10 October 2000}}</ref> China has a significant ] with the United States, its most important export market.<ref name="Ref_w">"". BBC News. 14 October 2010.</ref> In the early 2010s, US politicians argued that the ] was significantly undervalued, giving China an unfair trade advantage.<ref name="Ref_x">"". BBC News. 13 April 2010.</ref><ref name="CurrencyManipulator">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2012/09/24/us-usa-campaign-romney-china-idUSBRE88N12M20120924|title=Obama should call China a currency manipulator: Romney aide|publisher=Reuters|date=24 September 2012|accessdate=6 October 2012|first=Doug|last=Palmer}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-20518490|title=US says China not a currency manipulator|publisher=BBC|date=27 November 2012|accessdate=28 November 2012}}</ref> In recent decades, China has followed a policy of ] for trade and bilateral co-operation;<ref name="Ref_ae">McLaughlin, Abraham; {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816123236/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0330/p01s01-woaf.html |date=16 August 2007 }}. '']''. 30 March 2005.</ref><ref name="Ref_af">Lyman, Princeton N.; {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070715183929/http://www.cfr.org/publication/8436/ |date=15 July 2007 }}. 21 July 2005. Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved 26 June 2007.</ref><ref name="Ref_ag">Politzer, Malia. . Migration Information Source. August 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2013.</ref> in 2012, Sino-African trade totalled over US$160 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-12/28/content_16063967.htm |title=China-Africa trade likely to hit record high |work=China Daily |date=28 December 2012 |accessdate=29 January 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231061457/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2012-12/28/content_16063967.htm |archivedate=31 December 2012 |df= }}</ref> China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies, becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with ].<ref>. ].com. 24 August 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref><ref>. ].com. 9 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref>

China has the ] in the world. According to ], China is planning to reduce the average tariff rate on imports from its trading partners by October 2018. In July 2018, China had also cut import tariffs on approximately 1,500 consumer products so as to open up the economy of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-china-tariffs/china-plans-import-tariff-cuts-as-soon-as-october-bloomberg-idUSKCN1M00MU?il=0|title=China plans import tariff cuts as soon as October: Bloomberg|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=20 September 2018}}</ref>

In September 2018, the US announced that it would increase tariffs on US$250 billion of goods from China, from 10% to 25%, leading China to also increase tariffs on US$110 billion of products from the US.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/12/02/trump-hails-trade-deal-with-china-as-one-of-the-largest-ever-made.html |title=Trump hails trade deal with China as one of the largest ever made December 2, 2018|website=CNBC|date=December 2, 2018}}</ref> In early December, however, there was a temporary reprieve in the ]. During a dinner at the ], ] and Xi Jinping agreed to delay the increases in tariffs for 90 days to allow time for negotiations of their trade disputes. ] told the news media that China had agreed to purchase "a very substantial" amount of soy beans and other agricultural, energy, industrial, and other products from the US. A Chinese spokesman provided fewer specifics but said that the "two heads of state reached consensus to halt the mutual increase of new tariffs" and that the country would increase its purchases from the US to "gradually ease the imbalance in two-way trade".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/dec/02/donald-trump-and-xi-jinping-declare-trade-truce-at-g20 |title=Donald Trump and Xi Jinping declare trade truce at G20|publisher=The Guardian|date=December 2, 2018}}</ref>

====Territorial disputes====
{{main|Foreign relations of China#International territorial disputes}}
{{See also|List of wars involving the People's Republic of China|Cross-Strait relations}}
].]]
Ever since its establishment after the second ], the PRC has claimed ] governed by the ] (ROC), a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan, as a part of its territory. It regards the ] as its ], ] and ] as a part of ] and islands the ROC controls in the ] as a part of ] and ]. These claims are controversial because of the complicated ], with the PRC treating the ] as one of its most important diplomatic principles.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7320.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130912132339/http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7320.html|archivedate=12 September 2013|title=Chinese Civil War|publisher=Cultural-China.com|quote=To this day, since no armistice or peace treaty has ever been signed, there is controversy as to whether the Civil War has legally ended.|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref>

In addition to Taiwan, China is also involved in other international territorial disputes. Since the 1990s, China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders, including a ] and an undefined border with ]. China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas, such as the ] and the ].<ref>. BBC. 12 May 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Q&A: China-Japan islands row|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-pacific-11341139|publisher=BBC News |date=27 November 2013}}</ref> On 21 May 2014 ], speaking at a conference in Shanghai, pledged to settle China's territorial disputes peacefully. "China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests", he said.<ref name="TerritorialDisputes">{{cite news|title=Asian nations should avoid military ties with third party powers, says China's Xi|url=http://www.chinanationalnews.com/index.php/sid/222207019/scat/9366300fc9319e9b/ht/Asian-nations-should-avoid-military-ties-with-third-party-powers-says-Chinas-Xi|accessdate=21 May 2014|publisher=''China National News''}}</ref>

====Emerging superpower status====
China is regularly hailed as a ], with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress, growing military might, very large population, and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a ] in the 21st century.<ref name="ChinaFuture"/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/18/china-birth-of-superpower|title=China: witnessing the birth of a superpower|work=The Guardian|date=18 June 2012|accessdate=6 March 2013|location=London|first=Jonathan|last=Watts}}</ref> Others, however, warn that ] and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China's growth as the century progresses.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2007/s6_29.asp
|title=China's utterly distorted economy is a train wreck waiting to happen
|work=World Tribune
|last=Sanders
|first=Sol
|date=29 June 2007
|accessdate=27 March 2009
|deadurl=yes
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090810164743/http://www.worldtribune.com/worldtribune/WTARC/2007/s6_29.asp
|archivedate=10 August 2009
|df=
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/138219/ruchir-sharma/broken-brics|title=Broken BRICs: Why the Rest Stopped Rising|work=]|date=November 2012|accessdate=19 December 2012}}</ref>
Some authors also question the definition of "superpower", arguing that China's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower, and noting that it lacks the military power and cultural influence of the United States.<ref>Grinin, Leonid. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115173055/http://www.sociostudies.org/journal/articles/140670/ |date=15 January 2013 }}. ''Journal of Globalization Studies''. Volume 2, Number 2. November 2011. Retrieved 1 November 2012.</ref>

===Sociopolitical issues, human rights and reform===
{{see also|Human rights in China|Hukou system|Social welfare in China|Elections in China|Censorship in China|Feminism in China}}
] laureate ] who died of organ failure while in government custody in 2017]]
The ], social activists, and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform. While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s, ] is still tightly restricted. The ] states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include ], ], the ], ], ], and ]. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.<ref name="books.google">{{cite book|first=Guy |last=Sorman |year= 2008 |title= Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century |pages=46, 152 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=aRaLevXMZf4C&pg=PA46|isbn=978-1-59403-284-4}}</ref><ref name="hrw">{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2009/china |title=World Report 2009: China|publisher=Human Rights Watch |accessdate=14 July 2009}}</ref> Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling ] are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information, most notably on the Internet,<ref>. AP via My Way News. 28 December 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2012.</ref><ref name="AnonymousNoMore">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/29/world/asia/china-toughens-restrictions-on-internet-use.html|title=China Toughens Its Restrictions on Use of the Internet|work=New York Times|date=28 December 2012|first=Keith|last=Bradsher}}</ref> are routinely used to prevent collective action.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=King, Gary |author2=Pan, Jennifer |author3=Roberts, Margaret E.|url=http://gking.harvard.edu/files/gking/files/censored.pdf|title=How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression|journal=American Political Science Review|date=May 2013|doi=10.1017/S0003055413000014|accessdate=6 March 2015|quote=Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party. |volume=107 |issue=2 |pages=326–343}}</ref> In 2005, ] ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index, indicating a very low level of press freedom.<ref name="rsf.org-554">{{cite web|url=http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080419011906/http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554|archivedate=19 April 2008 |title=Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index – 2005 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=30 April 2009 |accessdate=14 July 2009}}</ref> In 2014, China ranked 175th out of 180 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking/2014|title=World Press Freedom Index 2014|publisher=Reporters Without Borders|accessdate=10 March 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214120404/http://rsf.org/index2014/en-index2014.php|archivedate=14 February 2014 }}</ref>

Rural migrants to China's cities often find themselves treated as ]s by the ''hukou'' ] system, which controls access to ].<ref name="ruralmillions">{{Cite news|last=Wingfield |first=Rupert |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4782194.stm |title=China's rural millions left behind |publisher=BBC |date=7 March 2006 |accessdate=14 July 2009}}</ref><ref name="hukou">{{Cite news|last=Luard |first=Tim |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4424944.stm |title=China rethinks peasant apartheid |publisher=BBC |date=10 November 2005 |accessdate=14 July 2009}}</ref> Property rights are often poorly protected,<ref name="ruralmillions"/> and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens.<ref name="hukou"/> However, a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s, and additional social services provided to rural dwellers.<ref name="Ni2005">{{Cite news|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2005/dec/30/world/fg-agtax30 |title=China to Abolish Contentious Agricultural Levy|work=Los Angeles Times |date=30 December 2005 |accessdate=27 April 2010 | first=Ching-Ching | last=Ni}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2006">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6174847.stm |title= China ends school fees for 150m|publisher=BBC |date=13 December 2006 |accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref>

A number of foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and ]s also routinely criticize ], alleging widespread ] violations such as detention without trial, ],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://apnews.myway.com//article/20140109/DAB75AAG2.html|date=9 January 2014|author=Didi Tang|title=Forced abortion highlights abuses in China policy |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> forced confessions, ], restrictions of fundamental rights,<ref name="freedomhouse"/><ref name="XinBan2012"/> and ].<ref name="wp">{{cite news| url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/23/AR2008122302795.html | work=] | title=China's Capital Cases Still Secret, Arbitrary | first1=Maureen | last1=Fan | first2=Ariana Eunjung | last2=Cha | date=24 December 2008 | accessdate=16 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://ph.news.yahoo.com/amnesty-sees-hope-china-death-penalty-011032864.html|title=Amnesty sees hope in China on death penalty|work= Yahoo news|date=27 March 2012|accessdate=31 May 2015}}</ref> The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability", as was the case with the ].

]]]
] was first taught publicly in 1992. In 1999, when there were 70 million practitioners,<ref name=Faison>Seth Faison, , '']'', 27 April 1999</ref> the ] began, resulting in mass arrests, extralegal detention, and reports of torture and deaths in custody.<ref name=Amnesty2013>{{cite book|last1=Amnesty International |title=Changing the soup but not the medicine: Abolishing re-education through labor in China |date=Dec 2013 |location=London, UK |url=https://www.amnesty.nl/sites/default/files/public/rtl_briefing_dec_2013_asa_17_042_2013_final1.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201030906/https://www.amnesty.nl/sites/default/files/public/rtl_briefing_dec_2013_asa_17_042_2013_final1.pdf |archivedate=1 February 2016 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Mickey |last=Spiegel |url=http://hrw.org/reports/2002/china/ |title=Dangerous Meditation: China's Campaign Against Falungong |publisher=Human Rights Watch |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-56432-269-2|ref=harv}}</ref> The Chinese state is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in ] and ], including violent police crackdowns and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23081653|title=China 'moves two million Tibetans'|publisher=BBC|date=27 June 2013|accessdate=27 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23112177|title=Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang|publisher=BBC|date=29 June 2013|accessdate=29 June 2013}}</ref> At least 120,000 members of ] ] minority have been detained in mass ], termed "]", aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.<ref>{{cite news |title=China 'holding at least 120,000 Uighurs in re-education camps' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/25/at-least-120000-muslim-uighurs-held-in-chinese-re-education-camps-report |work=The Guardian |date=25 January 2018}}</ref> The state has even sought to control offshore reporting of tensions in Xinjiang, intimidating foreign-based reporters by detaining their family members.<ref>{{cite news|title=China detains relatives of U.S. reporters in apparent punishment for Xinjiang coverage|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/china-detains-relatives-of-us-reporters-in-apparent-punishment-for-xinjiang-coverage/2018/02/27/4e8d84ae-1b8c-11e8-8a2c-1a6665f59e95_story.html|last=Denyer|first= Simon |date=28 February 2018|access-date=4 March 2018|newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref>

The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights, and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country's present level of ].<ref name="yqlgro">. Gov.cn. July 2005. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref> It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese ], ], and average ] since the 1970s, as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial ] floods.<ref name="yqlgro"/><ref>. '']''. 30 January 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2012.</ref><ref name="Ref_ao">. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. 11 December 2003. Retrieved 28 April 2006.</ref> Furthermore, some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization, although ].<ref>. '']''. 13 October 2010. Retrieved 6 July 2013.</ref> Some major reform efforts have been conducted. For instance, in November 2013 the government announced plans to relax the one-child policy and abolish the much-criticized ] program,<ref name=SlateChina2013>{{cite web|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2013/11/15/china_reforms_one_child_policy_little_siblings_coming.html |title=China ends one child policy |work=Slate |date=15 November 2013 |accessdate=16 November 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116010541/http://www.slate.com/blogs/moneybox/2013/11/15/china_reforms_one_child_policy_little_siblings_coming.html |archivedate=16 November 2013 |df= }}</ref> although human rights groups note that reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic.<ref name=Amnesty2013/> During the 2000s and early 2010s, the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical, efficient solutions to social problems, but such "third sector" activity remained heavily regulated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dandc.eu/articles/220672/index.en.shtml |title=Service providers wanted|work=Development and Cooperation|date=2 August 2012|accessdate=11 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.routledge.com/books/details/9780415640725/|title=The Chinese Corporatist State: Adaption, Survival and Resistance|last=|first=|last2=|first2=|date=2013|publisher=Routledge|year=|isbn=9780415640725|editor-last=Hsu|editor-first=Jennifer|location=|page=124|pages=|language=en|quote=|editor2-last=Hasmath|editor2-first=Reza|via=}}</ref>

According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 3,388,400 people are enslaved in modern-day China, or 0.25% of the population.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kevin Bales|first1=et al|title=China|url=https://www.globalslaveryindex.org/country/china/|website=The Global Slavery Index 2016|publisher=The Minderoo Foundation Pty Ltd|accessdate=13 March 2018}}</ref> State-sponsored slavery is part of the Chinese penal system, and there are over a thousand slave labour prisons and camps, known collectively as the Laogai. Prisoners are not paid at all, and need their families to send money to them. Prisoners who refuse to work are beaten, and some are beaten to death. Many of the prisoners are political or religious dissidents, and some are recognized internationally as prisoners of conscience. "Laogai" in Chinese means forced labour and reform. A Chinese president said that they want to see two products coming out of the prisons: the man who has been reformed, and the product made by the man. Harry Wu, himself a former prisoner of the Laogai, filmed undercover footage of the Laogai, and was charged with stealing state secrets. For this, Harry Wu was sentenced to 15 years in prison, but only served 66 days before being deported to the United States.<ref>{{cite news|title=Prison slaves: China is the world's factory, but does a dark secret lurk behind this apparent success story?|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/slaverya21stcenturyevil/2011/10/2011101091153782814.html|accessdate=13 March 2018|publisher=Al Jazeera English|date=2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=CBS: 60 minutes Chinese Labor Camps with Harry Wu (1991)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DHVZO5PlFTM|website=Youtube}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese human rights campaigner Harry Wu dies: A former prisoner of conscience, Wu exposed the brutality of China's prison camps|url=https://www.ucanews.com/news/chinese-human-rights-campaigner-harry-wu-dies/75883|accessdate=13 March 2018|publisher=UCA News|date=April 27, 2016}}</ref>

==Military==
{{Main|Military history of China before 1911|People's Liberation Army}}
]
With 2.3 million active troops, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is the largest standing military force in the world, commanded by the ] (CMC).<ref name="Ref_abcdep">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20318047|title=The new generals in charge of China's guns|publisher=BBC|date=14 November 2012|accessdate=10 December 2012}}</ref> China has the second-biggest military reserve force, only behind ]. The PLA consists of the ] (PLAGF), the ] (PLAN), the ] (PLAAF), and the ] (PLARF). According to the Chinese government, China's military budget for 2017 totalled US$151,5 billion, constituting the ], although the ] with 1,3% of GDP is below world average.<ref name=SIPRI2014/> However, many authorities – including ] and the U.S. ] – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending, which is allegedly much higher than the official budget.<ref name=SIPRI2014>{{cite web|url=http://www.sipri.org/media/newsletter/essay/perlo-freeman-mar-2013 |title=Mar. 2014: Deciphering China's latest defence budget figures |publisher=] |date=March 2014 |accessdate=9 February 2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150209162900/http://www.sipri.org/media/newsletter/essay/perlo-freeman-mar-2013 |archivedate=9 February 2015 |df= }}</ref><ref name="Ref_abcdeq">. Defenselink.mil. Retrieved 27 November 2011.</ref>
] a ] and the ] commissioned into the ].]]

As a recognized ] state, China is considered both a major regional military power and a ].<ref name="Ref_abcder">Nolt, James H. . ''Asia Times''. 1999. Retrieved 15 April 2006.</ref> According to a 2013 report by the ], China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ]s, along with a number of ].<ref name="ChineseNukes">{{cite web|url=http://archive.defense.gov/pubs/2013_China_Report_FINAL.pdf|title=Military and Security Developments Involving the People's Republic of China 2013|publisher=US Secretary of Defense|format=PDF|year=2013|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref> However, compared with the other four ] Permanent Members, China has relatively limited ] capabilities.<ref name="Martin">{{cite web|first=Martin |last=Andrew |url=http://www.asianresearch.org/articles/2680.html |title=THE DRAGON BREATHES FIRE: CHINESE POWER PROJECTION |publisher=AsianResearch.org|date=18 August 2005 |accessdate=26 June 2013}}</ref> To offset this, it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s – its ] entered service in 2012,<ref name="J15Carrier"/><ref>{{cite web | title= China's first aircraft carrier completes sea trial | url= http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/video/2011-08/15/c_131050307.htm | publisher= Xinhua News Agency | date= 15 August 2011 | accessdate=15 August 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10000872396390444358804578017481172611110|title=China: Aircraft Carrier Now in Service|date=25 September 2012|accessdate=26 September 2012|work=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref> and it maintains a substantial fleet of ], including several ] ] and ] submarines.<ref>. '']''. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 16 October 2011.</ref> China has furthermore established a ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Japan-join-hands-to-break-Chinas-string-of-pearls/articleshow/20341060.cms|archiveurl=https://archive.fo/20161205170531/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-Japan-join-hands-to-break-Chinas-string-of-pearls/articleshow/20341060.cms|archivedate=5 December 2016|title=India, Japan join hands to break China's 'string of pearls'|work=Times of India|date=30 May 2013|accessdate=7 July 2013}}</ref>
] ] ] fighter aircraft]]

China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades, purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the ], and also manufacturing its own modern fighters, most notably the ], ] and the ], ], ], and ].<ref name="J15Carrier">{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/in-focus-long-march-ahead-for-chinese-naval-airpower-379419/|title=IN FOCUS: Long march ahead for Chinese naval airpower|publisher=Flightglobal.com|date=26 November 2012|accessdate=26 November 2012}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2009f">{{cite web |url=http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j10b.asp |title=J-10 |publisher=SinoDefence.com |date=28 March 2009 |accessdate=27 April 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921063158/http://www.sinodefence.com/airforce/fighter/j10b.asp |archivedate=21 September 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous ] and numerous ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2012-12/inside-chinas-secret-arsenal|title=Inside China's Secret Arsenal|work=]|date=20 December 2012|accessdate=20 December 2012}}</ref><ref> China-Defense. Retrieved 23 January 2011.</ref><ref name="Defense Update"> {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110102161458/http://www.defense-update.com/products/j/29122010_j-20.html |date=2 January 2011 }} Defense-Update.com. Retrieved 23 January 2011.</ref> ] and ] weaponry advances have increased the regional threat from the perspective of Japan as well as Washington.<ref>Washington Journal. (12 August 2015) "U.S. Military Approach toward China". Mark Perry, Politico writer, interview by Steve Scanlan, host. C-Span. Retrieved 12 August 2015. </ref><ref>Al Jazeera America Wire Service. (11 May 2015) Japan moves to boost role of military. Retrieved 12 August 2015. </ref> China has also updated its ground forces, replacing its ageing ]-derived ] inventory with numerous variants of the modern ], and upgrading its battlefield ] and ] systems to enhance its ] capabilities.<ref>. SinoDefence.com. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref> In addition, China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems,<ref name="Ref_abcdes">. SinoDefence.com. 2006. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref><ref name="Ref_2008e">{{cite book| chapter=HQ-19 (S-400) (China)|title=Jane's Weapons: Strategic |publisher=IHS |date=23 December 2008}}</ref> including ],<ref>. ] via ]. 20 January 2007. Retrieved 11 July 2013.</ref> ]s<ref>. New Pacific Institute. 25 July 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2012.</ref> and submarine-launched nuclear ICBMs.<ref name="WashTiNu">. '']''. 25 August 2011. Retrieved 16 October 2011.</ref> According to the ]'s data, China became the world's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010–14, an increase of 143 percent from the period 2005–09.<ref>{{cite web|title=The United States leads upward trend in arms exports, Asian and Gulf states arms imports up, says SIPRI|url=http://www.sipri.org/media/pressreleases/2015/at-march-2015|website=www.sipri.org|publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI)|accessdate=18 March 2015}}</ref> Chinese officials stated that spending on the military will rise to U.S. $173B in 2018.
{{clear}}

In August 2018, China tested its first ]. The China Academy of Aerospace Aerodynamics (CAAA) claims to have successfully conducted the test with the aircraft Starry Sky-2 that touched a speed of ] 6 - which is six times the speed of sound.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2018/08/07/china/china-hypersonic-aircraft-intl/index.html|title=China claims to have successfully tested its first hypersonic aircraft|accessdate=7 August 2018}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of China|Agriculture in China|List of Chinese administrative divisions by GDP}}
], 1990–2013. The rapid economic growth of China (blue) is readily apparent.<ref>{{cite web|title=World Bank World Development Indicators|url=http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=8 December 2014}}</ref>]]

China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED460052&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=ED460052|last=Dahlman|first= Carl J|last2= Aubert|first2=Jean-Eric |title=China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century. WBI Development Studies. World Bank Publications. |publisher=Institute of Education Sciences |accessdate=26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://piketty.pse.ens.fr/files/Maddison98.pdf |title=Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies. Accessed 2007. p.29 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=15 September 2017}}</ref> {{As of|2017}}, China has ] in terms of nominal GDP, totalling approximately US$12.014 trillion according to the ].<ref name="GDP IMF">{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2017&ey=2017&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C946%2C914%2C137%2C612%2C546%2C614%2C962%2C311%2C674%2C213%2C676%2C911%2C548%2C193%2C556%2C122%2C678%2C912%2C181%2C313%2C867%2C419%2C682%2C513%2C684%2C316%2C273%2C913%2C868%2C124%2C921%2C339%2C948%2C638%2C943%2C514%2C686%2C218%2C688%2C963%2C518%2C616%2C728%2C223%2C836%2C516%2C558%2C918%2C138%2C748%2C196%2C618%2C278%2C624%2C692%2C522%2C694%2C622%2C142%2C156%2C449%2C626%2C564%2C628%2C565%2C228%2C283%2C924%2C853%2C233%2C288%2C632%2C293%2C636%2C566%2C634%2C964%2C238%2C182%2C662%2C359%2C960%2C453%2C423%2C968%2C935%2C922%2C128%2C714%2C611%2C862%2C321%2C135%2C243%2C716%2C248%2C456%2C469%2C722%2C253%2C942%2C642%2C718%2C643%2C724%2C939%2C576%2C644%2C936%2C819%2C961%2C172%2C813%2C132%2C726%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C734%2C336%2C144%2C263%2C146%2C268%2C463%2C532%2C528%2C944%2C923%2C176%2C738%2C534%2C578%2C536%2C537%2C429%2C742%2C433%2C866%2C178%2C369%2C436%2C744%2C136%2C186%2C343%2C925%2C158%2C869%2C439%2C746%2C916%2C926%2C664%2C466%2C826%2C112%2C542%2C111%2C967%2C298%2C443%2C927%2C917%2C846%2C544%2C299%2C941%2C582%2C446%2C474%2C666%2C754%2C668%2C698%2C672&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=&pr.x=45&pr.y=14|title=World Economic Outlook Database|last=|first=|date=17 April 2018|website=|publisher=]|archive-url=|archive-date=|dead-url=|quote=Note: figures exclude ], and ] of ] and ].}}</ref> In terms of ] (PPP) GDP, China's economy is the largest in the world, with a 2014 PPP GDP of US$17.632 trillion.<ref name="imf2" /> In 2013, its PPP GDP per capita was US$12,880, while its nominal GDP per capita was US$7,589. Both cases put China ] (out of 183 countries on the IMF list) in global GDP per capita rankings.<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=55&pr.y=9&sy=2014&ey=2014&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=924&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC&grp=0&a=|title=Estimates for 2014 nominal GDP|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2014|accessdate=10 February 2015}}</ref>
], ] and ]]]

A survey by ] and ] showed that in 2017 China produced billionaires at the rate of two a week. The number of billionaires increased in China from 318 to 373.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-45989908|title=China 'creates two billionaires a week'|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=26 October 2018}}</ref>

===Economic history and growth===
{{main|Economic history of China (1949–present)}}

From its founding in 1949 until late 1978, the People's Republic of China was a Soviet-style centrally ]. Following Mao's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the ], ] and the new Chinese leadership began to ] and move towards a more market-oriented ] under one-party rule. ] was dismantled and farmlands privatized, while foreign trade became a major new focus, leading to the creation of ]s (SEZs). Inefficient ] (SOEs) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright, resulting in massive job losses. Modern-day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership,<ref name="english.eastday">{{cite web|url=http://english.eastday.com/e/ICS/u1a4035916.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090909205947/http://english.eastday.com/e/ICS/u1a4035916.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date= 9 September 2009 |title=China is already a market economy—Long Yongtu, Secretary General of Boao Forum for Asia |publisher=EastDay.com |year=2008 |accessdate=14 July 2009 |df= }}</ref> and is one of the leading examples of ].<ref>. Vahan Janjigian. ''Forbes''. 22 March 2010. Retrieved 11 July 2013.</ref><ref>. Gady Epstein. ''Forbes''. 31 August 2010. Retrieved 11 July 2013.</ref> The state still dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and ], but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30&nbsp;million private businesses recorded in 2008.<ref name="Ref_abf">John Lee. . The Center for Independent Studies. 26 July 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2013.</ref><ref name="Englishpeopledailycomcn2005">{{cite web|author=English@peopledaily.com.cn |url=http://english.people.com.cn/200507/13/eng20050713_195876.html |title=People.com |work=People |date=13 July 2005 |accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2005a">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_34/b3948478.htm |title=Businessweek.com |work=BusinessWeek |date=22 August 2005 |accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ref_abg">{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |title=Microsoft Word – China2bandes.doc |format=PDF |publisher=OECD|accessdate=27 April 2010|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010154017/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/16/3/36174313.pdf |archivedate=2015}}</ref>

] in ]]]

Since economic liberalization began in 1978, China has been among the world's fastest-growing economies,<ref>{{cite web|title=China's Economic Rise: History, Trends, Challenges, and Implications for the United States |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33534.pdf|publisher=Congressional Research Service |date=5 September 2013 }}</ref> relying largely on investment- and export-led growth.<ref name="chinadaily">{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-11/21/content_7228346.htm|title=China must be cautious in raising consumption|work=China Daily |accessdate=8 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Exports of goods and services (% of GDP)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS?locations=CN|website=World Bank|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Foreign direct investment, net inflows (% of GDP)|title=World Bank|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.KLT.DINV.WD.GD.ZS?locations=CN|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> According to the IMF, China's ] between 2001 and 2010 was 10.5%. Between 2007 and 2011, China's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the ] countries' growth combined.<ref>{{cite news|last=Walker |first=Andrew |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13802453 |title=Will China's Economy Stumble? |publisher=BBC |date=16 June 2011 |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> According to the ] index announced by ] in February 2011, China has a very high 3G growth rating.<ref>{{cite web|author=Joe Weisenthal|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/willem-buiter-3g-countries-2011-2?slop=1 |title=3G Countries |publisher=Businessinsider.com |date=22 February 2011 |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> Its high productivity, low labor costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing. However, the Chinese economy is highly energy-intensive and inefficient;<ref name="China Quick Facts">{{cite web|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/CHINAEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20680895~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:318950,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051217221558/http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/EASTASIAPACIFICEXT/CHINAEXTN/0%2C%2CcontentMDK%3A20680895~pagePK%3A1497618~piPK%3A217854~theSitePK%3A318950%2C00.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=17 December 2005 |title=China Quick Facts |publisher=] |accessdate=26 July 2008 |df= }}</ref> China became the world's largest ] in 2010,<ref name="Swartz2010">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748703720504575376712353150310|title=China Becomes World's Biggest Energy Consumer|date=19 July 2010|work=Wall Street Journal |accessdate=19 July 2010 | first1=Spencer | last1=Swartz | first2=Shai | last2=Oster}}</ref> relies on coal to supply over 70% of its energy needs, and surpassed the US to become the world's largest oil importer in September 2013.<ref name="BusInsEnergyGuide">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/china-energy-use-2012-8?op=1|title=The Ultimate Guide To China's Voracious Energy Use|work=Business Insider|date=17 August 2012|accessdate=12 December 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=China overtakes US as the biggest importer of oil|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24475934|accessdate=11 October 2013|publisher=BBC|date=10 October 2013}}</ref> In the early 2010s, China's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles, weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-19975112|title=China's economy slows but data hints at rebound|publisher=BBC|date=18 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2013-06-24/china-loses-control-of-its-frankenstein-economy|title=China Loses Control of Its Frankenstein Economy|publisher=]|date=24 June 2013|accessdate=25 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://fortune.com/2013/07/15/the-lowdown-on-chinas-slowdown-its-not-all-bad/ |title=The lowdown on China's slowdown: It's not all bad |publisher=CNN Money|date=15 July 2013 |accessdate=16 July 2013}}</ref>
] building in ]'s ] financial district. Shanghai has the ] in the world, totalling US$304 billion in 2011<ref>. ''China Daily''. 20 January 2012. Retrieved 15 April 2012.</ref>]]
In recent years, government claimed growth numbers have come under increased scrutiny, with both non-Chinese financial and economic observes as well as Chinese government officials claiming the government has been inflating its economic output. Examples include, the provincial government in ] publicly admitted that the government has been ] when publishing it's economic data from 2011 to 2014, making an overclaim of over 20%. ]'s trillion yuan GDP claim for 2016, was in fact a third lower, at 665 billion yuan ($103 billion).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-04-19/china-s-economic-stats-have-a-credibility-problem|title=China’s Economic Numbers Have a Credibility Problem|date=19 April 2018|publisher=|via=www.bloomberg.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Post Magazine |url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2063906/can-you-still-trust-chinas-economic-data-after-province-admits |title=Can you still trust China’s economic data after province admits cooking books? &#124; South China Morning Post |publisher=Scmp.com |date=2017-08-23 |accessdate=2018-08-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scmp.com/news/china/economy/article/2128484/why-chinese-officials-are-suddenly-coming-clean-over-cooking|title=Why Chinese officials are coming clean over cooking the books|publisher=}}</ref> Regarding the credibility of official data, ] has been quoted as saying the GDP numbers are "man-made" and unreliable and should be used "for reference only".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2015/11/02/is-china-cooking-the-books-on-economic-expansion|title=Is China Cooking the Books on Economic Expansion?|year=2015|work=Andrew Soergel,}}</ref> A ] survey of 64 select economists found that 96% of respondents think China's GDP estimates don't "accurately reflect the state of the Chinese economy.",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/wsj-survey-chinas-growth-statements-make-u-s-economists-skeptical-1441980001|title=WSJ Survey: China’s Growth Statements Make U.S. Economists Skeptical|first=Jeffrey|last=Sparshott|date=11 September 2015|publisher=|via=www.wsj.com}}</ref> while some analysts claim the Chinese growth rate is overstated by 2-3%.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blogs.wsj.com/economics/2015/09/11/what-do-u-s-economists-think-of-official-china-statistics-only-a-fool-would-believe-them/|title=What Do U.S. Economists Think of Official China Statistics? ‘Only a Fool Would Believe Them’|first=Jeffrey|last=Sparshott|date=11 September 2015|publisher=}}</ref>

In the online realm, China's ] industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US, with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards. According to ], the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion (US$660 billion) in 2012. The Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=China's Internet Giants Lead in Online Finance|url=http://www.thefinancialist.com/not-just-a-paypal-clone-chinas-internet-giants-chart-their-own-course/|work=The Financialist|publisher=Credit Suisse|accessdate=15 February 2014|author=John Watling|date=14 February 2014|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219223010/http://www.thefinancialist.com/not-just-a-paypal-clone-chinas-internet-giants-chart-their-own-course/|archivedate=19 February 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===China in the global economy===
{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left: 10px"
! style="text-align:center; background:#cfb;" colspan="2" |Share of world GDP (PPP)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=1980&ey=2023&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=513%2C273%2C223%2C564%2C924%2C456%2C644%2C536%2C429%2C582&s=PPPSH&grp=0&a=&pr.x=25&pr.y=10|title=Report for Selected Countries and Subjects|website=www.imf.org|language=en-US|access-date=2018-09-19}}</ref>
|-
! style="background:#cfb;"|Year
! style="background:#cfb;"|Share
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1980 || style="text-align:right;" |2.32%
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|1990 || style="text-align:right;" |4.11%
|-
|2000
| style="text-align:right;"|7.40%
|-
|2010
| style="text-align:right;"|13.89%
|-
| style="text-align:left;" |2017 || style="text-align:right;" |18.23%
|} |}
La '''República Popular China''' (en ]: 中华人民共和国 y en ]: ''Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó''), o simplemente '''China''' (en ]: 中国 y en ]: ''Zhōngguó''), es un ] situado en ]. Es el país ], con ], y la primera potencia económica mundial por ], en términos de ].<ref name="imf2" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.eleconomista.es/internacional/noticias/6142651/10/14/China-pasa-a-ser-la-primera-potencia-mundial-mientras-Espana-sigue-desinflandose.html#Kku8uTOQfHuk9xbf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.elmundo.es/economia/2014/10/08/54354d27268e3ee9448b4581.html}}</ref>
China is a member of the ] and is the world's largest trading power, with a total international trade value of US$3.87&nbsp;trillion in 2012.<ref name="ChinaBiggestTrader"/> ] reached US$2.85&nbsp;trillion by the end of 2010, an increase of 18.7% over the previous year, making its reserves by far the world's largest.<ref name="Ref_2009b">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087&sid=alZgI4B1lt3s |title=China's Foreign-Exchange Reserves Surge, Exceeding $2&nbsp;Trillion |date=15 July 2009 |work=] |accessdate=19 July 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613163056/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601087 |archivedate=13 June 2010 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://smetimes.tradeindia.com/smetimes/news/global-business/2011/Jan/11/china-s-forex-reserves-reach-usd-2.85-trillion624606.html |title=China's forex reserves reach USD 2.85 trillion |publisher=Smetimes.tradeindia.com |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> In 2012, China was the world's largest recipient of inward ] (FDI), attracting $253 billion.<ref name="FDI">{{cite web|title=FDI in Figures|url=http://www.oecd.org/daf/inv/FDI%20in%20figures.pdf|publisher=OECD|accessdate=28 November 2013}}</ref> In 2014, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dawn.com/news/1176411|title=Pakistan’s remittances|author=Sakib Sherani|work=dawn.com|accessdate=17 December 2015}}</ref> China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $62.4&nbsp;billion in 2012,<ref name="FDI"/> and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.<ref>{{cite news|title=Being eaten by the dragon|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17460954|newspaper=The Economist|date=11 November 2010}}</ref> In 2009, China owned an estimated $1.6&nbsp;trillion of US ],<ref name="Ref_2009c">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/bondsNews/idUSPEK16627420090820|title=China must keep buying US Treasuries for now-paper|agency=Reuters|accessdate=19 August 2009 | date=20 August 2009}}</ref> and was also the largest foreign holder of ], owning over $1.16 trillion in US ]s.<ref name="Ref_abe">. CNNMoney.com. 29 July 2009.</ref><ref name="Hornby2009">{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/newsOne/idUSTRE58M25U20090923|title=Factbox: US-China Interdependence Outweighs Trade Spat|publisher=Reuters|date=23 September 2009|accessdate=25 September 2009 | first=Lucy | last=Hornby}}</ref> China's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies,<ref name="CurrencyManipulator"/><ref name="Ref_2008">{{Cite news|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-01/11/content_6387775.htm|title=2007 trade surplus hits new record – $262.2B|date=11 January 2008|work=China Daily |accessdate=19 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2005">{{Cite news|url=http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/gyzg/t213645.htm|title=China widens yuan, non-dollar trading range to 3%|date=23 September 2005|accessdate=19 July 2010}}</ref> and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of ] goods.<ref>. Asia Business Council. September 2005. Retrieved 13 January 2012.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/cis/fpi_china.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214212158/http://web.mit.edu/CIS/fpi_china.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=14 February 2007 |title=MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index |accessdate=15 May 2010 |df= }}</ref> According to consulting firm ], total outstanding debt in China increased from $7.4 trillion in 2007 to $28.2 trillion in 2014, which reflects 228% of China's GDP.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.businessinsider.com/germanys-finance-minister-is-worried-about-chinas-debt-and-shadow-banking-2015-4|title =Germany's finance minister is worried about China's debt and shadow banking |date =16 April 2015 |publisher =Business Insider |last =Scutt |first =David }}</ref> In 2017 the Institute of International Finance reported that China's debt had reached 304% of its GDP.<ref>{{cite web|title=China's Debt Surpasses 300%|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/06/28/chinas-debt-surpasses-300-percent-of-gdp-iif-says-raising-doubts-over-yellens-crisis-remarks.html|accessdate=15 July 2017}}</ref>
La República Popular China es un Estado ] gobernado por el ] y tiene la sede de su gobierno en la capital, ].<ref name="Walton2001">{{cita Harvard|Walton|2001|p=5|sp=sí}}</ref>

Está dividida en ], ], ] —Pekín, ], ] y ]— y ] —] y ]—.<ref name="Ref_a">{{Cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration}}</ref> Asimismo, China reclama la que considera ], que es controlada por la ] con un ] controvertido.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7320.html}}</ref>
<div class="floatright">

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|-
| style="text-align:left; font-size:85%;" |Graph comparing the 2014 nominal GDPs<br/>of major economies in US$ billions (<small>]</small>)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2014/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=86&pr.y=1&sy=2012&ey=2019&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=924%2C132%2C134%2C158%2C111&s=NGDPD&grp=0&a=|title=Nominal GDP comparison of China, Germany, France, Japan and USA|work=World Economic Outlook|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=October 2014|accessdate=18 February 2015}}</ref>
|}
</div>

China ranked 29th in the ] in 2009,<ref name="Ref_abh"> World Economic Forum. Retrieved on 24 September 2009.</ref> although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 ].<ref>. The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 17 April 2011.</ref> In 2014, ''Fortune'''s ] list of the world's largest corporations included ], with combined revenues of ]5.8 trillion.<ref name=Fortune500>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/global500/|title=Global 500|year=2014|work=]|accessdate=27 January 2015}}</ref> The same year, '']'' reported that five of the world's ten largest ] were Chinese, including the ], the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/liyanchen/2014/05/07/the-worlds-largest-companies-china-takes-over-the-top-three-spots/|title=The World's Largest Companies: China Takes Over The Top Three Spots|work=]|date=7 May 2014|accessdate=27 January 2015}}</ref>

===Class and income inequality===
{{see also|Income inequality in China}}
China's middle-class population (if defined as those with annual income of between US$10,000 and US$60,000) had reached more than 300&nbsp;million by 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's growing middle class|url=http://money.cnn.com/2012/04/25/news/economy/china-middle-class/|newspaper=CNN|date=26 April 2012}}</ref> More than 75 percent of China's urban consumers are expected to earn between 60.000 and 229.000 RMB per year by 2022.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mapping China's middle class|url=https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/retail/our-insights/mapping-chinas-middle-class|website=McKinsey Quarterly|publisher=McKinsey|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> According to the ], the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012, giving China the world's second-highest number of billionaires.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/richest-people-china-got-poorer-says-hurun-rich-list-2012-795527|title=Richest People In China Got Poorer, Says Hurun Rich List 2012|publisher=Ibtimes|date=25 September 2012|accessdate=31 May 2015}}</ref><ref>. '']''. Retrieved 7 September 2011.</ref> China's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan (US$3.2 trillion) in 2012<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2013-01/18/content_16137193.htm|title=China retail sales growth accelerates|work=China Daily|date=18 January 2013|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref> and is growing at over 12% annually {{As of|2013|lc=y}},<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globaltimes.cn/content/774919.shtml|title=China's retail sales up 12.4 pct in Q1|work=Global Times|date=15 April 2013|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref> while the country's luxury goods market has expanded immensely, with 27.5% of the global share.<ref name="Ref_abq">. ''China Daily''. 3 March 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2010.</ref> However, in recent years, China's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation,<ref>. ''BusinessWeek''. 14 October 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref><ref>. ]. 16 April 2008. Retrieved 18 October 2011.</ref> leading to increased government regulation.<ref name="FT9.1">. '']''. 18 October 2011. Retrieved 16 July 2013.</ref> China has a high level of economic inequality,<ref>{{cite news|title=Income inequality on the rise in China|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2012/12/2012122311167503363.html|newspaper=Al Jazeera|date=12 January 2013}}</ref> which has increased in the past few decades.<ref>{{cite news|title=Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-13945072|newspaper=BBC News|date=29 June 2011}}</ref> In 2012, China's official ] was 0.474.<ref name=gini>{{cite news |title=Income inequality: Delta blues |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/analects/2013/01/income-inequality |work=The Economist |date=23 January 2013 |accessdate=23 January 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Gini coefficient in China: inequality of income distribution in China from 2005 to 2016|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/250400/inequality-of-income-distribution-in-china-based-on-the-gini-index|website=Statista|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> A study conducted by ] showed that China's Gini coefficient actually had reached 0.61 in 2012, and top 1% Chinese held more than 25% of China's wealth.<ref>, '']'', 24 March 2017</ref>

===Internationalization of the renminbi===
{{main|Internationalization of the renminbi}}

Following the 2008 global financial crisis, China realized the dependency on the US Dollar and the weakness of the international monetary system.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/cato-journal/2013/9/cjv33n3-18.pdf|title = Does Internationalizing the RMB Make Sense for China?|last = Huang|first = Yukon|date = Fall 2013|journal = Cato Journal|accessdate = 28 July 2014|doi = }}</ref> The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China established ] market and expanded the Cross-Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project, which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.hkma.gov.hk/eng/key-information/insight/20140218.shtml|title = Hong Kong as Offshore Renminbi Centre – Past and Prospects|date = 18 February 2014|accessdate = 24 July 2014|website = |publisher = HKMA|last = Chan|first = Norman T.L.}}</ref><ref>"RMB Settlement", Kasikorn Research Center, Bangkok, 8 February 2011</ref> In November 2010, Russia began using the ] in its bilateral trade with China.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sidestepping the U.S. Dollar, a Russian Exchange Will Swap Rubles and Renminbi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/15/business/global/15iht-ruble15.html|work=]|accessdate=10 October 2013|first=Andrew E.|last=Kramer|date=14 December 2010}}</ref> This was soon followed by ],<ref>{{cite web|last=Kosuke Takahashi|title=Japan, China bypass US in currency trade|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Japan/NF02Dh01.html|publisher=]|accessdate=16 October 2013}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|title=China and Australia Announce Direct Currency Trading|url=http://ministers.treasury.gov.au/DisplayDocs.aspx?doc=pressreleases/2013/044.htm&pageID=&min=wms&Year=&DocType=0|quote=Direct trading between the two currencies will commence on the China Foreign Exchange Trade System (CFETS) and the Australian foreign exchange market on 10 April 2013.|publisher=]|accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref> ],<ref name="massg">{{cite web|title=New Initiatives to Strengthen China-Singapore Financial Cooperation|url=http://www.mas.gov.sg/news-and-publications/media-releases/2013/new-initiatives-to-strengthen-china-singapore-financial-cooperation.aspx|publisher=]|accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref> the ],<ref>{{cite web|title=Chancellor George Osborne cements London as renminbi hub|url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/9579f608-356e-11e3-b539-00144feab7de.html|publisher='']''|quote= The two countries agreed to allow direct renminbi-sterling trading in Shanghai and offshore, making the pound the fourth currency to trade directly against the renminbi, while Chinese banks will be permitted to set up branches in London.}}</ref> and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Bank of Canada announces signing of reciprocal 3-year Canadian dollar/renminbi bilateral swap arrangement|url=http://bankofcanada.ca/2014/11/bofc-announces-signing-reciprocal-bilateral-swap|quote=As part of the initiative announced today by the Government of Canada to promote increased trade and investment between Canada and China, as well as to support domestic financial stability should market conditions warrant, Governor Stephen S. Poloz and Governor Zhou Xiaochuan of the People's Bank of China have signed an agreement establishing a reciprocal 3-year, Canadian dollar (Can$)/renminbi (RMB) currency swap line.|publisher=]|accessdate=11 November 2014}}</ref> As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi, it became the eighth-most-traded currency in the world in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=RMB now 8th most widely traded currency in the world|url=http://www.swift.com/about_swift/shownews?param_dcr=news.data/en/swift_com/2013/PR_RMB_september.xml|publisher=]|accessdate=10 October 2013}}</ref>

==Science and technology==
{{Main|Science and technology in China|Chinese space program|List of Chinese discoveries|List of Chinese inventions|History of science and technology in China}}

===Historical===
]'' of 1044 {{sc|ce}}.]]
China was once a world leader in science and technology up until the ]. Ancient ] and ], such as ], ], the ], and ] (the ]), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003hyd9|title=In Our Time: Negative Numbers|publisher=BBC|accessdate=19 June 2013}}</ref><ref>Struik, Dirk J. (1987). ''A Concise History of Mathematics''. New York: Dover Publications. p.32–33. "''In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history.''"</ref> By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.<ref>{{cite book|title=Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology |volume=179 |year=1996|publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers|pages=137–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jaQH6_8Ju-MC&pg=PA137|isbn=978-0-7923-3463-7}}</ref> The causes of this early modern ] continue to be debated by scholars to this day.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=Andre |authorlink=Andre Gunder Frank |title=Review of ''The Great Divergence'' |journal=Journal of Asian Studies |volume=60 |issue=1 |year=2001 |pages=180–182 |doi=10.2307/2659525 |url=http://www.rrojasdatabank.info/agfrank/pomeranz.html|jstor=2659525 }}</ref>

After repeated ] by the European colonial powers and ] in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the ]. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the ], in which scientific research was part of central planning.<ref>{{cite book|last=Yu|first=Q. Y.|title=The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy|year=1999|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IluWYKmTCN0C&pg=PA2|isbn=9781567203325}}</ref> After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology was established as one of the ],<ref>{{cite book|last=Vogel|first=Ezra F.|title=Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China|year=2011|publisher=Harvard University Press|page=129|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3IaR-FxlA6AC&pg=PA129|isbn=9780674055445}}</ref> and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.<ref>{{cite book|last=DeGlopper|first=Donald D.| chapter=Soviet Influence in the 1950s|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html|publisher=Library of Congress |title=China: a country study |year=1987}}</ref>

===Modern era===
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research,<ref name=CWRD>{{cite web|title=R&D share for basic research in China dwindles|url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/2014/09/research-development-rd-share-basic-research-china-dwindles|website=Chemistry World}}</ref> with $163 billion spent on scientific research and development in 2012.<ref name=BBERG10012014>{{cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-10-01/chinas-163-billion-r-and-d-budget|title=
A Peek Into the 'Black Box' of Where China’s Hefty R&D Budget Goes|work=Bloomberg|date=1 October 2014|accessdate=9 February 2017}}</ref> Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China's economic and political goals, and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as "techno-nationalism".<ref name="TeNat">{{cite journal|first1=David |last1=Kang |first2=Adam |last2=Segal |url=http://www.feer.com/articles1/2006/0603/free/p005.html |title=The Siren Song of Technonationalism |work=Far Eastern Economic Review |date=March 2006 |accessdate=18 April 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310055617/http://www.feer.com/articles1/2006/0603/free/p005.html |archivedate=10 March 2013 }}</ref> Nonetheless, China's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States and Japan.<ref name=CWRD/><ref name=BBERG10012014 /> Chinese-born scientists have won the ] four times, the ] and ] once respectively, though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel-winning research in western nations.{{efn|],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957">{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/ |title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957 |publisher=Nobel Media AB |accessdate=26 July 2014}}</ref> ],<ref name="Nobel Physics 1957"/> ],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1998/|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2009/|accessdate=6 December 2013}}</ref> ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html |title=Yuan T. Lee – Biographical |accessdate=6 December 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109222305/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1986/lee-bio.html |archivedate=9 November 2013 |df= }}</ref> ]<ref>{{cite web |title = Nobel Prize announcement |url = https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2015/press.pdf |publisher = ] |website = NobelPrize.org |accessdate = 5 October 2015}}</ref>}}
], one of the first Chinese spaceport]]
China is developing its education system with an emphasis on ]; in 2009, China graduated over 10,000 Ph.D. engineers, and as many as 500,000 ] graduates, more than any other country.<ref> CNN. 29 July 2009. Retrieved 9 April 2012.</ref> China is also the world's second-largest publisher of ], producing 121,500 in 2010 alone, including 5,200 in leading international scientific journals.<ref>. Xinhua. 2 December 2011. Retrieved 25 April 2012.</ref> Chinese technology companies such as ] and ] have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/21559922|title= Who's afraid of Huawei?|work=]|date=4 August 2012|accessdate=11 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nst.com.my/latest/shares-in-china-s-lenovo-rise-on-profit-surge-1.126374#|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120817214737/http://www.nst.com.my/latest/shares-in-china-s-lenovo-rise-on-profit-surge-1.126374|dead-url=yes|archive-date=17 August 2012|title=Shares in China's Lenovo rise on profit surge|work=]|date=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-19906119|title=Lenovo ousts HP as world's top PC maker, says Gartner|publisher=BBC|date=11 October 2012}}</ref> and Chinese ]s are consistently ranked among the ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-22936989|title=China retakes supercomputer crown|publisher=BBC|date=17 June 2013|accessdate=18 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/news/9672501/Titan-supercomputer-is-worlds-most-powerful.html|title='Titan' supercomputer is world's most powerful|work=]|date=12 November 2012|accessdate=13 November 2012|location=London|first=Christopher|last=Williams}}</ref> China is also expanding its use of industrial ]s; from 2008 to 2011, the installation of multi-role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90778/8079468.html|title=Robots to boost China's economy|work=]|date=6 January 2013|accessdate=29 January 2013}}</ref>

The ] is one of the world's most active, and is a major source of national pride.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2012/04/china-rocket-launches/|title=China Now Tops U.S. in Space Launches|work=]|date=16 April 2012|accessdate=24 October 2012|first=David|last=Axe}}</ref><ref>David Eimer, . ''Daily Telegraph''. 5 November 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2013.</ref> In 1970, China launched its first satellite, ], becoming the fifth country to do so independently.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/china-00u.html |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160515110247/http%3A//www.spacedaily.com/news/china%2D00u.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=15 May 2016 |title=China Celebrates 30th Anniversary Of First Satellite Launch |last=Long |first=Wei |publisher=Space daily |date=25 April 2000 }}</ref> In 2003, China became the third country to independently send humans into space, with ]'s spaceflight aboard ]; {{As of|2015|lc=y}}, ] have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China's first space station module, ], was launched, marking the first step in a project to assemble ] by the early 2020s.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-15112760|title= Rocket launches Chinese space lab|publisher=BBC|date=29 September 2011|accessdate=20 May 2012}}</ref> In 2013, China successfully landed the ] lander and ] rover onto the lunar surface; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rincon |first=Paul |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-25356603 |title=China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon |publisher=BBC News |date=14 December 2013 |accessdate=26 July 2014}}</ref> In 2016, China's 2nd space station module, ], was launched from&nbsp;]&nbsp;aboard a&nbsp;]&nbsp;rocket on 15 September 2016. Then ]&nbsp;successfully docked with Tiangong-2 on 19 October 2016.

==Infrastructure==

===Telecommunications===
{{main|Telecommunications in China}}
]
China currently has the ] of any country in the world, with over 1 billion users by February 2012.<ref>{{cite news|title=China Mobile Phone Users Now Top One Billion|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/russellflannery/2012/03/30/china-mobile-phone-users-now-exceed-one-billion/|newspaper=Forbes|date=30 March 2012|first=Russell|last=Flannery}}</ref> It also has the world's largest number of ] and ],<ref name="Barboza2008">{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/07/26/business/worldbusiness/26internet.html |title=China Surpasses US in Number of Internet Users |work=New York Times |date= 26 July 2008|accessdate=26 July 2008 | first=David | last=Barboza}}</ref> with over 688 million internet users {{As of|2016|lc=y}}, equivalent to around half of its population.<ref name="InternetSpeed">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/06/04/world/asia/china-internet-speed.html |title=China's Internet Speed Ranks 91st in the World |work=New York Times |date= 3 June 2016}}</ref> The national average broadband connection speed is 9.46 Mbit/s, ranking China 91st in the world in terms of internet speed.<ref name="InternetSpeed"/> {{as of|2013|July}}, China accounts for 24% of the world's internet-connected devices.<ref>{{cite web|title=China Report: Device and App Trends in the #1 Mobile Market|url=http://www.vaidis.com/2013/07/china-report-device-and-app-trends-in-the-1-mobile-market/|publisher=Vaidis.com|date=25 July 2013|accessdate=31 May 2015}}</ref> Since 2011 China is the nation with the most installed telecommunication bandwidth in the world. By 2014, China hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential than the U.S., the historical leader in terms of installed telecommunication bandwidth (China: 29% versus US:13% of the global total).<ref name="HilbertBitsDivide">{{Cite journal|last=Hilbert|first=Martin|date=June 2016|title=The bad news is that the digital access divide is here to stay: Domestically installed bandwidths among 172 countries for 1986–2014|journal=Telecommunications Policy|volume=40|issue=6|pages=567–581|doi=10.1016/j.telpol.2016.01.006|issn=0308-5961}}</ref>

] and ], the world's two largest broadband providers, accounted for 20% of global broadband subscribers. China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers, while China Unicom serves more than 40 million.<ref name="Ref_abca">{{cite web|url=http://www.telegeography.com/cu/article.php?article_id=33858 |title=Broadband provider rankings: The Rise and Rise of China |publisher=Telegeography.com |date=28 July 2010 |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably ] and ], have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.<ref>{{cite news|title=Huawei, ZTE Provide Opening for China Spying, Report Says|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-10-07/huawei-zte-provide-opening-for-china-spying-report-says.html|publisher=]|date=8 October 2012|accessdate=26 October 2012}}</ref>

China is developing its own ] system, dubbed ], which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012,<ref name="CustomersDec2012">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-20852150|title=China's Beidou GPS-substitute opens to public in Asia|publisher=BBC|date=27 December 2012|accessdate=27 December 2012}}</ref> and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115173050/http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2012-04/27/content_15159105_3.htm |date=15 January 2013 }}. ''China Daily''. 27 April 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2013.</ref>

===Transport===
{{Main|Transport in China}}

] is one of the ].]]

Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of ] and ]. In 2011 China's highways had reached a total length of {{convert|85000|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}}, making it the ].<ref>{{cite news|title=Once China Catches Up—What Then?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/currentevents/2013/09/17/once-china-catches-up-what-then/|newspaper=Forbes|date=17 September 2013}}</ref> In 1991, there were only six bridges across the main stretch of the Yangtze River, which bisects the country into northern and southern halves. By October 2014, there were ].
China has the world's largest market for automobiles, having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and ]. Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13.6&nbsp;million<ref name="Ref_2010c">{{cite web|url=http://www.egmcartech.com/2010/01/08/china-auto-sales-officially-surpass-u-s-in-2009-13-6-million-vehicles-sold/ |title=China auto sales officially surpass US in 2009, 13.6&nbsp;million vehicles sold |publisher=Industry News |date=8 January 2010 |accessdate=14 May 2010}}</ref> and may reach 40 million by 2020.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/04/23/uk-autoshow-idUKBRE83M0NQ20120423|title=China premium car sector remains bright spot|publisher=Reuters|date=23 April 2012|accessdate=24 April 2012}}</ref> A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents,<ref>{{cite web|title=Road Traffic Accidents Increase Dramatically Worldwide|url=http://www.prb.org/Publications/Articles/2006/RoadTrafficAccidentsIncreaseDramaticallyWorldwide.aspx|publisher=Population Reference Bureau|accessdate=16 November 2013}}</ref> with ] cited as a possible cause—in 2011 alone, around 62,000 Chinese died in road accidents.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-19383337|title=Chinese bus collides with tanker, killing 36|publisher=BBC|date=26 August 2012|accessdate=28 August 2012}}</ref> In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – {{As of|2012|lc=y}}, there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China.<ref name="470MBikes" />
] is the 2nd-largest airport terminal in the world]]
], which are ], are among ], handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.<ref> 21 June 2007</ref><ref name="overcrowding">{{cite news|title=China's trains desperately overcrowded for Lunar New Year|url=http://seattletimes.com/html/travel/2008659473_webchinatrains22.html|newspaper=Seattle Times|date=22 January 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2013}}, the country had {{convert|103144|km|mi|0|abbr=on|sp=us}} of railways, the ].<ref name="2013 stats">{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142552/http://www.nra.gov.cn/fwyd/zlzx/hytj/201404/t20140410_5830.htm |publisher=] |script-title=zh:2013年铁道统计公报 |date=2014-04-10 |language=zh-hans}}</ref> All provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except ]. The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the ] holiday, when the ] takes place.<ref name="overcrowding"/> In 2013, Chinese railways delivered 2.106 billion passenger trips, generating 1,059.56 billion passenger-kilometers and carried 3.967 billion tons of freight, generating 2,917.4 billion cargo tons-kilometers.<ref name="2013 stats"/>

China's ] started construction in the early 2000s. Today it has over {{convert|19000|km|mi|0|abbr=off|sp=us}} of dedicated lines alone, a length that exceeds rest of the world's high-speed rail tracks combined,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/chinese-high-speed-network-to-double-in-latest-master-plan.html|title=Chinese high speed network to double in latest master plan|last=UK|first=DVV Media|newspaper=Railway Gazette|access-date=24 October 2016}}</ref> making it the ].<ref name="2013 HSR stat">{{cite web |url=http://business.sohu.com/20140305/n396105235.shtml |script-title=zh:中国高铁总里程达11028公里占世界一半 |website=] Business |date=5 March 2014 |language=zh-hans}}</ref> With an annual ridership of over 1.1 billion passengers in 2015 it is the world's busiest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2016-07/21/c_135530835.htm|title=China Exclusive: Five bln trips made on China's bullet trains – Xinhua {{!}} English.news.cn|website=news.xinhuanet.com|access-date=24 October 2016}}</ref> The network includes the ], the single longest HSR line in the world, and the ], which has ].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-20842836|title=China opens world's longest high-speed rail route|publisher=BBC|date=26 December 2012|accessdate=26 December 2012}}</ref> The HSR track network is set to reach approximately {{convert|16000|km|mi|abbr=on|sp=us}} by 2020.<ref name="AFPviaRaw">. ] via The Raw Story. 24 July 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2012.</ref> The ], which reaches {{convert|431|km/h|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, is the fastest commercial train service in the world.<ref> 29 August 2013</ref>
]]]
Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated. {{as of|2016|January}}, 26 Chinese cities have ] in operation and 39 more have metro systems approved<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-transport-investment-idUSKCN0Y70I1|title=China to let more cities build metro systems – Economic Information Daily|date=16 May 2016|newspaper=Reuters|access-date=24 October 2016}}</ref> with a dozen more to join them by 2020.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's Building Push Goes Underground|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303482504579177830819719254|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=10 November 2013|accessdate=16 November 2013}}</ref> The ], ], ], ] and ] are among the ] and ] in the world.
], also known as ''Fuxing Hao'', is an indigenous Chinese ] whose maximum operating speed reaches 350 km/h (217 mph)]]
There were ] with around 240 planned by 2020. More than two-thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China,<ref name="airlines">{{cite news | url=http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/epaper/2013-07/05/content_16733181.htm | title=Primed to be world leader | work=China Daily | date=5 July 2013|accessdate=18 November 2013}}</ref> and ] expects that China's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1,910 in 2011 to 5,980 in 2031.<ref name="airlines"/> With rapid expansion in ], the ] have also joined the ranks of the ]. In 2013, Beijing's ] ranked second in the world by ] (it was 26th in 2002). Since 2010, the ] and ] have ranked first and third in ].

Some 80% of China's airspace remains restricted for ], and ] made up eight of the 10 worst-performing Asian airlines in terms of delays.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23282724|title=China 'suffers worst flight delays'|publisher=BBC|date=12 July 2013|accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref>
China has over 2,000 ], about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping. In 2012, the Ports of ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] ranked in the top in the world ] and ].<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20130827191609/http://www.worldshipping.org/about-the-industry/global-trade/top-50-world-container-ports |date=27 August 2013 }} Accessed 2 June 2014</ref>
{{Wide image|Panorama Yangshan.jpg|900px|<center>The ]'s deep water harbor on ] in the ] became the ] in 2010</center>}}

===Water supply and sanitation===
{{main|Water supply and sanitation in China}}

Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as ].<ref name="Water Scarcity in China">{{cite web |url = http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/7d6f69ea-bc73-11e2-b344-00144feab7de.html|title = China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth|publisher = Financial Times|date = 14 May 2013|accessdate = 15 May 2013|author = Hook, Leslie}}</ref> According to data presented by the ] of ] and ] in 2015, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to ].<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|title = Website of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation|date = |accessdate = 14 February 2016|website = |publisher = JMP (WHO and UNICEF)|format = PDF|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304112745/http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf|archivedate = 4 March 2016|df = dmy-all}}</ref> In June 2010, there were 1,519 ] in China and 18 plants were added each week.<ref>, October 2010, p. 22, quoting the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development</ref> The ongoing ] intends to abate water shortage in the north.<ref name=forbes>{{cite news|last=Wang|first=Yue|title=Chinese Minister Speaks Out Against South-North Water Diversion Project|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ywang/2014/02/20/chinese-minister-speaks-out-against-south-north-water-diversion-project/|accessdate=9 March 2014|newspaper=Forbes Asia|date=20 February 2014}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of China}}
]
]
The ] recorded the population of the People's Republic of China as approximately 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old.<ref>{{cite web|title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census (No. 1)|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/NewsEvents/201104/t20110428_26449.html|publisher=National Bureau of Statistics of China|accessdate=31 May 2015}}</ref> The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.<ref>{{cite web|title=POPULATION GROWTH RATE|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2002.html|publisher=CIA|accessdate=29 September 2013}}</ref>

Although a middle-income country by Western standards, China's rapid growth has ] of its people out of poverty since 1978. Today, about 10% of the Chinese population lives below the poverty line of US$1 per day, down from 64% in 1978. In 2014, the urban unemployment rate of China was about 4.1%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cntv.cn/20140124/102623.shtml |title=China´s 2013 urban unemployment rate at 4.1 pct CCTV News – CNTV English |date=27 December 2013 |accessdate=12 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/international/china-s-2013-urban-unemployment-rate-at-4-1-114012400449_1.html |title=China's 2013 urban unemployment rate at 4.1% |publisher=Business Standard |date=24 January 2014 |accessdate=12 March 2014}}</ref>

Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid 1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid 1980s to 2015 (ethnic minorities were also exempt from one child limits). The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.<ref>{{cite news|title=China formalizes easing of one-child policy|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/12/28/china-one-child-policy/4230785/|newspaper=USA Today|date=28 December 2013}}</ref> In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-12/27/c_134955448.htm|title=Top legislature amends law to allow all couples to have two children|publisher=]| date=27 December 2015}}</ref> Data from the 2010 census implies that the ] may be around 1.4, although due to underreporting of births it may be closer to 1.5-1.6.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/18651512 |title=The most surprising demographic crisis |work=The Economist |date=5 May 2011 |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref>

According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth<ref name="Wang Judge">{{cite journal|first1 =Wang|last1 =Feng| last2=Yong | first2 = Cai| first3=Baochang | last3 = Gu |url= http://dragonreport.com/Dragon_Report/Challenges_files/Wang_pp115-129.pdf|title=Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China’s One-Child Policy?|journal= Population and Development Review |volume= 38 |date= 2012|pages= 115–29 | doi=10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x}}</ref> or the size of the total population.<ref name=Whyte>{{cite journal
| last = Whyte
| first = Martin K.
| last2 = Wang
| first2 = Feng
| last3 = Cai
| first3 = Yong
| date = 2015
| title = Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy
| url = http://scholar.harvard.edu/files/martinwhyte/files/challenging_myths_published_version.pdf
| journal = The China Journal
}}</ref> However, these scholars have been challenged. Their own counterfactual model of fertility decline without such restrictions implies that China averted more than 500 million births between 1970 and 2015, a number which may reach one billion by 2060 given all the lost descendants of births averted during the era of fertility restrictions, with one-child restrictions accounting for the great bulk of that reduction.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goodkind |first1=Daniel |title=The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions |journal=DEMOGRAPHY |date=2017 |volume=1375-1399 |issue=54}}</ref>

The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the ] at birth.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/1480778/Shortage-of-girls-forces-China-to-criminalise-selective-abortion.html|title=Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=9 January 2005|accessdate=22 October 2012|location=London|first=Simon|last=Parry}}</ref><ref name="Ref_2007a">{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6254763.stm|title=Chinese facing shortage of wives|date=12 January 2007|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=23 March 2009}}</ref> According to the 2010 census, the sex ratio at birth was 118.06 boys for every 100 girls,<ref name="genderratio">. ]. 28 April 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.</ref> which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls.<ref>{{cite web|title=The odds that you will give birth to a boy or girl depend on where in the world you live|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/09/24/the-odds-that-you-will-give-birth-to-a-boy-or-girl-depend-on-where-in-the-world-you-live/|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=24 September 2013}}</ref> The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51.27 percent of the total population.<ref name="genderratio"/> However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.82 percent of the total population.<ref name="genderratio"/>

===Ethnic groups===
{{Main|List of ethnic groups in China|Ethnic minorities in China|Ethnic groups in Chinese history}}
], with ] on the top]]
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, the largest of
which are the ], who constitute about 91.51% of the total
population.<ref name="groups">{{cite web|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm|title=Communiqué of the National Bureau of Statistics of People's Republic of China on Major Figures of the 2010 Population Census (No. 1)|publisher= National Bureau of Statistics of China|date=28 April 2011|accessdate=14 June 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115173048/http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/newsandcomingevents/t20110428_402722244.htm|archivedate=15 January 2013}}</ref> The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group<ref>{{cite news|title=A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups|url=https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province|newspaper=Washington Post|author=Lilly, Amanda|date=7 July 2009|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209112957/http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2009-07-07/world/36836997_1_muslim-uighurs-chinese-government-xinjiang-province|archivedate=9 December 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial-level division except ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change|year=2011|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|page=102|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K3XdB5o4VFAC&pg=PA102|isbn=9780742567849}}</ref> Ethnic minorities account for about 8.49% of the population of China, according to
the 2010 census.<ref name="groups"/> Compared with the 2000 population census, the Han population increased by 66,537,177 persons, or 5.74%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7,362,627 persons, or 6.92%.<ref name="groups"/> The 2010 census recorded a total of 593,832 foreign nationals living in China. The largest such groups were from South Korea (120,750), the
United States (71,493) and Japan (66,159).<ref>. National Bureau of Statistics of China. 29 April 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref>

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of China|List of endangered languages in China}}
]
There are as many as 292 ]s in China.<ref> – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International.</ref> The languages most commonly spoken belong to the ] of the ] family, which contains ] (spoken by 70% of the population),<ref>{{cite book|title=Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters|author1=Kaplan, Robert B. |author2=Richard B. Baldauf|publisher=Multilingual Matters|year=2008|isbn=9781847690951|page=42}}</ref> and ] of ]: ] (including ] and ]), ] (including ] and ]), ] (including ], ] and ]), ], ] and ]. Languages of the ], including ], ], ] and ], are spoken across the ] and ]. Other ethnic minority languages in ] include ], ], ] and ] of the ], ] and ] of the ], and ] of the ]. Across ] and ], local ethnic groups speak ] including ], ] and several ]: ], ], ], ] and ]. ] is spoken natively along the border with ]. ], the language of ], is an ]. ], including a small population on the mainland, speak ].<ref name="language">. 2005. Gov.cn. Retrieved 31 May 2015.</ref>

], a variety of Mandarin based on the ], is the official national language of China and is used as a ] in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds.<ref>{{cite book|title=Rough Guide Phrasebook: Mandarin Chinese|year=2011|publisher=Rough Guides|page=19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlM3TMYg8HQC&pg=PA19|isbn=9781405388849}}</ref>

] have been used as the ] for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years. They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing. In 1956, the government introduced ], which have supplanted the older ] in mainland China. Chinese characters are ] using the ]. Tibetan uses an ] based on an ]. Uyghur is most commonly written in ] based ]. The ] and the ] are both derived from the ]. ] uses both an official ] and a traditional ].

===Urbanization===
{{See also|List of cities in China|List of cities in China by population|Metropolitan regions of China}}
] in China (2010)]]
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 55% in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Urban population (% of total)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS?locations=CN|website=World Bank|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref><ref name="McKinseyUrbanBillion">{{cite web |url=http://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/dotcom/Insights%20and%20pubs/MGI/Research/Urbanization/Preparing%20for%20Chinas%20urban%20billion/MGI_Preparing_for_Chinas_Urban_Billion_full_report.ashx |title=Preparing for China's urban billion|publisher=McKinsey Global Institute|date=February 2009| pages=6, 52|accessdate=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref name=ChinasUrbanFuture>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/leaders/21601027-worlds-sake-and-its-own-china-needs-change-way-it-builds-and-runs-its|title=Urbanisation: Where China's future will happen|work=The Economist|date=19 April 2014|accessdate=18 February 2015}}</ref><ref name="National Data">{{cite web|title=National Data|url=http://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn=C01|website=data.stats.gov.cn|accessdate=20 January 2016}}</ref> It is estimated that China's urban population will reach one billion by 2030, potentially equivalent to one-eighth of the world population.<ref name="McKinseyUrbanBillion" /><ref name=ChinasUrbanFuture/> {{As of|2012}}, there are more than 262&nbsp;million ]s in China, mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.ibtimes.com/china-now-has-more-260-million-migrant-workers-whose-average-monthly-salary-2290-yuan-37409-1281559 | title=China Now Has More Than 260 Million Migrant Workers Whose Average Monthly Salary Is 2,290 Yuan ($374.09) | work=International Business Times | date=28 May 2013|accessdate=18 February 2015}}</ref>

China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,<ref>{{cite news|title=China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge|url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/01/20/world/asia/china-florcruz-urban-growth/index.html|publisher=CNN|date=20 January 2012|accessdate=18 February 2015}}</ref> including the seven ] (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen, and Wuhan.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's mega city: the country's existing mega cities|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/8278325/Chinas-mega-city-the-countrys-existing-mega-cities.html|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=24 January 2011|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Overview|url=http://english.sz.gov.cn/gi/|publisher=Shenzhen Municipal E-government Resources Center|accessdate=17 October 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525115028/http://english.sz.gov.cn/gi/|archivedate=25 May 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.npr.org/2012/08/07/158352562/wu-where-opportunities-shift-to-chinas-new-cities | title=Wu-Where? Opportunity Now In China's Inland Cities | date=7 August 2012 | agency=NPR}}</ref> By 2025, it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants.<ref name="McKinseyUrbanBillion"/> The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census,<ref name=census>{{cite web|title=Tabulation of the 2010 Census of the People's Republic of China|url=http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/censusdata/rkpc2010/indexch.htm|publisher=China Statistics Press}}</ref> and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations (which includes suburban and rural populations). The large "]s" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;<ref name="Ref_abce">Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". ''The Straits Times''. 22 September 2000.</ref> the figures below include only long-term residents.
{{Largest cities of China}}

===Education===
{{Main|Education in the People's Republic of China|List of universities in China}}
], one of the ]<ref>{{cite web|title=Zhejiang University surpasses Tsinghua as top university of China|url=http://www.china.org.cn/top10/top_universities_of_China/2011-06/17/content_22808249.htm|publisher=China.org.cn|date=17 June 2011}}</ref>]]
Since 1986, compulsory education in China comprises ] and ], which together last for nine years.<ref>{{cite web|title=9-year Compulsory Education|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/education/184879.htm|publisher=China.org.cn|accessdate=11 December 2013}}</ref> In 2010, about 82.5 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school.<ref>{{cite news|title=China eyes high school enrollment rate of 90%|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-08/08/content_13072098.htm|newspaper=China Daily|date=8 August 2011}}</ref> The ], China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. In 2010, 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's higher education students exceed 30 million|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90001/98649/7315789.html|newspaper=People's Daily|date=11 March 2011}}</ref> This number increased significantly over the last years, reaching a tertiary school enrollment of 48.4 percent in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=School enrollment, tertiary (% gross)|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR?locations=CN|website=World Bank|accessdate=28 May 2018}}</ref> Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and ] level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Vocational Education in China|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/LivinginChina/185280.htm|publisher=China.org.cn|accessdate=11 December 2013}}</ref>

In February 2006, the government pledged to provide completely free nine-year education, including textbooks and fees.<ref name="Ref_abch">. China Economic Net. 21 February 2006. Retrieved 18 February 2013.</ref> Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$250 billion in 2011.<ref>{{cite news|title=In Education, China Takes the Lead|url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2013/01/16/business/In-Education-China-Takes-the-Lead.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=16 January 2013}}</ref> However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in ], one of the ], only totalled ¥3,204.<ref>{{cite news|title=Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-04-04/chinese-education-the-truth-behind-the-boasts|newspaper=Bloomberg Businessweek|date=4 April 2013}}</ref> Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15. In 2011, around 81.4% of Chinese have received secondary education.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.SEC.ENRR/countries/CN-4E-XT?display=graph|title=School enrollment, secondary (% gross)|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=18 October 2013}}</ref> By 2007, there were 396,567 primary schools, 94,116 secondary schools, and 2,236 higher education institutions in China.<ref>{{cite news|title=FACTBOX: Education in China|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/07/content_9030011.htm|newspaper=Xinhua|date=7 August 2008}}</ref>

{{As of|2010}}, 94% of the population over age 15 are literate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS/countries/CN-4E-XT?display=graph|title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above)|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=9 July 2013}}</ref> In 1949, only 20% of the population could read, compared to 65.5% thirty years later.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Galtung|first1=Marte Kjær|last2= Stenslie|first2=Stig|date=2014 |title=49 Myths about China |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqqDBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PP1&pg=PA189|location= |publisher=]|page=189 |isbn=978-1442236226|author-link= }}</ref> In 2009, Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world's best results in mathematics, science and literacy, as tested by the ] (PISA), a worldwide evaluation of 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance.<ref>. '']''. 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2013.</ref> Despite the high results, Chinese education has also faced ] for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2017-11-19/china-s-top-economic-risk-education |title=China's Top Economic Risk? Education. |last=Balding |first=Christopher |date=November 19, 2017 |website=Bloomberg Opinion |publisher=Bloomberg |access-date=September 26, 2018}}</ref>

===Health===
{{Main|Health in China}}
{{See also|Pharmaceutical industry in China}}
] from 1970 to 2010]]
The ], together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the Chinese population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ministry National Health and Family Planning Commission |url=http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140928220552/http://en.nhfpc.gov.cn/2014-05/07/content_17491484.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=28 September 2014 |publisher=nhfpc.gov.cn |accessdate=6 September 2015 |df= }}</ref> An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. At that time, the Communist Party started the ], which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as ], ] and ], which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign. After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People's Communes. Healthcare in China became mostly ], and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a 3-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029211403/http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aXFagkr3Dr6s|dead-url=yes|archive-date=29 October 2013|newspaper=Bloomberg L.P.|date=22 January 2009}}</ref> By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.<ref>{{cite news|title=Great Progress, but More Is Needed|url=https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2011/11/01/is-china-facing-a-health-care-crisis/chinas-health-care-reform-far-from-sufficient|newspaper=New York Times|date=1 November 2011}}</ref> In 2011, China was estimated to be the world's third-largest supplier of ], but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of ].<ref>{{cite news|last=Barboza|first=David|title=2,000 Arrested in China in Counterfeit Drug Crackdown|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/world/asia/2000-arrested-in-china-in-crackdown-on-counterfeit-drugs.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=5 August 2012|accessdate=23 March 2013}}</ref>

{{As of|2012}}, the average life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years,<ref>{{cite web|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=28 October 2013}}</ref> and the ] rate is 12 per thousand.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births)|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=28 October 2013}}</ref> Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.{{efn|The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,<ref>{{cite news | url=http://english.people.com.cn/90001/90776/90882/6776688.html | title=Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong | work=People's Daily | date=4 October 2009}}</ref> and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.<ref name="Ref_abcu">. 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.</ref>}} Rates of ], a condition caused by ], have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Stone | first1 = R. | title = Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern | doi = 10.1126/science.336.6080.402 | journal = Science | volume = 336 | issue = 6080 | page = 402 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22539691| pmc = | bibcode = 2012Sci...336..402S }}</ref> Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by ],<ref name="FT-china-pollution">{{cite web|url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f40e248-28c7-11dc-af78-000b5df10621.html|title= 750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution|accessdate=22 July 2007 |work=Financial Times |date= 2 July 2007|author=McGregor, Richard}}</ref> hundreds of millions of ],<ref name="Ref_abcx"> article by Didi Kirsten Tatlow in '']'' 10 June 2010</ref> and an increase in ] among urban youths.<ref name="Ref_abcy">. 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref><ref name="Ref_abcz">. 4 August 2000. ''People's Daily''. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years, such as the 2003 outbreak of ], although this has since been largely contained.<ref name="Ref_abcda">. 18 May 2004. ]. Retrieved 17 April 2006.</ref> In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.<ref>{{cite news|title=Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/02/world/asia/air-pollution-linked-to-1-2-million-deaths-in-china.html|newspaper=New York Times|date=1 April 2013|first=Edward|last=Wong}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in China}}
]s of the ] bowing during a rite at the White Cloud Temple of ]. Taoism is a set of ] that operate as frameworks of Chinese religion, alongside ].]]
] is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.<ref name="XinBan2012">. '']''. 2 August 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.</ref><ref>''Constitution of the People's Republic of China''. Chapter 2, Article 36.</ref> The government of the People's Republic of China is officially ]. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812102019/http://www.sara.gov.cn/jqgk/zs/index.htm |script-title=zh:国家宗教事务局 |publisher=National Religious Affairs Administration |accessdate=30 August 2015}}</ref>
] in ], ], ]. It is an example of Taoist temple that hosts various chapels dedicated to popular gods.]]
Over the millennia, Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "]", including ], ], and ] (]), historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture,<ref name="Yao2011">{{cite book|last1=Yao|first1=Xinzhong|authorlink1=Yao Xinzhong|year=2010|title=Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach|publisher=A&C Black|location=London|isbn=9781847064752}} pp. 9–11.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Miller|first=James|title=Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies|year=2006|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781851096268}} .</ref> enriching a ] which harkens back to the early ] and ]. Chinese popular or folk religion, which is framed by the three teachings and other traditions,<ref>Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in {{cite book|last=Xie|first=Zhibin|year=2006|title=Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=9780754656487}} .</ref> consists in allegiance to the '']'' ({{lang|zh|{{linktext|神}}}}), a character that signifies the "]", who can be ] of the environment or ] of human groups, concepts of civility, ]es, many of whom feature in ] and history.<ref>{{citation|first=Stephen F.|last=Teiser|chapter=The Spirits of Chinese Religion|chapter-url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/cosmos/main/spirits_of_chinese_religion.pdf|title=Religions of China in Practice|editor=Donald S. Lopez Jr.|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=1996}}. Extracts in ''''.</ref> Among the most popular ] are those of ] (goddess of the seas),<ref name="Laliberte2011">{{cite journal|last=Laliberté|first=André|title=Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization|journal=Journal of Current Chinese Affairs|volume=40|issue=2|pages=3–15|date=2011|url=http://journals.sub.uni-hamburg.de/giga/jcca/article/view/415/413}} {{ISSN|1868-4874}} (online), {{ISSN|1868-1026}} (print). p. 7: " while provincial leaders in Fujian nod to Taoism with their sponsorship of the Mazu Pilgrimage in Southern China, the leaders of Shanxi have gone further with their promotion of worship of the Yellow Emperor ({{zh|labels=no |t=黃帝 |p=Huáng Dì}})".</ref> ] (one of the two ] of the Chinese race),<ref name="Laliberte2011"/><ref>{{citation|last=Sautman|first=Barry|authorlink=Barry Sautman|chapter=Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China|pages=75–95|title=The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives|editor1-last=Dikötter|editor1-first=Frank|location=Honolulu|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|year=1997|isbn=978-9622094437}} pp. 80–81.</ref> ] (god of war and business), ] (god of prosperity and richness), ] and many others. China is home to many of the ], including the tallest of all, the ] in ].

Clear data on religious affiliation in China is difficult to gather due to varying definitions of "religion" and the unorganized, diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between ] religions, Buddhism, Taoism and local folk religious practice.<ref name="Yao2011"/> A 2015 poll conducted by ] found that 61% of Chinese people self-identified as "convinced atheist",<ref name="GallupInternational">{{cite web|title=Gallup International Religiosity Index|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf|website=Washington Post|publisher=WIN-Gallup International|date=April 2015}}</ref> though it is worthwhile to note that Chinese religions or some of their strands are definable as ] and ] religions, since they do not believe that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.<ref>{{cite conference|first=Joseph A.|last=Adler|title=The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China|conference=(Conference paper) Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought|location=San Diego, CA|date=2011|url=http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Non-theistic.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> According to a 2014 study, approximately 74% are either non-religious or practise Chinese folk belief, 16% are Buddhists, 2% are Christians, 1% are Muslims, and 8% adhere to other religions including ] and ].<ref name="CFPS2014">] 2014 survey. See () and (). The tables also contain the results of CFPS 2012 and Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) results for 2006, 2008 and 2010.</ref><ref name="CZ20172">{{cite article|last=Wenzel-Teuber|first=Katharina|title=Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2016|journal=Religions & Christianity in Today's China|volume=VII|number=2|pages=26–53|url=http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2017-2/RCTC_2017-2.26-53_Wenzel-Teuber__Statistics_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_the_PRC_%E2%80%93_Update_for_the_Year_2016.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722112103/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2017-2/RCTC_2017-2.26-53_Wenzel-Teuber__Statistics_on_Religions_and_Churches_in_the_PRC_%E2%80%93_Update_for_the_Year_2016.pdf|archive-date=22 July 2017|deadurl=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In addition to Han people's local religious practices, there are also various ] who maintain their ]. The various folk religions today comprise 2–3% of the population, while Confucianism as a religious self-identification is common within the intellectual class. Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include ] and the ] of the ], ], ], ] and other peoples in Northwest China.

==Culture==
{{Main|Chinese culture|Culture of the People's Republic of China}}

], a center of ] and an UNESCO World Heritage site, symbolizes the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing|url=http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?CID=31&ID_SITE=881&l=EN|publisher=]|date=|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref>]]

Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by ] and conservative philosophies. For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious ]s, which have their origins in the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=China: Understanding Its Past|year=1997|publisher=University of Hawaii Press|page=29}}</ref> The ] of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that ], ] and ] were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.<ref name="ChinaFuture"/> Examinations and a ] remain greatly valued in China today.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China |journal=KEDI Journal of Educational Policy |year=2005 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=17–33 |url=http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6X0w2JWPr?url=http://suen.educ.psu.edu/~hsuen/pubs/KEDI%20Yu.pdf |archivedate=14 March 2015 |df=dmy }}</ref>

]]]

The first leaders of the People's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order, but were influenced by the ] and reformist ideals. They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture, such as rural land tenure, ], and the Confucian system of education, while preserving others, such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state. Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history, while others claim that the Communist Party's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture, especially through political movements such as the ] of the 1960s, where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed, having been denounced as "regressive and harmful" or "vestiges of ]". Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture, such as Confucianism, art, literature, and performing arts like ],<ref name="Ref_abcded">{{cite web|url=http://en.cnta.gov.cn|title=Tour Guidebook: Beijing|publisher=China National Tourism Administration|accessdate=14 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709051241/http://en.cnta.gov.cn/|archive-date=9 July 2013|dead-url=yes|df=dmy-all}}</ref> were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time. Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.<ref>{{cite web|title=Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime |url=http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/ |publisher=] |date=13 March 2013 |accessdate=12 July 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130514072402/http://qz.com/62717/why-china-is-letting-django-unchained-slip-through-its-censorship-regime/ |archivedate=14 May 2013 |df= }}</ref>

Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of ] and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,<ref name="Ref_abcdef">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0133) |title="China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov|accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref><ref name="Ref_abcdeg">{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-258942/China |title=China: Cultural life: The arts |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.<ref name="Ref_abcdeh">{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+cn0138) |title="China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies |publisher=Lcweb2.loc.gov |accessdate=1 November 2011}}</ref> China is now the ],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-23433149|title=What is the world's favourite holiday destination?|publisher=BBC|date=4 August 2013|accessdate=5 August 2013}}</ref> with 55.7&nbsp;million inbound international visitors in 2010.<ref name="Ref_abd">{{cite web|url=http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/UNWTO_Barom10_update_april_en_excerpt.pdf |title=Microsoft Word – UNWTO Barom07 2 en.doc |format=PDF |publisher=UNWTO|year=2010|archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5tcLcxQKw?url=http://www.unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/UNWTO_Barom10_update_april_en_excerpt.pdf|archivedate=20 October 2010|accessdate=14 May 2010}}</ref> It also experiences an enormous volume of ]; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone.<ref name="740MillionTourists">{{cite news|url=http://world.time.com/2012/10/17/chinas-economy-what-the-tourist-boom-tells-us/ |title=China's Economy: What the Tourist Boom Tells Us |work=] |date=17 October 2012 |accessdate=18 October 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018095733/http://world.time.com/2012/10/17/chinas-economy-what-the-tourist-boom-tells-us/ |archivedate=18 October 2012 |df= }}</ref>

===Literature===
{{Main|Chinese literature}}
]'' are common themes in ].]]
Chinese literature is based on the literature of the ].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm |script-title=zh:中国文学史概述 |website=jstvu.edu.cn |accessdate=18 July 2015}}{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722034509/http://cai.jstvu.edu.cn/cai/daxueyuwen/2/two/xxck.htm |date=22 July 2015 }}</ref> Concepts covered within the ] present a wide range of ] and subjects including ], ], ], ], ] and many others.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanonru-u.html|title= The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati|date= 14 November 2013|accessdate= 14 January 2014}}</ref> Some of the most important early texts include the '']'' and the '']'' within the ] which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state-sponsored curriculum in dynastic era.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:什么是四书五经|url= http://www.360doc.com/content/14/0606/15/1804492_384303704.shtml|website= 360doc.com|date= 6 June 2014|accessdate= 15 July 2015|deadurl= yes|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20150722022543/http://www.360doc.com/content/14/0606/15/1804492_384303704.shtml|archivedate= 22 July 2015|df= dmy-all}}</ref> Inherited from the '']'', ] developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. ] and ] opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.360doc.com/content/11/0418/13/2206147_110492609.shtml |script-title=zh:李白杜甫优劣论 |website=360doc.com |date=18 April 2011 |accessdate=21 July 2015}}</ref> ] began with the '']'', the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the ], which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guo |first1=Dan |url=http://www.cnki.com.cn/Article/CJFDTotal-MQXS199704006.htm |script-title=zh:史传文学与中国古代小说 |journal=明清小说研究 |issue=April 1997 |accessdate=18 July 2015}}</ref> Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the ], Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and ]s as represented by the ] which include '']'', '']'', '']'' and '']''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iclass.nbtvu.net.cn/kecheng/072157/3title4200499122140/z3.htm |script-title=zh:第一章　中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣 |website=nbtvu.net.cn |accessdate=18 July 2015}}</ref> Along with the ] fictions of ] and ],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm |script-title=zh:金庸作品从流行穿越至经典 |website=Baotou News |date=12 March 2014 |accessdate=18 July 2015}}{{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722071612/http://www.baotounews.com.cn/epaper/btrb/html/2014-03/12/content_286579.htm |date=22 July 2015 }}</ref> it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the ].<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://d.wanfangdata.com.cn/Periodical_dbsdxb-zxsh201006025.aspx |script-title=zh:四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构 |journal=Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences) |issue=June 2010 |accessdate=18 July 2015}}</ref>

] (Face-Changing) Performer]]
In the wake of the ] after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with ] for ordinary citizens. ] and ] were pioneers in modern literature.<ref>. 中共杭州市委党校学报. April 2000. Retrieved 18 July 2015.</ref> Various literary genres, such as ], ], ] and the ], which is influenced by ],<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150723065447/http://www.literature.org.cn/article.aspx?id=25449 |date=23 July 2015 }}. 文学评论. February 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2015.</ref> emerged following the Cultural Revolution. ], a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.<ref>. 东江时报. 12 October 2012. Retrieved 18 July 2015.</ref>

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Chinese cuisine}}
] from Sichuan cuisine; ] from Jiangsu cuisine; ] from Cantonese cuisine; and ] from Shandong cuisine<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:鲁菜泰斗颜景祥|url=http://sd.ifeng.com/food/lucaimingchu/detail_2013_09/16/1230666_0.shtml|website=凤凰网山东|date=16 September 2013|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref>]]
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] cuisines.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eight Major Cuisines|url=http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|website=chinese.cn|date=2 June 2011|accessdate=17 July 2015|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150912222348/http://www.chinesecio.com/cms/en/culture/eight-major-cuisines-ba-da-cai-xi|archivedate=12 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref> All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping, heating, colorway and flavoring.<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:【外国人最惊叫的烹饪技法】食材、刀工、火候、调料。|url=http://www.360doc.com/content/14/1115/14/16273306_425299445.shtml|website=360doc.com|date=15 November 2014|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of ] and ingredients,<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/photo/2013-09/23/c_125426786.htm|website=xinhuanet.com|date=23 September 2013|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> as well as ] that is emphasized by ].<ref>{{cite web |script-title=zh:中医强调"药疗不如食疗" 食疗有三大优势|url=http://www.antpedia.com/news/36/n-135136.html|website=antpedia.com|date=1 April 2011|accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> Generally, China's staple food is rice in the south, wheat based breads and noodles in the north. The diet of the common people in pre-modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables, with meat reserved for special occasions. And the bean products, such as ] and ], remain as a popular source of protein.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://wenku.baidu.com/view/fca14f07866fb84ae45c8de0.html |script-title=zh:中国居民豆类及豆制品的消费现状 |work=Food and Nutrition in China |issue=January 2008 |accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.<ref>{{cite news|title=China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/greatspeculations/2013/06/19/chinas-hunger-for-pork-will-impact-the-u-s-meat-industry/|newspaper=Forbes|date=19 June 2013}}</ref> While pork dominates the meat market, there is also pork-free ] and ]. Southern cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables; it differs in many respects from the wheat-based diets across dry northern China. Numerous offshoots of Chinese food, such as ] and ], have emerged in the nations that play host to the ].

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in China|China at the Olympics}}
] racing, a popular traditional Chinese sport]]
China has become a prime sports destination worldwide. The country gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments including the ], the ], the upcoming ] and the upcoming ].

China has one of the ] in the world. There is evidence that archery (''shèjiàn'') was practiced during the ]. Swordplay (''jiànshù'') and ], a sport loosely related to ]<ref>{{cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Soccer|year=2011|publisher=Scarecrow Press|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9j1wbp2t1usC&pg=PA2|isbn=978-0-8108-7188-5}}</ref> date back to China's early dynasties as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theworldofchinese.com/2013/08/sport-in-ancient-china/|title=Sport in Ancient China|publisher=JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese)|date=31 August 2013|accessdate=28 June 2014}}</ref>

], or Chinese chess, which, like ] is believed to be descended from the ]n chess game of ].<ref>Henry Davidson, ''A Short History of Chess'', p. 6.</ref> The earliest indications reveal the game may have been played as early as the third century BCE.]]
] is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as ] and ] widely practiced,<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Thornton | first1 = E. W. | last2 = Sykes | first2 = K. S. | last3 = Tang | first3 = W. K. | doi = 10.1093/heapro/dah105 | title = Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women | journal = Health Promotion International | volume = 19 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–38 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14976170| pmc = }}</ref> and commercial ]s and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity across the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chinasportsbiz.com/2011/07/01/huge-potential-of-fitness-market-in-china/|title=China health club market – Huge potential & challenges|publisher=China Sports Business|date=1 July 2011|accessdate=31 July 2012}}</ref> Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109001344/http://www.wenzhou.gov.cn/art/2014/8/7/art_9113_318011.html |script-title=zh:2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布 |website=Wenzhou People's Government |date=7 August 2014 |accessdate=23 November 2015}}</ref> The ] and the American ] have a huge following among the people, with native or ethnic Chinese players such as ] and ] held in high esteem.<ref name="Beech2003">{{Cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html |title=Yao Ming |accessdate=30 March 2007 |last=Beech |first=Hannah |work=Time Magazine | date=28 April 2003|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110705191234/http://www.time.com/time/asia/2003/heroes/yao_ming.html|archivedate=5 July 2011}}</ref> China's professional football league, now known as ], was established in 1994, it is the largest football market in Asia.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sports.sohu.com/20130714/n381558488.shtml |script-title=zh:足球不给劲观众却不少 中超球市世界第9亚洲第1 |publisher=] Sports |date=14 July 2013 |accessdate=17 July 2015}}</ref> Other popular sports in the country include ], ], ], ] and ]. ]s such as ] (known as ''wéiqí'' in Chinese), ], ], and more recently ], are also played at a professional level.<ref>. TheStar.com. 2 September 2011. Retrieved 24 September 2011.</ref> In addition, China is home to a huge number of ], with an estimated 470 million bicycles {{As of|2012|lc=y}}.<ref name="470MBikes">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-08-16/bicycle-maker-giant-says-fitness-lifestyle-boosting-china-sales.html|title=Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales|publisher=]|date=17 August 2012|accessdate=8 September 2012}}</ref> Many more traditional sports, such as ] racing, ] and ] are also popular.<ref name="Ref_abcden">Qinfa, Ye. . About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.</ref>

China has ] since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC ]. China hosted the ] in Beijing, where its athletes received 51 gold medals – ] of any participating nation that year.<ref name="Ref_abcdeo">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/7583735.stm|title=China targets more golds in 2012|publisher=BBC Sport|date=27 August 2008|accessdate= 27 November 2011}}</ref> China also won the most medals of any nation at the ], with 231 overall, including 95 gold medals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/|title=Medal Count|publisher=London2012.com|accessdate=9 September 2012|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120830230101/http://www.london2012.com/paralympics/medals/medal-count/|archivedate=30 August 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/story/2012/09/9/china-dominates-medals-us-falls-short-at-paralympics/57719222/1|title=China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics|work=]|date=9 September 2012|accessdate=19 June 2013}}</ref> In 2011, ] in Guangdong, China hosted the ]. China hosted the ] in Tianjin and the ] in ]. Beijing and its nearby city ] of ] will also collaboratively host the ], which will make Beijing the first city in the world to hold both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.olympic.org/beijing-2022|title=Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics - results & video highlights|date= 23 February 2018|publisher=International Olympic Committee|accessdate= 23 February 2018|language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|China|Asia}}
* ]
* ]
* ]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist|30em}}

==References==
<!-- Please do not add a scrollbox around this reference list. They are not allowed per the following discussion http://en.wikipedia.org/Wikipedia:Templates_for_deletion/Log/2007_June_11#Template:Scrollref -->
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|last=Meng |first=Fanhua |title=Phenomenon of Chinese Culture at the Turn of the 21st century |year=2011 |publisher=Silkroad Press |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-4332-35-4}}
* Farah, Paolo (2006). "Five Years of China's WTO Membership: EU and US Perspectives on China's Compliance with Transparency Commitments and the Transitional Review Mechanism". ''Legal Issues of Economic Integration''. Kluwer Law International. Volume 33, Number 3. pp.&nbsp;263–304. .
* Heilig, Gerhard K. (2006/2007). ''.'' China-Profile.com.
* ] (2009).'']''. Penguin Books. Rev. ed. (28 August 2012). {{ISBN|978-1-59420-185-1}}
* Jaffe, Amy Myers, "Green Giant: Renewable Energy and Chinese Power", '']'', vol. 97, no. 2 (March / April 2018), pp.&nbsp;83–93.
* {{Cite book |last=Lagerwey |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WAOOzQi0dCkC |year=2010 |title=China: A Religious State |publisher=University of Hong Kong Press |location=Hong Kong |isbn=978-9888028047 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|author=Sang Ye |title=China Candid: The People on the People's Republic |year=2006 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-520-24514-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=Selden |first=Mark |title=The People's Republic of China: Documentary History of Revolutionary Change |year=1979 |publisher=Monthly Review Press|location=New York |isbn=978-0-85345-532-5}}
* {{Cite book |last = Shambaugh |first = David L. |year = 2008 |title = China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=aMpj-MboMR4C |publisher = University of California Press| location = Washington, D.C.; Berkeley |isbn = 9780520254923|ref = harv}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
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{{Sister project links|voy=China|China}}
;Government
* {{Link language|en}}
* {{Link language|en}}—Authorized government portal site to China

;General information
* from '']''
*
* {{CIA World Factbook link|ch|China}}
* from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/China}}
* 's '']'' entry
* by Yiching Wu
* from ]
* . PBS Online NewsHour. October 2005.

;Studies
* . Minxin Pei (2006). IFRI Proliferation Papers. No. 15.

;Travel
* (CNTO)


== Historia ==
;Maps
*
* {{Wikiatlas|the People's Republic of China}}
* {{OSM relation|270056}}


=== Prehistoria ===
{{China topics}}
China tiene el ] de ] más grande del mundo con más de 500 especies registradas, le sigue en segundo lugar ]. La evidencia arqueológica sugiere que los primeros homínidos que habitaron China llegaron a ese país entre 0,25 y 2,24&nbsp;millones de años atrás.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html}}</ref> Una cueva en ] —cerca de la actual Pekín— contiene fósiles que datan de entre los años 680&nbsp;000 y 780&nbsp;000&nbsp;a.&nbsp;C.<ref name="autogenerated198">{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/Liujiang.html|bibcode=2009Natur.458..198S|doi=10.1038/nature07741|issn=0028-0836|pmid=19279636}}</ref> y pertenecen al llamado ], una ] de '']'' que vivía de la caza y la recolección, utilizaba el fuego y herramientas de piedra.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.chinamuseums.com/beijing_man.htm}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm}}</ref> En el mismo sitio del ''Hombre de Pekín'' se hallaron restos de un ''Homo sapiens'' que datan de 18&nbsp;000-11&nbsp;000 a.&nbsp;C.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://whc.unesco.org/es/list/449}}</ref> La evidencia más temprana de un ser humano completamente moderno en China se encuentra en ] (]), donde se encontró un cráneo que ha sido fechado en aproximadamente 67&nbsp;000&nbsp;años. Aunque persiste la controversia sobre la datación de los restos de Liujiang, especialmente cuando se compara con otros esqueletos similares, como el hallado en Minatogawa, en la ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/Liujiang.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Skull+may+complicate+human-origins+debate.+(Chinese+Roots)-a096417261}}</ref> Algunos expertos afirman que desde hace 5000&nbsp;años existió una forma de ] en China.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23257700}}</ref>
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=== Fin del gobierno imperial ===
{{Coord|35|N|103|E|type:country|display=title}}
] (1850-1864).]]


== Notas ==
{{Authority control}}


== Referencias ==
]
{{listaref|3}}
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Revision as of 02:58, 3 December 2018

República Popular China
中华人民共和国
Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó

border|125x125px
Bandera link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q148?uselang=es#P163|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata 		95x95px
Emblema nacional


Himno: 义勇军进行曲 / 義勇軍進行曲
Yìyǒngjūn Jìnxíngqǔ
(en chino: «Marcha de los voluntarios»).
center|140x140px|noicon¿Problemas al reproducir este archivo?

250x250px

Capital

Pekín
39°54′18″N 116°23′29″E / 39.905, 116.39138888889Coordenadas: 39°54′18″N 116°23′29″E / 39.905, 116.39138888889 link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q956?uselang=es#P625|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Ciudad más poblada

Shanghái

Idioma oficial

Chino mandarín

 • Hablados

Lenguas de China

Gentilicio

Chino, -na

Forma de gobierno

Estado socialista de partido único con economía de mercado

 • Secretario general

Xi Jinping

 • Presidente

Xi Jinping

 • Premier

Li Keqiang

 • Presidente de la Asamblea

Zhang Dejiang

 • Presidente de la Conferencia

Yu Zhengsheng

Órgano legislativo

Asamblea Popular Nacional de China link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q148?uselang=es#p194|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Historia
• Dinastía Xia
• Dinastía Qin
• República
• Guerra Civil
• Rep. Popular


2070 a. C.
221 a. C.
1 de enero de 1912
1927-1949
1 de octubre de 1949

Superficie

Puesto 3.º

 • Total

9 596 960 km²

 • Agua (%)

2,8

Fronteras

22 457 km

Línea de costa

14 500 km

Punto más alto

Everest link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q148?uselang=es#p610|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Población total

Puesto 1.º

 • Estimación

1 403 500 365 hab. (2016)

 • Censo

1 339 724 852 hab. (2010)

 • Densidad (est.)

139,6 hab./km²

PIB (PPA)

Puesto 1.º

 • Total (2018)

US$ 25,238 billones

 • Per cápita

US$ 18 066

PIB (nominal)

Puesto 2.º

 • Total (2018)

US$ 14,092 billones

 • Per cápita

US$ 10 087

IDH (2017)

link=|alt=Crecimiento|11x11px 0,752 (86.º) – Alto

Moneda

Yuan o Renminbi (¥, CNY)

Huso horario

CST (UTC +8)

Código ISO

156 / CHN / CN

Dominio internet

.cn, .中国 y.中國 link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q148?uselang=es#P78|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

Prefijo telefónico

+86

Prefijo radiofónico

+3HA-3UZ

Siglas país para aeronaves

B, B-H, B-K, B-L, B-M

Siglas país para automóviles

CN

Código del COI

CHN link=https://www.wikidata.org/Q148?uselang=es#p984|alt=Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata|baseline|10x10px|Ver y modificar los datos en Wikidata

MembresíaBRICS, ONU,

APEC, OMC,

G-8+5, G-20, Cons. Seguridad ONU
  1. ↑ El área total de China es de 9 572 900 km² según la Enciclopedia Británica.


  1. ↑ Las estimaciones pueden variar según la fuente.


  1. ↑ El dominio .cn es para sitios chinos internacionales y .中國 para sitios chinos nacionales.


  1. ↑ Miembro permanente.


[editar datos en Wikidata]

La República Popular China (en chino simplificado: 中华人民共和国 y en pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó), o simplemente China (en chino simplificado: 中国 y en pinyin: Zhōngguó), es un Estado soberano situado en Asia Oriental. Es el país más poblado del mundo, con 1395 millones de habitantes, y la primera potencia económica mundial por PIB, en términos de paridad de poder adquisitivo. La República Popular China es un Estado unipartidista gobernado por el Partido Comunista y tiene la sede de su gobierno en la capital, Pekín. Está dividida en veintidós provincias, cinco regiones autónomas, cuatro municipios bajo jurisdicción central —Pekín, Tianjin, Shanghái y Chongqing— y dos regiones administrativas especiales —Hong Kong y Macao—. Asimismo, China reclama la que considera provincia de Taiwán, que es controlada por la República de China con un estatus político de la isla controvertido.

Historia

Prehistoria

China tiene el registro fósil de dinosaurios más grande del mundo con más de 500 especies registradas, le sigue en segundo lugar Argentina. La evidencia arqueológica sugiere que los primeros homínidos que habitaron China llegaron a ese país entre 0,25 y 2,24 millones de años atrás. Una cueva en Zhoukoudian —cerca de la actual Pekín— contiene fósiles que datan de entre los años 680 000 y 780 000 a. C. y pertenecen al llamado Hombre de Pekín, una subespecie de Homo erectus que vivía de la caza y la recolección, utilizaba el fuego y herramientas de piedra. En el mismo sitio del Hombre de Pekín se hallaron restos de un Homo sapiens que datan de 18 000-11 000 a. C. La evidencia más temprana de un ser humano completamente moderno en China se encuentra en Liujiang (Guangxi), donde se encontró un cráneo que ha sido fechado en aproximadamente 67 000 años. Aunque persiste la controversia sobre la datación de los restos de Liujiang, especialmente cuando se compara con otros esqueletos similares, como el hallado en Minatogawa, en la isla de Okinawa. Algunos expertos afirman que desde hace 5000 años existió una forma de protoescritura en China.

Fin del gobierno imperial

Una pintura del siglo XIX que muestra la rebelión Taiping (1850-1864).

Notas

Referencias

  1. Chan, Kam Wing (2007). «Misconceptions and Complexities in the Study of China's Cities: Definitions, Statistics, and Implications» (pdf). Eurasian Geography and Economics (en inglés) 48 (4): 383-412. doi:10.2747/1538-7216.48.4.383. Archivado desde el original el 15 de enero de 2013. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014.  (enlace roto disponible en Internet Archive; véase el historial y la última versión).
  2. Gobierno de la República Popular China (19 de septiembre de 2005). «Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37)». Gov.cn (en inglés). Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  3. Real Academia Española. «Chino». Diccionario de la Real Academia Española. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  4. Cite error: The named reference CIA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  5. ^ CIA. «China - Geografía - Libro Mundial de Hechos». Consultado el 28 de febrero de 2017. 
  6. Naciones Unidas. «World Population Prospects 2017» (en inglés). Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018. 
  7. Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas de China (28 de abril de 2011). «Press Release on Major Figures of the 2010 National Population Census» (en inglés). Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  8. ^ «Data & Statistics» (en inglés). Fondo Monetario Internacional. Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018. 
  9. PNUD (14 de septiembre de 20178). pnud, ed. «Informe sobre Desarrollo Humano 2018» (pdf) (en inglés). Nueva York, Estados Unidos. Consultado el 3 de octubre de 2018. 
  10. «Moneda en China». Universia.net. Archivado desde el original el 8 de junio de 2012. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  11. «Husos horarios en China». Universia.net. Archivado desde el original el 6 de marzo de 2012. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  12. Organización de las Naciones Unidas. «Miembros». UN.org. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  13. «APEC - Países participantes». Terra.com.pe. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  14. Organización Mundial del Comercio. «Miembros». WTO.org. Consultado el 14 de enero de 2014. 
  15. «China». 
  16. http://www.eleconomista.es/internacional/noticias/6142651/10/14/China-pasa-a-ser-la-primera-potencia-mundial-mientras-Espana-sigue-desinflandose.html#Kku8uTOQfHuk9xbf. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  17. http://www.elmundo.es/economia/2014/10/08/54354d27268e3ee9448b4581.html. {{cite news}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  18. Template:Cita Harvard
  19. http://en.wikisource.org/Sino-British_Joint_Declaration. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. http://history.cultural-china.com/en/34History7320.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  21. http://www.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  22. . Bibcode:2009Natur.458..198S. doi:10.1038/nature07741. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19279636 http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/Liujiang.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  23. http://www.chinamuseums.com/beijing_man.htm. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  24. http://www.unesco.org/ext/field/beijing/whc/pkm-site.htm. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  25. http://whc.unesco.org/es/list/449. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  26. http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~pbrown3/Liujiang.html. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  27. http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Skull+may+complicate+human-origins+debate.+(Chinese+Roots)-a096417261. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  28. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-china-23257700. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
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