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Homophobia is the fear of, aversion to, or discrimination against homosexuality or homosexuals. It can also mean hatred, hostility, or disapproval of homosexual people, sexual behavior, or cultures, and is generally used to assert bigotry. The term homophobic means "prejudiced against homosexual people", and a person who is homophobic is a homophobe.
The word homophobic, when used to describe someone prejudiced against homosexual people, can be a pejorative term, and the identification of a group or person as homophobic is nearly always controversial.
Etymology and usage
Coinage
The word homophobia was used from 1920 to mean "fear of men, or aversion towards the male sex" (Oxford English Dictionary). However, from 1969 it has been more frequently used with its current denotation, first appearing (in print) in the American Time magazine, 31st October edition . It was utilized by clinical psychologist George Weinberg, who claims to have first thought of it while speaking at a homophile group in 1965, and popularized by his book Society and the Healthy Homosexual in 1971. He combined the Greek term phobos, meaning "fear" or "panic" and the root homo from the word "homosexual". When asked about the meaning of the word in a 2002 interview, he said:
- "Homophobia is just that: a phobia. A morbid and irrational dread which prompts irrational behavior flight or the desire to destroy the stimulus for the phobia and anything reminiscent of it."
A possible etymological precursor was homoerotophobia, coined by Wainwright Churchill in Homosexual Behavior Among Males in 1967.
Similar terms
Similar terms such as heterosexism have been proposed as alternatives which are more morphologically parallel, and which do not have the association with phobia. Heterosexism refers to the privileging of heterosexuality over homosexuality. Queer Theory and critical theory use the terms heterocentric and heteronormativity to refer to similar ontological assumptions.
Some recent psychological literature has suggested the term homonegativity, reflecting the perspective that behaviors and thoughts that are frequently considered homophobic are not fear-based but instead reflect a disapproval of homosexuality.
Seeking to avoid both the focus on individual psychology of "homophobia" and the focus on collective cultural factors of "heterosexism," psychologist Gregory Herek has proposed the term "sexual prejudice" as referring to "all negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual."
The term homophobia is often used collectively with other terms denoting bigotry and discrimination. In a recent address, Coretta Scott King asserted that, "Homophobia is like racism and anti-Semitism and other forms of bigotry in that it seeks to dehumanize a large group of people, to deny their humanity, their dignity and personhood." Likewise, George Yancey, writing in Christian Ethics Today associates "sexism, racism, class distinctions, or homophobia" and views them all as "varieties of discrimination," although he argues that they are not identical. Accordingly, some activists also call homophobia straight supremacism, equating it to white supremacism.
Critics of the term
Some researchers within the field have preferred other terms to "homophobia". For example, Gregory M. Herek, a researcher at the University of California, Davis, compared several related terms: "homophobia", "heterosexism", and "sexual prejudice". In preferring the latter term, he noted that "homophobia" was "probably more widely used and more often criticized", and observed:
- "Its critics note that homophobia implicitly suggests that antigay attitudes are best understood as an irrational fear and that they represent a form of individual psychopathology rather than a socially reinforced prejudice."
He preferred "sexual prejudice" as being descriptive and free of presumptions about motivations, and lacking in value judgements as to the irrationality or immorality of those so labelled.
In 1980 Hudson and Ricketts proposed the term "homonegativity", arguing that "homophobia" was unscientific in its presumption of motivation.
The Concerned Women for America, a conservative lobby group, has called homophobia a "deceptive term" which is "used by pro-'gay' proponents to confuse the issue and control the debate" by defining all opposition to homosexuality as irrational. CWA asserts that pro-gay proponents would not be able to identify any examples of non-homophobic opposition to homosexuality because they define all opposition as "homophobic" and "irrational bigotry." CWA calls this "deceptive rhetoric."
Distribution/frequency of attitudes in the US and UK
Disapproval of homosexuality and of homosexuals is not evenly distributed throughout society, but is more or less pronounced according to age, sex, social class, education and religious status. According to UK HIV/AIDS charity AVERT, low educational level and social status are strongly associated with such views.
One study of white adolescent males conducted at the University of Cincinnati by Janet Baker has been used to argue that negative feelings towards homosexuals are also associated with other discriminatory behaviors. The study claims to have found that hatred of homosexuals, anti semitism and racism are "likely companions", suggesting it is an abuse of power.
The anxiety of non-gay individuals that others may identify them as gay, particularly among adolescents whose construction of heterosexual masculinity is factored in part on not being seen as gay, has also been identified by Michael Kimmel and Matthew Mahler as an example of homophobia. The gay-bashing of boys seen as eccentric (and who are not usually homosexual) is claimed to be endemic in rural and suburban American schools, and has been associated with risk-taking behavior and outbursts of violence (such as a spate of fatal school shootings) by boys seeking revenge or trying to assert their masculinity.
Classification of homophobia
Homophobia manifests in different forms, and a number of different types have been postulated, among which are internalized homophobia, social homophobia, emotional homophobia, rationalized homophobia, , and others.
Internalized homophobia
Internalized homophobia (or ego-dystonic homophobia) refers to homophobia as a prejudice carried by individuals against homosexual manifestations in themselves and others. It causes severe discomfort with or disapproval of one's own sexual orientation.
Such a situation may cause extreme repression of homosexual desires. In other cases, a conscious internal struggle may occur for some time, often pitting deeply held religious or social beliefs against strong emotional desires and needs. This discordance often causes clinical depression, and the unusually high suicide rate among homosexual teenagers (up to 30% of non-straight youth attempt suicide) has been attributed to this phenomenon.
The theory attributing higher incidences of depression, alcoholism and other self-destructive tendencies among homosexually oriented individuals to internalized homophobia has been put into question by anti-gay groups such as NARTH that reject the validity of the studies behind the American Psychiatric Association's 1973 removal of homosexuality from the DSM. Studies of homosexuals in societies such as Sweden, New Zealand and the Netherlands where homosexuality is more socially accepted than in the United States found similar incidences of such behavior.
J. Michael Bailey, researcher behind the New Zealand study warns a politicization of research into homosexuality has arisen in the name of preventing homophobia. Bailey argues "...it would be a shame if sociopolitical concerns prevented researchers from conscientious consideration of any reasonable hypothesis" regarding homosexuality.
The label of internalized homophobia is sometimes applied to conscious or unconscious behaviors which an observer feels the need to promote or conform to the expectations of heteronormativity or heterosexism. This might include making assumptions about the gender of a person's romantic partner, or about gender roles. Some also apply this label to LGBT persons who support "compromise" policies, such as those that find civil unions an acceptable alternative to same-sex marriage. Whether this is a tactical judgement call or the result of some kind of internal prejudice (whether in a cause-and-effect fashion, or definitionally) is a matter of some debate.
Some claim (including Sigmund Freud in his psychoanalytic theory ) that some or most homophobics are repressed homosexuals, but this claim is somewhat controversial. In 1996, a controlled study of 64 heterosexual men (half claimed to be homophobic by experience and self-reported orientation) at the University of Georgia found that the allegedly homophobic men (as measured by the Index of Homophobia) were considerably more likely to experience more erectile responses when exposed to homoerotic images than non-homophobic men.
However, the homophobic men also tended to report more negative emotions in response to those particular images (not sexual arousal), and the researchers noted that general anxiety has been shown to enhance erectile response. There was no significant difference in results on the Aggression Questionnaire. The group recommended further research.
Fear of being identified as a homosexual
A component considered to play into homophobia, as considered by some theorists, such as Calvin Thomas and Judith Butler, is an individual's fear of being identified as homosexual him or herself.
This notion suggests that when expressing homophobic viewpoints and emotions, the individual who does so is not only expressing his thoughts as to homosexuals, but also actively attempting to distance himself from this category and attributed social status. Therefore, by distancing him or herself from the people in question, he/she is reaffirming his/her role as a heterosexual, within heteronormativity, and contributing to the avoidance of his/her potential labeling and consequent treatment as a homosexual.
This interpretation plays into notions of violent opposition to "the Other" as a means of establishing one's identity as part of the majority and therefore, validated by society. This concept is also recurrent in interpretations of racism and xenophobia.
Homophobia as leading to a climate of prejudice
Whether viewed as prejudices or legitimate moral opinions, attitudes frowning on LGBT orientations and lifestyles have been reflected in legislation and these attitudes have had a profound impact on political debates over LGBT civil rights in general. Some look at people holding negative attitudes about LGBT people and assign blame to them for a creating or perpetuating a climate of prejudice that has resulted in violence against LGBT people, by individuals, states or other organizations.
Many social and religious attitudes toward homosexuality are negative, which some might describe as a form of prejudice. See Societal attitudes towards homosexuality and Religion and homosexuality.
Psychology researchers have used measures such as the Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) and Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) to predict homophobic attitudes. These measures are traditionally used to measure other forms of prejudice.
Sexist beliefs
Some gender theorists interpret the fact that male-to-male relationships often incite a stronger reaction in a homophobic person than female-to-female (lesbian) as meaning that the homophobic person feels threatened by the perceived subversion of the gender paradigm in male-to-male sexual activity. According to such theorists as D.A. Miller, male heterosexuality is defined not only by the desire for women but also, and more importantly, by the denial of desire for men. Therefore, expressions of homophobia serve as a means of limiting those who they view as displaced in heteronormativity, and also of accenting their male nature, by isolating the threatening concept of their own potential femininity in gay men, and consequently belittling them, as not real males. They regard the reason male homosexuality is treated worse compared to female homosexuality as sexist in its underlying belief that men are superior to women and therefore for a man to "replace" a woman during intercourse with another man is his own subjection to (non-male) inferiority.
However, this view would imply that only the receptive male partner in homosexual acts would be thought of as "offensive", which is the case in many cultures. Miller's specific claim that male heterosexuality does not require "desire for women" would seem to preclude the possibility of asexuality or bisexuality. Nor is it clear why male heterosexuals would "need" or even fear homosexuals in order to affirm maleness – unless their sexuality was already experienced as threatened by some other cause.
Combatting homophobia
To combat homophobia, the LGBT community uses events such as pride parades and political activism (See gay pride). Some parts of the festivities are criticized for reinforcing stereotypes about LGBT people (e.g. Dykes on Bikes, the prominence of cross-dressing, a gay male fascination with musicals, the colour pink, a sex-positive atmosphere that may seem to give endorsement to a promiscuous lifestyle which in turn relates to the problem of AIDS, etc). Other portions tend to challenge stereotypes, including the presence of religious organizations who support gay rights and oppose homophobia (See Religion and homosexuality), the families of LGBT people, and LGBT people with children.
One form of organized resistance to homophobia is the International Day Against Homophobia (IDAHO), first celebrated May 17, 2005 in related activities in more than 40 countries.
Besides public expression, specific laws have been made to oppose homophobia, as in hate speech, hate crime, and laws against discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.
Some argue that anti-LGBT prejudice is immoral or unwise above and beyond the effects on that class of people. Warren J. Blumenfeld argues that this emotion gains a dimension beyond itself, as a tool for extreme far-right conservative and religious groups and as a restricting factor on gender-relations as to the weight associated with performing each role accordingly. Furthermore, Blumenfeld in particular claimed:
- Anti-gay bias causes young people to engage in sexual behaviour earlier in order to prove that they are straight. Anti-gay bias contributed significantly to the spread of the AIDS epidemic. Anti-gay bias inhibits the ability of schools to create effective honest sexual education programs that would save children's lives and prevent STDs.
Accusations of homophobia
In politics
It is often argued that the key motivation for active opposition to equal civil rights for LGBT people is homophobia. Political opposition to LGBT social movements is often referred to as homophobic opposition, and opponents of LGBT civil rights such as same-sex marriage, repeal of sodomy laws, adoption by same-sex couples, or the inclusion of sexual-orientation as a class in affirmative action and hate crime laws are often accused of doing so because they are homophobic.
President Ronald Reagan was said to have ignored the onset of the AIDS crisis in the US because of entrenched homophobia among born-again Christian Republican conservatives who were his political base.
Senator Rick Santorum was accused of homophobia by the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, for making a declaration that he believed consenting adults do not have a constitutional right to privacy with respect to sexual acts. Santorum described the ability to regulate homosexual acts as comparable to the states' ability to regulate sexual behaviors such as bestiality, pedophilia and incest. (See Santorum controversy)
In popular culture
- Eminem's lyrics, with their use of slurs (such as "fag") and violent imagery, were referred to as "homophobic" by such groups as GLAAD, which opposed a duet he sang with Elton John at the 2001 Grammy Award presentation. The British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell commented that he could be a repressed homosexual who was seeking to distance himself from The Other.
- The Guns N' Roses song "One in a Million" contains homophobic lyrics as well as prejudiced lyrics against blacks and immigrants. It used words such as "faggots", described as "spreading some fuckin' disease". The band (mostly their singer, Axl Rose) were accused of homophobia. Rose denied this, arguing that he was an active fan of gay musicians like Freddie Mercury, Elton John and Rob Halford, as well as pointing out that his guitarist, Slash, was half-black. The song, while not as popular in the US is quite popular in other countries. Rose would play "Bohemian Rhapsody" with Elton John at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert.
- In 2004 the reggae artist Sizzla tour was cancelled in the United Kingdom and France after protests over his anti-gay lyrics (popularly referred to as "homophobic"), and at one point the British government considered banning him from entry into the country.
- In 2001 the Russian pop-band Chugunnyi Skorokhod (Template:Lang-ru) (literally, "The fast-walker of pig-iron") released a song "Пидоры идут!" (Pidory idut!) ("Fags are marching!"). The song is about how it is hard for a straight man to live in a world where gay men rule (particularly, in fields of TV, show business, etc.). It contains lines like "You were born a man - you're trapped! There's no way if you are straight!" "What's going on here and there? They suck each other right in clubs!" "Any hairdresser or stylist must be a homosexual! How can a straight man work, if gay men want him immediately?" "Try to make children with a faggot! You may try even for several days - there will be no children! The idea is corrupt, but you'll become a fag for sure!" The reaction in Russian society was mixed: while some gay magazines and web sites accused the authors of fascism, many people accepted it quite warmly and some even viewed it as satire.
- Jamaican reggae artist Buju Banton has been openly criticized for the homophobic content featured in his rap lyrics. The song "Boom Bye Bye" includes lyrics inciting the murder of homosexuals, ("Batty boy get up and run, ah gunshot in ah head man"). Homosexuality is illegal under Jamaican law, and frequently carries prison sentences of up to ten years (see LGBT rights in Jamaica).
- Homer's Phobia a season eight episode of The The Simpsons depicts Homer as a homophobic. At the end of the episode, however, he does renounce these views when his life is saved by a homosexual. The episode title itself is a word play of the word homophobia.
References
- dictionary.reference.com
- Merriam-Webster's Dictionary 2006 and 11th Collegiate Dictionary, 2005, American Heritage Dictionary.
- Oxford English Dictionary entry
- "George Weinberg: Love is Conspiratorial, Deviant & Magical"
- Herek, G. M. (1990). The context of anti-gay violence: Notes on cultural and psychological heterosexism. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 5, 316-333
- http://www.christianethicstoday.com/Issue/040/Is%20Homophobia%20The%20Same%20As%20Racism-Sexism%20By%20George%20Yancey_040__.htm
- Herek, Gregory M. (2000). The psychology of sexual prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9
- Hudson, W. and Ricketts, W. (1980) A strategy for the measure of homophobia. Journal of Homosexuality, 5, 357–372.
- "Santorum Crisis Exposes Republican Weakness", Scott Lively, April 30, 2003
- http://www.avert.org/hsexu3.htm
- "Homophobia, racism likely companions, study shows", Jet, January 10, 1994
- Epstein, D. (1995). "Keeping them in their place: Hetero/sexist harassment, gender and the enforcement of heterosexuality." In J. Holland&L. Adkins (Eds.), Sex, sensibility and the gendered body. London: Macmillan.
- Herek, G. (Ed.). (1998). Stigma and sexual orientation: Understanding prejudice against lesbians, gay men and bisexuals. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
- Kimmel, M. (1994). Masculinity as homophobia: Fear, shame and silence in the construction of gender identity. In H. Brod & M. Kaufman (Eds.), Theorizing masculinities (pp. 119-141). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
- MICHAEL S. KIMMEL and MATTHEW MAHLER, Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence: Random School Shootings, 1982-2001, State University of New York at Stony Brook, in AMERICAN BEHAVIORAL SCIENTIST, Vol. 46 No. 10, June 2003 pp. 1439-1458
- http://siba2.unile.it/ese/search/details.php?pubcat=&recid=655&recs=10&single_pub=1&pub_type=j&pub_id=6&id=60&n_campo=contents
- Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity — Discrimination and Conflicts from Planned Parenthood website (accessed 23 September 2006)
- http://www.chmeds.ac.nz/research/chds/publications/2005/264.pdf
- "Same-Sex Sexual Behavior and Psychiatric Disorders:Findings From the Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS)" by Theo G. M. Sandfort, PhD; Ron de Graaf, PhD; Rob V. Bijl, PhD; Paul Schnabel, PhD. Archives of General Psychiatry, Vol. 58 No. 1, January 2001, pp. 85-91.
- http://www.narth.com/docs/risks.html
- "Is Homophobia Associated With Homosexual Arousal?" by Henry E. Adams, Ph.D., Lester W. Wright, Jr., Ph.D. and Bethany A. Lohr, University of Georgia (Athens), Department of Psychology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 440-445. Abstract at PubMed. Summarized in an American Psychological Association press release, August 1996: "New Study Links Homophobia with Homosexual Arousal".
- Index of Homophobia: W. W. Hudson and W. A. Ricketts, 1980.
- "Towards an international Day against Homophobia", April 10, 2004
- "1st Annual International Day Against Homophobia to be Celebrated in over 40 Countries on May 17", May 12, 2005
- Blumenfield, Warren J., "Homophobia: How we all pay the price" (1992).
- The Truth About Reagan And AIDS, Michael Bronski, January 2004
- "GLMA Joins LGBT Civil Rights Groups in Condemning Homophobic Remarks by Santorum", Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, April 22, 2003
- "Eminem and Elton John team up", CNN, February 12, 2001
- "Is Eminem Queer?" undated essay
- "Ban threat aborts Sizzla UK tour", Bishop, Tom, November 4, 2004
See also
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- Allophilia
- Biphobia
- Family values
- Heterophobia
- Heterosexism
- Homonegativity
- Homosexuality and religion
- International Day Against Homophobia
- Slogans of anti-gay ideology
- Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered
External links
- Wikiquote - Quotes about Homophobia
- Meanings of the word Homophobia
- GLAAD site: Nationwide Responses to Senator Lott's Homophobic Remarks
- The Homophobic Imagination
- The Rockway Institute for LGBT research in the public interest at Alliant International University
- Homophobia in the media