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Starting in about the 1st century BCE, Sanskrit has been written in many South Asian, Southeast Asian and Central Asian scripts.

Early inscriptions

The earliest known stone inscriptions in Sanskrit are in the Brahmi script from the first century BCE. These include the Ayodhyā (Uttar Pradesh) and Hāthībādā-Ghosuṇḍī (near Chittorgarh, Rajasthan) inscriptions. Both of these, states Salomon, are "essentially standard" and "correct Sanskrit", with a few exceptions reflecting an "informal Sanskrit usage". Other important Hindu inscriptions dated to the 1st century BCE, in relatively accurate classical Sanskrit and Brahmi script are the Yavanarajya inscription on a red sandstone slab and the long Naneghat inscription on the wall of a cave rest stop in the Western Ghats.

Besides these few examples from the 1st century BCE, the earliest Sanskrit and hybrid dialect inscriptions are found in Mathura (Uttar Pradesh). These date to the 1st and 2nd century CE, states Salomon, from the time of the Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and the subsequent Kushan Empire. These are also in the Brahmi script. The earliest of these, states Salomon, are attributed to Ksatrapa Sodasa from the early years of 1st century CE. Of the Mathura inscriptions, the most significant is the Mora Well Inscription. In a manner similar to the Hathibada inscription, the Mora well inscription is a dedicatory inscription and is linked to the cult of the Vrishni heroes: it mentions a stone shrine (temple), pratima (murti, images) and calls the five Vrishnis as bhagavatam. There are many other Mathura Sanskrit inscriptions in Brahmi script overlapping the era of Indo-Scythian Northern Satraps and early Kushanas. Other significant 1st-century inscriptions in reasonably good classical Sanskrit in the Brahmi script include the Vasu Doorjamb Inscription and the Mountain Temple inscription. The early ones are related to the Brahmanical, except for the inscription from Kankali Tila which may be Jaina, but none are Buddhist. A few of the later inscriptions from the 2nd century CE include Buddhist Sanskrit, while others are in "more or less" standard Sanskrit and related to the Brahmanical tradition.

Northwest India

In Maharashtra and Gujarat, Brahmi script Sanskrit inscriptions from the early centuries of the common era exist at the Nasik Caves site, near the Girnar mountain of Junagadh and elsewhere such as at Kanakhera, Kanheri, and Gunda. The Nasik inscription dates to the mid-1st century CE, is a fair approximation of standard Sanskrit and has hybrid features. The Junagadh rock inscription of Western Satraps ruler Rudradaman I (c. 150 CE, Gujarat) is the first long poetic-style inscription in "more or less" standard Sanskrit that has survived into the modern era. It represents a turning point in the history of Sanskrit epigraphy, states Salomon. Though no similar inscriptions are found for about two hundred years after the Rudradaman reign, it is important because its style is the prototype of the eulogy-style Sanskrit inscriptions found in the Gupta Empire era. These inscriptions are also in the Brahmi script.

South India

The Nagarjunakonda inscriptions are the earliest known substantial South Indian Sanskrit inscriptions, probably from the late 3rd century or early 4th century CE, or both. These inscriptions are related to Buddhism and the Shaivism tradition of Hinduism. A few of these inscriptions from both traditions are verse-style in the classical Sanskrit language, while some such as the pillar inscription is written in prose and a hybridized Sanskrit language. An earlier hybrid Sanskrit inscription found on Amaravati slab is dated to the late 2nd century, while a few later ones include Sanskrit inscriptions along with Prakrit inscriptions related to Hinduism and Buddhism. After the 3rd century CE, Sanskrit inscriptions dominate and many have survived. Between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, south Indian inscriptions are exclusively in the Sanskrit language. In the eastern regions of South Asia, scholars report minor Sanskrit inscriptions from the 2nd century, these being fragments and scattered. The earliest substantial true Sanskrit language inscription of Susuniya (West Bengal) is dated to the 4th century. Elsewhere, such as Dehradun (Uttarakhand), inscriptions in more or less correct classical Sanskrit inscriptions are dated to the 3rd century.

Classical period and decline

According to Salomon, the 4th-century reign of Samudragupta was the turning point when the classical Sanskrit language became established as the "epigraphic language par excellence" of the Indian world. These Sanskrit language inscriptions are either "donative" or "panegyric" records. Generally in accurate classical Sanskrit, they deploy a wide range of regional Indic writing systems extant at the time. They record the donation of a temple or stupa, images, land, monasteries, pilgrim's travel record, public infrastructure such as water reservoir and irrigation measures to prevent famine. Others praise the king or the donor in lofty poetic terms. The Sanskrit language of these inscriptions is written on stone, various metals, terracotta, wood, crystal, ivory, shell, and cloth.

First millennium BCE – southeast Asia

The evidence of the use of the Sanskrit language in Indic writing systems appears in southeast Asia in the first half of the 1st millennium CE. A few of these in Vietnam are bilingual where both the Sanskrit and the local language is written in the Indian alphabet. Early Sanskrit language inscriptions in Indic writing systems are dated to the 4th century in Malaysia, 5th to 6th centuries in Thailand near Si Thep and the Sak River, early 5th century in Kutai (known as the Mulavarman inscription discovered in eastern Borneo), and mid-5th century in west Java (Indonesia). Both major writing systems for Sanskrit, the North Indian and South Indian scripts, have been discovered in southeast Asia, but the Southern variety with its rounded shapes are far more common. The Indic scripts, particularly the Pallava script prototype, spread and ultimately evolved into Mon-Burmese, Khmer, Thai, Lao, Sumatran, Celebes, Javanese and Balinese scripts. From about the 5th century, Sanskrit inscriptions become common in many parts of South Asia and Southeast Asia, with significant discoveries in Nepal, Vietnam and Cambodia.

See also

• B. Lewis Rice
• Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum
• Early Indian epigraphy
• Epigraphia Indica
• John Faithfull Fleet
• K. V. Ramesh
• Prashasti
• The Indian Antiquary
• Vasudev Vishnu Mirashi
• Western Satraps

References

Notes

1. Some scholars date these to the 2nd century BCE.
2. Prakrit inscriptions of ancient India, such as those of Ashoka, are older. Louis Renou called it "the great linguistical paradox of India" that the Sanskrit inscriptions appear later than Prakrit inscriptions, although Prakrit is considered as a descendant of the Sanskrit language.
3. According to Salomon, towards the end of pre-Christian era, "a smattering" of standard or nearly standard Sanskrit inscriptions came into vogue, and "we may assume that these are isolated survivals of what must have been then an increasingly common practice". He adds, that the Scythian rulers of northern and western India while not the originators, were promoters of the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions, and "their motivation in promoting Sanskrit was presumably a desire to establish themselves as legitimate Indian or at least Indianized rulers and to curry the favor of the educated Brahmanical elite".
4. The Rudradaman inscription is "not pure classical Sanskrit", but with few epic-vernacular Sanskrit exceptions, it approaches high classical Sanskrit.
5. Finally, after this transitional period in the fourth and early fifth centuries CE, Prakrit fell out of use completely in southern Indian inscriptions. For the next few centuries Sanskrit was the sole epigraphic language, until the regional Dravidian languages began to come into use around the seventh century. —
6. The use of the Sanskrit language in epigraphy gradually dropped after the arrival and the consolidation of Islamic Delhi Sultanate rule in the late 12th century, but it remained in active epigraphical use in the south and central regions of India. By about the 14th century, with the Islamic armies conquering more of South Asia, the use of Sanskrit language for inscriptions became rarer and it was replaced with Persian, Arabic, Dravidian and North-Indo-Aryan languages, states Salomon. The Sanskrit language, particularly in bilingual form, re-emerged in the epigraphy of Hindu kingdoms such as the Vijayanagara, Yadavas, Hoysalas, Pandyas, and others that re-established themselves. Some Muslim rulers such as Adil Shah also issued Sanskrit language inscriptions recording the donation of a mosque.

Citations

1. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 86–87.
2. Jan Gonda (2016). Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 166, note 243. ISBN 978-1-4742-8082-2. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
3. James Hegarty (2013). Religion, Narrative and Public Imagination in South Asia: Past and place in the Sanskrit Mahabharata. Routledge. p. 46, note 118. ISBN 978-1-136-64589-1. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
4. Theo Damsteegt (1978). Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit. Brill Academic. pp. 209–211. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
5. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL Academic. pp. 254–255. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
6. Salomon 1998, p. 87 with footnotes.
7. Salomon 1998, p. 93.
8. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 87–88.
9. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL Academic. pp. 260–263. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
10. Sonya Rhie Quintanilla (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: ca. 150 BCE – 100 CE. BRILL Academic. p. 260. ISBN 978-90-04-15537-4. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2018.
11. Salomon 1998, p. 88.
12. Inscription No 21 in Janert, l (1961). Mathura Inscriptions.
13. Salomon 1998, pp. 88–89.
14. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 89–90.
15. ^ Salomon 1998, p. 89.
16. Salomon 1998, pp. 10, 86–90
17. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 91–94.
18. Salomon 1998, pp. 90–91.
19. Salomon 1998, pp. 90–91 with footnote 51.
20. Salomon 1998, pp. 91–93.
21. ^ Salomon 1998, p. 92.
22. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 92–93.
23. Salomon 1998, pp. 110–112, 132–148.
24. Salomon 1998, pp. 110–126.
25. Salomon 1998, pp. 126–132.
26. Salomon 1998, pp. 148–149.
27. ^ Salomon 1998, pp. 149–150.
28. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–447, in the chapter by Christopher Court.
29. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–447 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
30. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 445–456 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
31. Peter T. Daniels 1996, pp. 446–448 in the chapter by Christopher Court.
32. Colin P. Masica 1993, pp. 143–144.

Bibliography

• Peter T. Daniels (1996). The World's Writing Systems. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7. Archived from the original on 29 March 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2018.

• Colin P. Masica (1993). The Indo-Aryan Languages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-29944-2. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved 17 July 2018.

• Salomon, Richard (1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3. Archived from the original on 2 July 2023. Retrieved 16 July 2018.

Further reading

• Mahadevan, Iravatham (2003). Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.

External links

• "INDICORPUS-31". 31 Sanskrit and Dravidian dictionaries for Lingvo.
• Karen Thomson; Jonathan Slocum. "Ancient Sanskrit Online". free online lessons from the "Linguistics Research Center". University of Texas at Austin.
• "Samskrita Bharati". an organisation promoting the usage of Sanskrit
• "Sanskrit Documents". — Documents in ITX format of Upanishads, Stotras etc.
• "Sanskrit texts". Sacred Text Archive.
• "Sanskrit Manuscripts". Cambridge Digital Library.
• "Lexilogos Devanagari Sanskrit Keyboard". for typing Sanskrit in the Devanagari script.
• "Online Sanskrit Dictionary". — sources results from Monier Williams etc.
• "The Sanskrit Grammarian". — dynamic online declension and conjugation tool
• "Online Sanskrit Dictionary". — Sanskrit hypertext dictionary
• "Sanskrit Shlokas collection". — Collection of Sanskrit Shlokas from Various Sanskrit Texts

• [REDACTED] Definitions from Wiktionary
• [REDACTED] Quotations from Wikiquote
• [REDACTED] Textbooks from Wikibooks
• Phrasebook from Wikivoyage
• [REDACTED] Sanskrit edition of Misplaced Pages

• Sanskrit
• Indo-Aryan languages
• Languages attested from the 2nd millennium BC
• Languages written in Devanagari
• Subject–object–verb languages
• Classical Language in India
• Official languages of India
• Languages of Nepal
• Languages of India
• Languages written in Brahmic scripts
• Sacred languages