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Pontianak Teochew (simplified Chinese: 坤甸潮州话; traditional Chinese: 坤甸潮州話; Peng'im: kung¹ diêng⁶ dio⁵ ziu¹ uê) is a dialect of Teochew primarily spoken by the Chinese community in Pontianak, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Pontianak Teochew was originally spoken by the Teochew people who migrated from the Chaoshan region in Guangdong, China. These migrants and their descendants constitute the majority of the Chinese population in Pontianak and its surrounding areas. Today, however, it serves as the lingua franca for the entire Chinese community in Pontianak. Pontianak Teochew has also become a common trade or marketplace language in Pontianak and its surrounding areas. The Pontianak Teochew dialect has undergone significant assimilation into the local languages, making it slightly different from the original Teochew dialect spoken in Guangdong. This variation is primarily due to the influence of language assimilation processes involving Pontianak Malay and Indonesian. Many Chinese people in Pontianak are multilingual, speaking not only Teochew but also Hakka, Mandarin, Pontianak Malay, and Indonesian.

Unlike in Java, where the use of Chinese languages has declined due to language shift and past discouragement by the Indonesian government, the Chinese dialects spoken in Pontianak and West Kalimantan remain well-preserved. Pontianak Teochew continues to be spoken across generations of the Chinese community in Pontianak, including by younger people. It is used in schools and markets, although there is a gradual shift toward Indonesian, particularly among the youth. Code-mixing between Pontianak Teochew and Indonesian is also a common phenomenon.

History

The Teochew people began migrating to what is now West Kalimantan during the 19th century. Originating from the Chaoshan region in southern Guangdong, they were part of a larger migration wave and typically passed through the port of Shantou on their journey. Initially, not all Chinese migrants to West Kalimantan were part of the middle class. Many traveled in groups, and it was common for some to work as farmers or small traders, placing them in the lower class. In contrast to Java and Sumatra, where Cantonese and Hokkien make up the majority of the Chinese population, these two groups form only a small minority in West Kalimantan. The majority in this region are Hakka, who settled in West Kalimantan much earlier, followed by the Teochew. These Chinese migrants began arriving when the Pontianak Sultanate invited them to engage in mining activities and help revitalize trade. The Teochew people have generally steered clear of politics, focusing primarily on trade. As a result, they were largely excluded from the establishment of the Lanfang Republic in the 19th century, which was almost entirely composed of Hakka.

The use of Teochew and other Chinese dialects was significantly discouraged following Indonesia's independence. In the 1950s, several policies were introduced across the archipelago targeting Chinese language and culture. In the summer of 1957, military commanders, intent on eliminating foreign ideologies, closed all Chinese-language schools. Then, in April 1958, a military decree was issued prohibiting the publication of newspapers and periodicals in Chinese. With the onset of the New Order, the government under Suharto introduced the official national policy regarding Chinese religion, beliefs, and traditions through Presidential Instruction No. 14/1967 (Inpress No. 14/1967). This policy mandated that all Chinese rituals and activities be confined to the family and not take place publicly. For more than thirty years, Teochew, along with other Chinese dialects, was explicitly discouraged in Indonesian-medium schools. Teachers encouraged the use of Indonesian and discouraged students from speaking their native languages.

Following the fall of the New Order, President Abdurrahman Wahid initiated significant reforms for the Chinese community by repealing the 1967 national policy through Presidential Decision No. 6/2000 (Keppres No. 6/2000). This was further supported by President Megawati Soekarnoputri, who issued Presidential Decision No. 19/2002 (Keppres No. 19/2002), declaring Chinese New Year a national holiday. These changes marked a shift toward greater acceptance and expression of Chinese culture and language. With Mandarin reintroduced in schools, Teochew is no longer as strictly prohibited as it once was.

Geographic distribution and usage

In Pontianak, two varieties of Chinese are spoken: Teochew and Hakka. The Teochew dialect is the most widely spoken among the Chinese community in Pontianak. The Teochew population primarily resides in the urban areas of southern Pontianak, whereas those in northern Pontianak, as well as the suburbs and rural areas, predominantly speak Hakka. However, many Hakka speakers in Pontianak are bilingual, fluent in both Hakka and Teochew—and the same is true vice versa. The Teochew are primarily urban dwellers, including plantation workers, shopkeepers, and traders, while the Hakka were traditionally rural inhabitants, working as miners, farmers, and small traders. However, following the forced migration of the 1960s, predominantly involving Hakka, this pattern was disrupted. The Teochew, being relatively better off and long-established residents of the city, saw their language gradually become the common spoken language for both Teochew and Hakka communities.

Teochew is so deeply embedded in Pontianak that many non-Chinese individuals, especially business owners, can speak it to some extent. Teochew speakers in the region take great pride in their dialect, with younger generations often making a conscious effort to avoid code-mixing with Malay or Indonesian. Besides being native Teochew speakers, many also speak their local Malay variety fluently and can communicate in varying degrees of Standard Indonesian, as well as other Chinese dialects like Mandarin and Hokkien. Proficiency in Mandarin is especially common among older generations and younger speakers who are actively working to reconnect with their cultural roots.

Teochew has become the lingua franca of the Chinese community in Pontianak, serving not only the Teochew population but also the Hakka and other Chinese ethnic groups. Code-mixing and code-switching between Teochew, Hakka, Pontianak Malay, and Indonesian are prevalent in daily interactions. In addition to learning Teochew as their mother tongue or first language, many Chinese youths in Pontianak also study Mandarin, which serves as the unifying language for ethnic Chinese communities. Indonesian, the national language, is used in formal contexts such as schools, government institutions, and interethnic communication. Additionally, many Chinese people in Pontianak are fluent in Pontianak Malay, the local Malay dialect. While the majority of Pontianak Malay speakers are ethnically Malay, many non-Malay residents, including Chinese, also speak the local language. The use of Teochew is under threat due to a shift in language preferences. Currently, in daily life, many Chinese people in Pontianak prefers and uses Indonesian or Pontianak Malay. This indicates that the language used by the Chinese community in Pontianak has undergone a shift, especially among the younger generation.

Phonology

Consonants

In Pontianak Teochew, there are 18 distinct consonants. They are: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and .

Additionally, the consonant zero sound is found in the vocabulary 我 , 爷 , 英 and 幼 .

Tones

Pontianak Teochew features a tonal system consisting of eight distinct tones, which are further categorized into "yin" and "yang" tones. These tones are classified into four categories: level tones, rising tones, falling tones, and entering tones. Each category includes both voiced and devoiced variations, resulting in a total of eight distinct tones. Due to the influence of Indonesian and Malay, many Teochew speakers in Pontianak have gradually lost the distinct high and low tones that are characteristic of the original Teochew spoken in Guangdong.

References

1. ^ Peng 2012, p. 5.
2. "Reclassifying ISO 639-3 [nan]" (PDF). GitHub. 31 August 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
3. Aretha, Paula (2024-02-13). "The Spread of Chaoshan Food Culture in Pontianak: 潮汕饮食文化在坤甸的传播". Mandarinable: Journal of Chinese Studies. 3 (1): 104–111. doi:10.20961/mandarinable.v3i1.1144. ISSN 2962-4258.
4. ^ Chiang, Bien; Cheng, Jean Chih-yin (2017), Santasombat, Yos (ed.), "Ethnic Chinese Enterprises in Indonesia: A Case Study of West Kalimantan", Chinese Capitalism in Southeast Asia: Cultures and Practices, Singapore: Springer, pp. 131–153, doi:10.1007/978-981-10-4696-4_6, ISBN 978-981-10-4696-4, retrieved 2025-01-04
5. ^ Thamrin, Lily; Suhardi; Veronica, Tjen; Lusi (2022). "Pergeseran Bahasa Teochew Pada Remaja Tionghoa Teochew di Pontianak". LOKABASA: Jurnal Kajian Bahasa, Sastra, dan Budaya Daerah serta Pengajarannya. 13 (1): 91–99. doi:10.17509/jlb.v10i1. eISSN 2528-5904. ISSN 2338-6193.
6. ^ Thamrin, Lily (2020-12-30). "Phonological Description of Teochew Dialect in Pontianak West Kalimantan". Lingua Cultura. 14 (2): 195–201. doi:10.21512/lc.v14i2.6600. ISSN 2460-710X.
7. Thamrin, Lily; Suhardi, S; Veronica, Tjen; Lusi, L (2021-12-24). "Persepsi remaja Tionghoa terhadap pembelajaran bahasa dialek Teochew". Linguista: Jurnal Ilmiah Bahasa, Sastra, dan Pembelajarannya. 5 (2): 106. doi:10.25273/linguista.v5i2.10845. ISSN 2579-9037.
8. Farinuddin, Harry; Pradjoko, Didik (2024-07-31). "Tek Seng Bio Temple as a Symbol of History and Locality of the Chinese Indonesian Community in Cikarang". International Review of Humanities Studies. 9 (2). doi:10.7454/irhs.v9i2.1303. ISSN 2477-6866.
9. Atmaja, Dwi Surya; Fachrurrazi (2018). "Escalating Threats on Chinese-Malay Interaction". Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat (LP2M). Institut Agama Islam Negeri Pontianak.
10. Jailani, Muhammad; Dewantara, Jagad Aditya; Rahmani, Eka Fajar (2023-01-02). "The Awareness of Mutual Respect Post-Conflicts: Ethnic Chinese Strategy through Social Interaction and Engagement in West Kalimantan". Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 33 (1). doi:10.1080/10911359.2021.1990170. ISSN 1091-1359.
11. Purdey, Jemma (2006). Anti-Chinese violence in Indonesia, 1996-1999. Asian Studies Association of Australia Southeast Asia publications series. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press in association with Asian Studies Association of Australia. ISBN 978-0-8248-3057-1. OCLC 61724445.
12. ^ Veniranda 2015, p. 20.
13. ^ Veniranda 2015, p. 21.
14. ^ Veronica, Tjen; Thamrin, Lily; Lusi, Lusi; Suhardi, Suhardi (2023-09-12). "The Mastery of The Teochew Dialect and Mandarin Chinese of Chinese Youths". JETL (Journal of Education, Teaching and Learning). 8 (2): 141–145. doi:10.26737/jetl.v8i2.3341. ISSN 2477-8478.
15. Davina, Shiranindita (2021). Sajian Kuliner Peranakan Tionghoa di Pontianak, Kalimantan Barat (Thesis). Politeknik Pariwisata NHI Bandung.
16. Heidhues, Mary Somers (2003). Golddiggers, Farmers, and Traders in the "Chinese Districts" of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Cornell University Press. doi:10.7591/j.ctv1nhn2g. ISBN 978-0-87727-733-0.
17. ^ Birnie-Smith, Jess (2020). "The impact of language and phenotype in classifications of ethnicity". Australian Journal of Linguistics. 40 (1). doi:10.1080/07268602.2019.1695581. ISSN 0726-8602.
18. Strangers at home: history and subjectivity among the Chinese communities of West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Chinese overseas. Leiden : Brill. 2011. ISBN 978-90-04-17340-8.
19. Veniranda 2015, p. 24.

Bibliography

• Peng, Anne Elise (2012). Aspects of the Syntax of Indonesian Teochew (PhD thesis). University of Delaware. ISBN 978-1-267-96938-5.{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
• Veniranda, Yohana (2015). Perfective Aspect and Negation in Pontianak Teochew (PhD thesis). University of Delaware.{{cite thesis}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

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