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Mughal-Sikh wars
Part of the decline of the Mughal Empire
Painting of Guru Gobind Singh in battle. Illustration from a manuscript of Krishnavatar.
Date 1621 – 12 March 1788 Location North India
Belligerents
Mughal Empire	Akal Sena (1621 - 1699) Khalsa Fauj (1699 - 1748) First Sikh State (1709-1715) Sikh Confederacy (1748 - 1788)
Commanders and leaders
Mughal Emperors Jahangir I Shah Jahan I Alamgir I Azam Shah Shah Alam I Jahandar Shah Farrukhsiyar Rafi al-Darajat Shah Jahan II Muhammad Shah Ahmad Shah Shah Alam II  Mughal Governors and Generals Jalal Khan Orakzai Kale Khan † Qutab Khan † Adina Beg Wazir Khan † Dilwaar Khan Mian Khan Nasar-ul-Mulk Abd al-Samad Khan Zakariyya Khan Salabat Khan † Yahya Khan Shahnawaz Khan Moin-ul-Mulk Abdul Khan † Zabardast Khan Mughal Generals Mukhlis Khan † Lal Beg † Qumer Beg † Painde Khan † Hussain Khan † Nahar Khan † Gharit Khan † Shamas Khan Nahid Khan  † Din Beg  (WIA) Zain Khan Sirhindi  † Khwaja Muhammad  (WIA) Muhammad Yarbeg Khan † Ahmed Khan  † Fateh Khan  † Jamal Khan	Sikh Gurus Har Gobind Har Rai Gobind Singh XSikh Generals Bhai Jattu Bidhi Chand Baba Gurditta Bhai Sohela † Bhatt Kirat Bhai Desu † Bhai Bhano Tyag Mal  Ajit Singh † Jujhar Singh † Bhai Daya Singh Bhai Dharam Singh Bhai Himmat Singh † Bhai Mohkam Singh † Bhai Sahib Singh † Mata Bhag Kaur Banda Singh Bahadur  Baj Singh  Binod Singh † Bhai Mani Singh  Baba Deep Singh Baba Darbara Singh Nawab Kapur Singh Jassa Singh Ahluwalia Baghel Singh Jassa Singh Ramgarhia Charat Singh Sukha Singh Haqiqat Singh Kanhaiya Tara Singh Ghaiba Jai Singh Kanhaiya

The Mughal-Sikh Wars were a series of conflicts that took place between the Sikhs of Punjab and the Mughal Empire from 1621 to 1788. These wars resulted from of religious, political, and territorial disputes, which fundamentally altered the balance of power in northern India.

The roots of the conflicts can be traced back to the early 17th century when Sikhism, under the leadership of its leaders known as Gurus, began asserting its distinct identity. The execution of Guru Arjan Dev in 1606 at the hands of Emperor Jahangir marked the beginning of Sikh resistance to Mughal supremacy. This slowly transformed into armed struggle over time, especially during the leadership of Guru Hargobind, who initiated the militarisation of the Sikh community.

The conflicts, which lasted for several decades, featured intermittent engagements and skirmishes. The Sikhs resistance was reinforced by the persecution of their religion under Emperor Aurangzeb's reign, when the Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed in 1675. The Sikhs' resistance against Mughal persecution reached a turning point in 1699 when they organized under the Guruship of Guru Gobind Singh to form the Khalsa, a martial order.

With the decline of the Mughal Empire in the caused the Sikhs to shift from a defensive opposition strategy to one of territorial expansion. In Punjab and abroad, the Sikhs were able to take coordinated action against the Mughal rule due to the establishment of Sikh misls. The conflict ultimately resulted in the fall of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of the Sikh Empire at the start of the 1800s under Maharaja Ranjit Singh.

Background

The fifth Sikh Guru, Guru Arjan Dev, was martyred in 1606 under controversial circumstances during the rule of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. Historians have debated the cause behind his martyrdom. Some argue that it was politically motivated citing as reasons his alleged backing of Jahangir's rebel son Khusrau Mirza and also the growing influence of the Guru. Jahangir's memoirs, the Tuzk-e-Jahangiri, describes Arjan as a Hindu religious leader who had "captured many of the simple-hearted of the Hindus and even of the ignorant and foolish followers of Islam, by his ways and manners".

Sikh tradition views Arjan's death as persecution by the Mughals, rooted in his refusal to pay a fine, alter sacred hymns, or convert to Islam. Accounts vary on whether he was tortured, executed, or drowned in the Ravi River. Contemporary sources, such as Jesuit missionary Jerome Xavier and Dabistan-i Mazahib, describe his steadfastness during torture, with Xavier noting Sikh attempts to commute the sentence to a fine, which failed. His martyrdom is seen as a turning point that inspired Sikhs to militarize under his successor, Guru Hargobind. Multiple narratives, including those involving Chandu Shah, attempt to explain or absolve Mughal responsibility but lack consistent evidence.

Militarisation of Sikhism

The militarization of Sikhism began with Guru Hargobind, the sixth Sikh Guru, after the martyrdom of his father, Guru Arjan. Realizing the challenges ahead, Guru Hargobind initiated a new vision for the Sikh community. At his succession ceremony, he requested Baba Buddha to adorn him with two swords, symbolizing Miri (worldly authority) and Piri (spiritual authority). These two swords represented the dual role of the Guru: protecting the oppressed and upholding righteousness on one hand, and nurturing spirituality and community welfare on the other.

Guru Hargobind emphasized the need of having horses and weapons for self-defense and urged Sikhs to adopt a dual approach of prayer and preparation. Thus, he established a small but trained force that expanded from a 52-man bodyguard to a well-coordinated army with infantry, artillery, and cavalry. Faith-driven, many followed him, seeing their work as a religious obligation and an opportunity for spiritual atonement.

By constructing the Lohgarh, the Fortress of Steel, in Amritsar, he fortified Sikh fortifications. He also embraced sovereign symbols like a personal flag and a nagara (war drum), which served as a community rallying cry. Directly across from the Harmandir Sahib, he built the Akal Takht in 1606. The Akal Takht became the seat of Sikh temporal power, where Guru Hargobind administered justice, accepted sacrifices, and led the populace, while the Harmandir remained the site of spirituality.

Imprisonment of the Guru

In 1609, on the pretext that the fine imposed on Guru Arjan had not been paid, Jahangir put the then 14-year-old Guru Hargobind in prison in Gwalior Fort. Considerable variations (between two to twelve years) are reported about the length of his stay in prison. The Persian sources like Dabestan-e Mazaheb show an extended period of imprisonment including 1617–1619 and Mughal surveillance even after his release.

Battles

See also

• Sikh raids on Delhi
• List of battles involving the Sikh Empire
• Afghan-Sikh Wars
• Chhota Ghallughara
• Indian Campaign of Ahmad Shah Durrani
• Gurkha-Sikh War
• Sino-Sikh War
• First Anglo-Sikh War
• Second Anglo-Sikh War
• Mughal–Maratha Wars
• Rajput Rebellion
• List of wars involving the Mughal Empire

References

Citations

1. Shackle 2013, p. xv–xvi.
2. ^ McLeod 2009, p. 20.
3. Singh 2005, p. 17.
4. Madra & Singh 2016, p. 7.
5. McLeod 2009, p. 21.
6. Singh 2006, p. 211.
7. Gandhi 2015, p. 93.
8. Syan 2013, p. 48.
9. ^ Gupta 1994, p. 155.
10. Gandhi 1978, p. 278.
11. ^ Gandhi 1978, p. 279.
12. Singh 1979, p. 214.
13. Gupta 1994, p. 157.
14. Gandhi 1978, p. 282.
15. ^ Mandair 2013, p. 48.
16. Singh 1992, p. 232.

Works cited

• McLeod, W. H. (2009). The A to Z of Sikhism. The A to Z Guide Series. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-6344-6.
• Shackle, Christopher (2013). Teachings of the Sikh Gurus: Selections from the Sikh Scriptures. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-45101-0.
• Singh, Pashaura (2006). Life and Work of Guru Arjan: History, Memory, and Biography in the Sikh Tradition (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-567921-2.
• Madra, Amandeep Singh; Singh, P. (2016). Sicques, Tigers or Thieves: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs (1606-1810). Springer. ISBN 978-1-137-11998-8.
• Gandhi, Rajmohan (2015). Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten (reprint ed.). Aleph. ISBN 978-93-8306-408-3.
• Singh, Pashaura (2005). "Understanding the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan" (PDF). Journal of Philosophical Society. 12 (1): 32–33. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 June 2010.
• Syan, Hardip Singh (2013). Sikh Militancy in the Seventeenth Century: Religious Violence in Mughal and Early Modern India. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781780762500.
• Gupta, Hari Ram (1994). History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Gurus, 1469-1708. Vol. 1 (3, illustrated ed.). Munshiram Manoharlal. ISBN 978-81-215-0276-4.
• Gandhi, Surjit Singh (1978). History of the Sikh Gurus: A Comprehensive Study. Gur Das Kapur.
• Singh, Gopal (1979). A History of the Sikh People, 1469-1978. World Sikh University Press.
• Mandair, Arvind-Pal Singh (2013). Sikhism: A Guide for the Perplexed. Guides for the Perplexed (Illustrated ed.). A&C Black. ISBN 9781441117083.
• Singh, Harbans (1992). The Encyclopaedia of Sikhism: E-L (2nd ed.). Punjabi University. ISBN 9788173802041.

External links

• [REDACTED] Media related to Mughal-Sikh Wars at Wikimedia Commons

• Battles involving the Mughal Empire
• Battles involving the Sikhs
• Lists of battles by former country involved