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Kannada literature refers to the body literature written in the Kannada language, a language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka. It boasts of a rich and ancient body of literature, spanning fifteen hundred years covering medieval socio-religious developments such as Jainism (puranas), Virashiavism (Vachana), and Vaishnavism (Haridasa Sahitya). A fourth type of literature is that bearing on secular subjects. Evidence from edicts during the time of Ashoka the Great suggest that the Kannada script and its literature was derived from Buddhist literature, prompting some historians claim that a Buddhist era in Kannada literature may have existed prior to the Jain period. The earliest available literary work, Kavirajamarga, a writing on rhetoric and poetics has been dated to 850 CE.

Medieval Jain writers wrote about Jain Tirthankars and other personages important to the Jain religion. The Virashiva writers accounted for devotees of Shiva, the twenty five forms of Shiva and expositions of the shatsthala and Ekottarasatasthala while the Vaishnava writers wrote on the epics, Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Vedanta and other subjects bearing on Vaishnava puranic stories. Available literature among secular subjects are writings on grammar (sabdagama), logic (Yuktyagama), philosophy (paramagama), poetry, prosidy, drama, rhetoric, lexicon, medecine, local history, biography, veterinary sicence, mathematics, cookery, astrology, meteorology and erotics.

Modern Kannada literature has been the most successful among contemporary Indian vernacular literatures, having been awarded Jnanpith awards seven times. The Sahitya Academy award, the highest award given by the Government of India has been conferred fifty times upon Kannada writers since its inception in 1954. The history of Kannada literature is usually studied under four phases: purva HaleGannada(pre-old Kannada) HaleGannada (Old Kannada), NaduGannada (Middle Kannada) and Hosa Kannada (New Kannada).

Early literature

The earliest example of full length Kannada writing can be found in the Halmidi inscription dated 450 CE The earliest available record of Kannada poetry in tripadi metre (three line) are the Kappe Arabhatta record of 700 CE, indicating the verse form of writing had come into vogue. Coins with Kannada legends began to appear from the early 5th century rule of the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi. The earliest available literature in Kannada is the the Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics written in 850 CE. While some accounts credit the Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I as the author, a view that the book may have been co-authored by Srivijaya, a poet at the kings court, is also widely held. The work is a treatise on Kannada poetry, the Kannada language and Kannada speaking people in general. References are made in Kavirajamarga to earlier writers such as Vimala (Vimalachandra), Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabhandu and 5th - 6th century King Durvinita as writers of prose; Srivijaya, Kavisvara, Pandita, Chandra, Ravi Kirthi (court poet of Pulakesi II) and Lokapala as writers of poetry. The types of compositions in Kannada that existed prior to Kavirajamarga are mentioned in it. These compositions were the Chattana and the Beddande, writings in which are considered extinct.

Apart from those mentioned in the Kavirajamarga, early Kannada writers frequently mention three poets; Samantabhadra from about 2nd century CE, Kavi Parameshthi assigned to 3rd - 4th century CE and Pujyapada of about 5th century CE as being eminent among their predecessors. While no Kannada works of these writers have been specifically mentioned, given the frequency and uniformity with which they are mentioned by later Kannada writers, it is probable that they wrote in Kannada. However, other Kannada writers of the early medieval period are known. Their works are known and referenced by later writers but are now considered extinct. These writers are Syamakundacharya (650 CE) who wrote Prabhrita and Srivaradhadeva, also called Tumubuluracharya (650 CE) who wrote the Chudamani (Crest Jewel), a 96,000 verse commentary on logic (Tattvartha-mahashastra). Other sources propose the date of Chudamani to the 6th century or earlier. Bhattakalanka, a 17th century grammarian, wrote of the Chudamini being a milestone which demonstrated that Kannada was well suited for scientific works.

Gajashtaka, a writing on elephant management in a hundred verses was authored by the King Shivamara II around 800 CE but is now considered extinct. Around 900 CE, Gunavarma I wrote the Sudraka and the Harivamsa, both now considered extinct. He is known to have been patronised by King Ereganga Neetimarga II. In Sudraka, he has favourably compared his patron to King Sudraka of ancient times. Sri Vijaya, court poet of Rashtrakuta King Amoghavarsha I wrote the Chandraprabha-purana in early 9th century. A prosody called Guna-gankiyam has been referenced in a Tamil work called Yapparungalakkarigai by Amritasagara and has been dated to the middle of 9th century. Bhattakalanka in his works also quotes Gunanandi (900 CE) as an expert in logic, Kannada grammar and prose. A contemporary of Amoghavarsha I was the Digambara Jain poet Asaga (or Asoka), who wrote the Karnatakumarasambhava Kavya and other writings which have been praised by later day poets such as Jayakirthi, but none of which are available today.

Medieval literature

The medieval period covering the periods between 9th and 13th centuries produced, broadly speaking, writers of the Jain, Virashaiva, Vaishnava and secular traditions. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, from earliest known writings to those of 12th century, though a few works by Virashaivas are availabe. The 13th century to 15th century period saw the emergence of numerous Virashaiva and some Vaishnava writers with a proportional decline in Jain literary works. Thereafter, the literary tradition has been dominated by Virashaiva and Vaishnava writers. Popular metres from the 9th century onwards are the champu-kavyas or just champu used commonly by Jain writers (poems in verse of various metres interspersed with paragraphs of prose), vachana (Virashaiva poetic prose in simple and lucid Kannada from 12th century), sangatya (sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument and introduced in 1232 by Sisumanayana), shatpadi (seven-liner verse popular in later Jain, Vaishnava and Virashaiva works), ragale (lyrical poems with refrain), tripadi (three-line verse), kavya (a poem in classical style). and akkara metres.

The earliest extant prose work in Kannada, written in purva halekannada (pre-old Kannada) is Vaddaradhane (Wroship of elders - 900) by Shivakotiacharya. The writing contains nineteen stories, mostly borrowed from the Sanskrit writing Brihatkatha-Kosha and is about Jain tenets and describes issues such as rebirth, Karma, plight of humans on earth, social issues of the time such as education, trade and commerce, magic, superstitions and condition of women in society. This is followed by the Jain writers who heralded the age of Kannada classics; Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna. Adikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the greatest Kannada writers, became famous for Adipurana (941). Written in champu style, it is the life history of the first Jain thirtankara Rishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work was Vikramarjuna Vijaya (or Pampa Bharata - 941), the author's version of the Hindu epic, Mahabharata. The story differs from other earlier versions of the epic in that, Arjuna (and not the Pandava brothers) is the hero and Draupadi is only Arjuna's wife.

Sri Ponna, patronised by Rashtrakuta King Krishna III is famed for his description of the life of the 16th Jain tirthankara Shantinatha in his writing entitled Santipurana and others writings. He earned the title Ubhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. Ranna, who came from a family of bangle sellers was the court poet of Western Chalukya Kings Tailapa II and King Satyasraya and was patronised by a devout Jain lady called Attimabbe. He is known for his writings Ajitha purana (993) which describes the life of the second Jain tirthankar and Sahasa Bhima Vijaya (also called Gada Yudda or conflict of clubs - 982) which describes the conflict of Pandava Bhima and Kaurava Duryodhana in the epic Mahabharata. He was bestowed the title "Emperor among poets" (Kavi Chakravathi) by his patron King Satyasraya. A unique and native form of poetic literature called Vachanas developed during this time, as a result of the development of a new religious faith called Lingayatism. Basavanna (or Basava - 1160) is generally regarded the spearhead of this movement. These vacahanas were written by mystics, who expressed their devotion to god in simple poems that could appeal to the masses. Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu are the best known among more than two hundred vachanakaras (vachana writers), including thirty women poets.

Pre-old kannada(purvada haLegannada)

The purvada kannada phase marks the period from 1st century to 9th century A.D.Although no works have been found from this era,various Inscriptions and references have found which confirms the creation of kannada literature in this period.Some of the Important poets of this era includes Durvinita whose reference has been given in Kannada classic "Kavirajamarga".

Old Kannada (haLegannaDa)

The Old Kannada phase marks the period from the ninth century to approximately the 12th century. This period consists mainly of Jain religious literature. The most famous poet from this period is Adikavi Pampa (902-975 CE), one of the most famous writers in the Kannada language. His Vikramarjuna Vijaya (also called pampa bharatha)is hailed as a classic even to this day. With this and his other important work Adipurana he set a trend of poetic excellence for the Kannada poets of the future. The former work is an adaptation of the celebrated Mahabharata, and is the first such adaptation in Kannada. Noted for the strong human bent and the dignified style in his writing, Pampa has been one of the most influential writers in Kannada. He is identified as the adi kavi. (First poet)

It is only in Kannada that we have a Ramayana and a Bharata based on the Jaina tradition in addition to those based on Brahmanical tradition.

Shivakotiacharya was the first writer in prose style. His work Vaddaradhane is dated to 900 CE.

Sri Ponna (939-966 CE) is also an important writer from the same period, with Shanti-Purana as his magnum opus. Another major writer of the period is Ranna (949-? CE). His most famous works are the Jain religious work Ajita-Tirthankara Purana and the Gada-Yuddham (The Mace fight), a birds' eye view of the Mahabharata, set in the last day of the Battle of Kurukshetra and relating the story of the Mahabharata through a series of flashbacks.

Structurally, the poetry in this period is in the Champu style, essentially poetry interspersed with lyrical prose.

Middle Kannada (naDugannaDa)

The Middle Kannada period gave birth to several genres in Kannada literature, with new forms of composition coming into use, including Ragale (a form of blank verse) and meters like Sangatya and Desi. The works of this period are based on Jain, Hindu principles.

Two of the early writers (13th century) of this period are Harihara and Raghavanka, trailblazers in their own right. Harihara established the Ragale form of composition, and most of his works are based on the Shaiva and Veerashaiva traditions.

Raghavanka popularized the Shatpadi (six-lined stanza) meter through his six works, the most famous being Harishchandra Charitre, based on the life of the Hindu mythological character Harishchandra. The work is noted for its intense attention to human ideals. Harishchandra Charitre is a "Darshana Kavya". Ranganna described in detail the Raghavanka style in his book Shaili. He also wrote Siddharama Charitha and Somanatha Charitha. Siddharama Charitha describes the story of Siddharama and his accomplishments in building a sacred pond and a siva temple at Sonnalige.

A famous Jaina writer of the same period is Janna, who expressed Jain religious teachings through his works, Yashodhara Charite and Ananthanatha Purana. A seminal work on Kannada grammar from the same period is Shabda Mani Darpana by Keshi Raja.

Vachanas

Kannada had poetry similar to haiku in the twelfth century. This form of poetry, called vachanas, were three liners which were pithy comments on that period's social, religious and economic conditions. More importantly, they hold a mirror to the seed of a social revolution, which caused a radical re-examination of the ideas of caste, creed and religion. One of the important ideas coming out of this revolution was the view that "Work is worship" and a path to spirituality.

Some of the important writers of Vachana literature include Basaveshvara (1131-1167 CE), Allama Prabhu and Akka Mahadevi, the first woman-writer in Kannada.

Kumara Vyasa

Arguably, Kumara Vyasa has been the most famous and most influential Kannada writer of all time. His lifetime work, the Karnata Bharata KathaManjari, is a sublime adaptation of the first ten Parvas (chapters) of the Mahabharata. A devotee of Krishna, Kumara Vyasa ends his epic with the passing of Krishna in the tenth chapter of the Mahabharata. The work is easily the most celebrated in Kannada literature. Its fame arises out of the fact that it has appealed to people of all strata of education and intellect right up to the present day. The work is entirely composed in the Bhamini Shatpadi meter, a form of six lined stanza. The range of human emotions that Kumara Vyasa explores and the versatility of his vocabulary are extensive. The work is particularly known for its use of sophisticated metaphors, earning Kumara Vyasa the title Rupaka Samrajya Chakravarti (Emperor of the Land of Metaphors).

Bhakti

Bhakti literature is the literature composed by the Dasas or saints, around fifteenth century, singing the glory of God through poems. These poems called Padas were usually of ten to twenty lines. They expressed the desire of the Bhakta or devotee to be one with God. This form of poetry was highly amenable to musical composition and exposition. This music evolved into the highly sophisticated and codified Carnatic music.

The Haridasas spread the message of peace, love and bhakti in their Dasa Sahitya, which are also popularly known as Devaranamas. Important writers of the Bhakti genre are Purandara Dasa (1494-1564) and Kanaka Dasa.

Modern Kannada (hosagannaDa)

This form of literature began in the late nineteenth century and continues till date. This period saw the emergence of literary figures like Kuvempu, D. R. Bendre and U. R. Ananthamurthy among others. Though this period is mostly dominated by male writers, female writers like Anasuya Shankar (Triveni) and M. K. Indira were also popular. This form of literature is further divided into three distinct sub-forms, Navodaya, Navya and Navyottara.

Navodaya (New birth)

Navodaya literally means a new birth. This indeed was the reincarnation of Kannada literature in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, after a period of dormancy in the face of British occupation of India. This period saw greats like Srikanthaiah, Kuvempu, Bendre, Shivaram Karanth, Betgeri Krishnasharma. This genre was highly influenced by Romantic English Poetry and Greek theater. It was Srikanthaiah who started this movement of sorts with his translation of a few critically acclaimed English poems of the Romantic period]]. Many educated Kannadigas, especially those who were in the teaching profession, realised that they needed to express themselves in their mother tongue and started writing in Kannada.

Kuvempu is a case in point who was convinced by his professor (of British origin) that he should write in his mother tongue. Kuvempu went on to become a Rashtrakavi (national poet). His love of nature, realisation of the greatness of man's spirit and the vision to see the blend of nature and God made him more than Kannada's Wordsworth. His most famous work is the Sri Ramayana Darshanam, based on the Hindu epic Ramayana.

Another interesting case is that of Shivaram Karanth who was a man of great intellect, rock-solid convictions and a profound social sense. His powerful social novels include Marali Mannige ("Back to the Soil") and Mukajjiya Kanasugalu ("A Dumb Granny's Dreams").

Famous poets of the period: Kuvempu, Srikanthaiah, D R Bendre, Pu Ti Narasimhachar, Betgeri Krishnasharma(Anandakanda), K S Narasimha Swamy.

Famous novelists of the period: Shivaram Karanth, Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar, S. L. Bhairappa.

Famous playwrights of the period: T P Kailasam.

Navya (New/Modernist)

Indian independence in 1947 brought with it the promises of freedom and a new genre sprouted in Kannada poetry. The torchbearer of this tradition was Gopalakrishna Adiga. The Navya poets wrote for and like disillusioned intellectuals. The sophistication in the use of language and the importance of technique to poetry reached new heights in this genre.

Famous writers of the period : U R Ananthamurthy, V.K.Gokak, Girish Karnad, K P Poornachandra Tejaswi, P Lankesh

Navyottara (Postmodernist)

Kannada literature in the last fifty years has been closely related to social aspects. The oppressions of the caste system gave rise to the Bandaaya and Dalita genres of poetry. Feminist movements in Indian society gave rise to the Streevaadi (Feminist) genre of poetry. Short stories have been very popular in the twentieth century. Bhavageete (expressionist poetry) is a popular form of poetry in the twentieth century.

For more on Kannada literature, go to http://www.kannadasaahithya.com (Both in Kannada Unicode and non-Unicode versions are available along with few translations in to English)

Awards

The fact that holds testament to the greatness of Kannada literature is that it's writers have won seven Jnanpith awards, the highest for any Indian language. They are Kuvempu, Karantha, Bendre,Masti, Gokak, Anantamurthy and Karnad, As of August 2004, a total of forty-six Kannada writers have received the Sahitya Akademi award.

Reaching people

The popularity of literature is gauged in terms of the response that the educated and interested elite give. But the real popularity of poetry is when common people sing it. Popular appeal is not very easy to achieve for any form of poetry; especially when audiences are not kept in mind. Kannada poetry has a few instances of such mass popularity. Kumaravyasa's epic retelling of the Mahabharata is recited in homes even today. Bhavageete (literally "emotion poetry") has popularized many a Kannada poems and has people humming them.

See also

• Karnataka literature
• Kannada poetry
• Kannada language
• Kannada script
• Karnataka

Notes

1. Central Institute of Indian languages. "Welcome to Kannada Online-Introdution". Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India. Central Institute of Indian languages. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
2. A considerable volume of literature must have come into existance before 850 CE (Sastri 1955, p355)
3. Narasimhacharya (1988), p17, 61
4. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p61
5. Hiramath, R.C. "Buddhism in Karnataka". Emerging Perceptions in Buddhist Studies. D.K.Printworld Pvt.Ltd. Retrieved 2007-06-10.
6. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p1
7. ^ Scholars opine Kavirajamarga was either composed by King Amoghavarsha I, or inspired by him or jointly composed by him and his court poet Sri Vijaya (Sastri, 1955, p355-356)
8. Narasimhacharya (1988), p61-64
9. "Jnanpeeth Awardees from Karnataka". Karnatakavision. Retrieved 2007-12-03.
10. "Sahitya Akademi Awards 1955-2005". Sahitya Akademi. Photodisc (India) Pvt. Ltd. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
11. Ramesh (1984), pp10-11
12. Encyclopaedia of Indian literature vol. 2, Sahitya Akademi (1988), p1717
13. Kamath (2001), p67
14. Kundangar and Moraes in Moraes (1931), p382
15. Dr Gopal, director, Department of Archaeology and Ancient History. "5th century copper coin discovered at Banavasi". Hindu, Monday, February 6, 2006. The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-10-18.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
16. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p17 Cite error: The named reference "poetics1" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
17. Warder (1988), p240
18. Narasimhacharya (1988), p13
19. ^ B.L. Rice (1897), p496
20. Sastri (1955), p355
21. Narasimhacharya (1988), p4-5
22. Dr. Jyotsna Kamat. "History of Kannada Literature". Kamat's Potpourri, November 04,2006. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-11-12..
23. B.L. Rice (1897), p497
24. 6th century Sanskrit poet Dandin praised Srivaradhadeva's writing as "having produced Saraswathi from the tip of his tongue, just as Shiva produced the Ganges from the tip of his top knot (Rice E.P., 1921, p27)
25. Narasimhacharya (1988), pp4-5
26. Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian 2003, p160
27. ^ Kamath (2001), p50
28. Narasimhacharya (1988), p18
29. The author and this work were praised by later day poet Durgasimha of 1025 CE (Narasimhacharya 1988, p18)
30. Historians propose the writing was dedicated to the Eastern Chalukya king Vijayaditya III (844-888  CE) who was known by the epithets Gunaga, Gunaganka or Gunakenalla (Narasimhacharya 1988, p29)
31. Warder (1988), pp240-241
32. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p17
33. Narasimhacharya (1988) p12
34. Sastri (1955), p359
35. Narasimhacharya (1988), p17
36. Sastri (1955), p361
37. Dr. Jytosna Kamat. "Kanaka Dasa-Poet among saints". Kamats Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
38. Narasimhacharya (1988), p27
39. ^ Sastri (1955), p356
40. Rice E.P. (1926), p31
41. Narasimhacharya 1988, p18
42. Kamath (2001), p90
43. Rice, E.P. (1926), pp31-32
44. Kamath (2001), pp114-115
45. Adiga (2006), p256
46. E.P.Rice (1921), p32
47. Sastri (1955), p356
48. Rice E.P. (1926), p42
49. Sastri (1955), p361
50. Vachanas are disconnected paragraphs ending with a name attributed to lord Shiva or one of his forms. The poems teach the valuelessness of riches, rituals and book learning and the spiritual privileges of worshipping Shiva, (B.L. Rice in Sastri 1955, p361)

References

• Rice, E.P. (1982) . Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630.
• Rice, B.L. (2001) . Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8.
• Ramesh, K.V. (1984) . Chalukyas of Vatapi. New Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan. ISBN 3987-10333. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: length (help)
• George M. Moraes (1931), The Kadamba Kula, A History of Ancient and Medieval Karnataka, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 1990 ISBN 81-206-0595-0
• Suryanath U. Kamat, A Concise history of Karnataka from pre-historic times to the present, Jupiter books, MCC, Bangalore, 2001 (Reprinted 2002) OCLC: 7796041
• K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955, OUP, New Delhi (Reprinted 2002), ISBN 019560686-8
• R. Narasimhacharya, History of Kannada Literature, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras,1988 ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
• Warder, A.K. (1988) . Indian Kavya Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120804503.
• Chopra, Ravindran, Subrahmanian, P.N., T.K., N. (2003) . History of South India (Ancient, Medieval and Modern) Part I. New Delhi: Chand publications. ISBN 81-219-0153-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Iyer, Panchapakesa A.S. (2006) . Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra. Chennai: Zion Printers.
• Rao, Madhusudana C.R. "History of Haridasas". Haridasas of Karnataka. Haridasa@dvaita.net. Retrieved 2007-05-30.
• Kamath, Jyotsna Dr. "Kannada Literature". History of Kannada literature. Kamat's Potpourri. Retrieved 2006-12-31.
• Various authors (1988) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature-vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-1194-7.
• Adiga, Malini (2006) . The Making of Southern Karnataka: Society, Polity and Culture in the early medieval period, AD 400-1030. Chennai: Orient Longman. ISBN 81 250 2912 5.

External links

• Online community for Kannada literary activities
• Online reference source for Kannada literature
• Comprehensive list of Kannada writers and information about them
• History of Kannada Literature
• History of Kannada Literature
• Photo Gallery of Kannada Writers
• Indian Sahitya Akademi Award Winners in Kannada
• Jnanapeeth Awardees in India

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