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During World War I and its aftermath (1914-1923), the government of the Ottoman Empire instigated a violent campaign against the Greek population of the Empire. The campaign included massacres, forced deportations involving death marches, and summary expulsions. According to various sources, several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks died during this period. Some of the survivors and expelled, especially those in Eastern provinces, took refuge in the neighbouring Russian Empire. However, most of the Greeks after the end of the 1919-22 Greco-Turkish War were later deported to Greece under the terms of the population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1923.

The government of Turkey, the successor state to the Ottoman Empire, maintains that the large-scale campaign was triggered by the perception that the Greek population was sympathetic to the enemies of the Ottoman state. The Allies of World War I took a different view, condemning the Ottoman government-sponsored massacres as crimes against humanity. More recently, the International Association of Genocide Scholars passed a resolution in 2007 affirming that the Ottoman campaign against Christian minorities of the Empire, including the Greeks, was genocide. Some other organisations have also passed resolutions recognising the campaign as a genocide, as have the parliaments of Greece and Cyprus.

Prelude

Anatolia or Asia Minor is a region of Western Asia, comprising most of the modern Republic of Turkey. It is a geographic region bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Caucasus to the northeast, the Aegean Sea to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, Greater Syria (Upper Mesopotamia) to the southeast and Transcaucasia and the Iranian plateau to the east.

Among causes for the Turkish campaign against the Greek population was a fear that the population would aid the Ottoman Empire's enemies, and a belief among some Turks that to become a modern nation state it was necessary to purge from the territories of the state those national groups who could threaten the integrity of a modern Turkish nation state.

According to a German military attaché, the Ottoman Turkish minister of war Ismail Enver had declared in October 1915 that he wanted to "solve the Greek problem during the war... in the same way he believe he solved the Armenian problem."

Events

In the summer of 1914 the Special Organization (Teşkilat-ı Mahsusa), assisted by government and army officials, conscripted Greek men of military age from Thrace and western Anatolia into labor battalions in which hundreds of thousands died. Sent hundreds of miles into the Interior of Anatolia, these conscripts were employed in road-making, building, tunnel excavating and other field work but their numbers were heavily reduced through either privations and ill-treatment or by outright massacre by their Turkish guards. This program of forced conscription later expanded to other regions of the Empire including Pontus.

Conscription of Greek men was supplemented by massacres and by deportations involving death marches of the general population. Greek villages and towns would be surrounded by Turks and their inhabitants massacred. Such was the story in Phocaea (Greek: Φώκαια), a town in western Anatolia twenty-five miles northwest of Smyrna, on 12 June 1914 where the slain bodies of men, women and children were thrown down a well.

While deportations of the general Greek population of western Anatolia commenced in 1914, deportations in Pontus began as late as January 1916. According to George W. Rendel of the British Foreign Office, " ... over 500,000 Greeks were deported of whom comparatively few survived."

Methods of destruction which caused death indirectly - such as deportations involving death marches, starvation in labour camps, concentration camps etc. - were referred to as "white massacres".

The systematic massacre and deportation of Greeks in Asia Minor, a program which had come into effect in 1914, was a precursor to the atrocities perpetrated by both the Hellenic and Turkish armies during the Greco-Turkish War, a conflict which followed the Hellenic occupation of Smyrna in May 1919 and continued until the Great Fire of Smyrna in September 1922. Limited Massacres of Turks were also carried out by the Hellenic troops.

For the massacres that occurred during the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922, British historian Arnold J. Toynbee wrote that it was the Greek landings that created the Turkish National Movement led by Mustafa Kemal: "...The Greeks of 'Pontus' and the Turks of the Greek occupied territories, were in some degree victims of Mr. Venizelos's and Mr. Lloyd George's original miscalculations at Paris."

Contemporary accounts

German and Austro-Hungarian diplomats, as well as The Memorandum by Mr. G.W. Rendel on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice, have provided evidence for series of systematic massacres of the Greeks in Asia Minor. The quotes have been attributed to various diplomats, notably the German Ambassadors Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim and Mr. Kuhlman, German consul in Amissos Herr Kuchhoff, Austro-Hungarians Ambassador Pallavicini and consul in Amissos Herr Kwiatkowski, Sir P. Cox, and the Italian unofficial agent in Angora Signor Tuozzi. Other quotes are from clergymen and activists, notably the German Father J. Lepsius, and Mr. Hopkins of the American Committee for Relief in the Near East. It must be noted that Germany and Austria-Hungary were allies of the Ottoman Empire in World War I.

The accounts describe systematic massacres, rapes and burnings of Greek villages, and attribute intent to Turkish officials, namely the Turkish Prime Minister Mahmud Sevket Pasha, Refet Bele (tr:Refet Bele), Talat Pasha and Enver Pasha.

Additionally, The New York Times and its correspondents have made extensive references to the events, recording massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other "atrocities" for Greek, Armenian and also for British and American citizens and government officials. The newspaper was awarded its first Pulitzer Prize in 1918 "for the most disinterested and meritorious public service rendered by an American newspaper -- complete and accurate coverage of the war". More media of the time reported the events with similar titles.

Henry Morgenthau, the United States ambassador to the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1916 accused the "Turkish government" of a campaign of "outrageous terrorizing, cruel torturing, driving of women into harems, debauchery of innocent girls, the sale of many of them at 80 cents each, the murdering of hundreds of thousands and the deportation to and starvation in the desert of other hundreds of thousands, the destruction of hundreds of villages and many cities", all part of "the willful execution" of a "scheme to annihilate the Armenian, Greek and Syrian Christians of Turkey."

United States Consul-General George Horton reports that "ne of the cleverest statements circulated by the Turkish propagandists is to the effect that the massacred Christians were as bad as their executioners, that it was '50-50.' " On this issue he clarifies that "ad the Greeks, after the massacres in the Pon­tus and at Smyrna, massacred all the Turks in Greece, the record would have been 50-50—almost." As an eye-witness, he also praises Greeks for their "conduct toward the thousands of Turks residing in Greece, while the ferocious massacres were going on...", which, according to his opinion, was "one of the most inspiring and beautiful chapters in all that country’s history."

Casualties

According to various sources the Greek death toll in the Pontus region of Anatolia ranges from 300,000 to 360,000. Estimates for the death toll of Anatolian Greeks as a whole are significantly higher.

According to the International League for the Rights and Liberation of Peoples, between 1916 and 1923, up to 350,000 Greek Pontians were reportedly killed in massacres, persecution and death marches. Merrill D. Peterson cites the death toll of 360,000 for the Greeks of Pontus. According to G.K. Valavanis "The loss of human life among the Pontian Greeks, since the Great War (World War I) until March 1924, can be estimated at 353,000, as a result of murders, hangings, and from punishment, disease, and other hardships."

Edward Hale Bierstadt states that "According to official testimony, the Turks since 1914 have slaughtered in cold blood 1,500,000 Armenians, and 500,000 Greeks, men women and children, without the slightest provocation." In his book The Killing Trap, Manus I. Mildrasky estimates that approximately 480,000 Anatolian Greeks died during the aforementioned period.

Aftermath

Article 142 of the Treaty of Sèvres, prepared after the first World War, called the Turkish regime "terrorist" and contained provisions "to repair so far as possible the wrongs inflicted on individuals in the course of the massacres perpetrated in Turkey during the war." The Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified by the Turkish government and ultimately was replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne. That treaty was accompanied by a "Declaration of Amnesty", without containing any provision in respect to punishment of war crimes.

In 1923, a population exchange between Greece and Turkey resulted in a near-complete elimination of the Greek ethnic presence in Anatolia and a similar elimination of the Turkish ethnic presence in much of Greece. According to the Greek census of 1928, 182,169 Greeks from the Pontus region had migrated to Greece during the population exchange between Greece and Turkey. It is impossible to know exactly how many Greek inhabitants of Pontus, Smyrna and the rest of Asia Minor died from 1914 to 1923, and how many ethnic Greeks of Anatolia were deported to Greece or fled to the Soviet Union.

Some of the survivors and expelled took refuge in the neighboring Russian Empire (later, Soviet Union). The few Pontic Greeks who had remained in Pontus until the end of the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) were exchanged in the frame of the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations in 1922–1923.

Genocide debate

Academic views

In December 2007 the International Association of Genocide Scholars (IAGS), an organization of the world’s foremost experts on genocide, passed a resolution affirming that the 1914-1923 campaign against Ottoman Greeks constituted genocide. Employing the term "Greek Genocide", it affirmed that Ottoman Greeks were subject to genocide alongside other groups, namely Armenians and Assyrians. The resolution was adopted on 1 December 2007 and the press release issued by the organization on 16 December. The IAGS resolution was passed with an "overwhelming" majority but was not unanimously supported. Among those who opposed the resolution were scholars who had researched and published on the Armenian Genocide, including Taner Akcam, Peter Balakian, Stephen Feinsten, Eric Weitz and Robert Melson, believing the resolution was not based on a scholarly process and would undermine the organiastion.

Historians and academics worldwide use a variety of terms for describing the events. Before the coining of the term "genocide" in 1943, primary sources used improvised terms, such as "annihilation", "systematic extermination", or "persistent campaign of massacre" and "wholesale massacre". Today, the events are described on a par with the Armenian Genocide, as a similar phenomenon to the Holocaust, as "ethnic cleansing", and as "genocide". Other historians choose milder terminology, such as "organized killing and deportation", and "carefully planned atrocities complete destruction". Mark Levene, suggests that historians tend to avoid the term genocide to describe the events, possibly in an attempt to prevent their magnification by comparison with those of 1915-16 (Armenian Genocide).

Seminars and courses in several western universities examine the events. These include the University of New Mexico the College of Charleston, the University of Michigan Dearborn and the University of New South Wales which has a dedicated research unit.

Political Recognition

Political recognition of the events as genocide is limited, the only countries officially acknowledging them as such being Greece and Cyprus.

Greece and Cyprus

The Greek Parliament has issued two resolutions on the fate of the Ottoman Greeks; the first in 1994 and the second in 1998. The resolutions were published in the Greek Government Gazette on 8 March 1994 and 13 October 1998 respectively. The 1994 resolution affirmed the genocide in the Pontus region of Asia Minor and designated 19 May a day of commemoration, while the 1998 resolution affirmed the genocide of Greeks in Asia Minor as a whole and designated 14 September a day of commemoration. The first resolution's passing has been attributed to an initiative centered largely around former PASOK deputy Michalis Charalambidis.

Cyprus also officially recognizes the events as genocide.

Turkey

Turkey maintains that the fate of the Ottoman Greek population cannot be considered genocidal in nature.

In response to a resolution issued by the Greek Parliament in 1998 affirming the genocide of Asia Minor Greeks and designating 14 September as a day of commemoration, Ankara issued a statement claiming that describing the events as genocide was "without any historical basis". "We condemn and protest this resolution" a Turkish Foreign Ministry statement said. "With this resolution the Greek Parliament, which in fact has to apologize to the Turkish people for the large-scale destruction and massacres Greece perpetrated in Anatolia, not only sustains the traditional Greek policy of distorting history, but it also displays that the expansionist Greek mentality is still alive" the statement added.

Moreover, Greece's choice of 19 May as a day of commemoration for the Pontic Greeks, a national holiday in Turkey (the anniversary of 19 May 1919 when Mustafa Kemal Pasha set foot in Samsun to begin the Turkish War of Independence), is viewed in Turkey as futile provocation by some Greek politicians. Although Greeks view 19 May 1919 as a re-initiation of persecutions in the Pontus region, the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs dismisses this allegation.

Upon the unveiling of two commemorative monuments in Thessaloniki in May 2006, the social-democrat mayor of İzmir, Aziz Kocaoğlu, announced on 12 May 2006 that they were suspending the signing (expected in June 2006) of a sister city agreement between İzmir and Thessaloniki.

In their book With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide, Colin Tatz and Cohn Jatz argue that Turkey denies the genocide so not to jeopardize "its ninety-five-year-old dream of becoming the beacon of democracy in the Near East".

International Community

The incidents are also recognized as genocide in some states of the USA. The states of South Carolina, New Jersey, Florida, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Illinois have passed resolutions recognizing it. In addition, George E. Pataki, governor of the New York State issued a proclamation designating 19 May 2002 as Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day, although since states within the United States do not have foreign-policy authority those statements are not legally binding on a federal US level.

Armenia mentions the "Greek Genocide", its commemoration, and a death toll of 600,000 Greeks in Anatolia, in its first report to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of the Council of Europe. In addition, on 19 May 2004 an event commemorating the Pontian Greek victims of the Greek Genocide was held in Yerevan, Armenia and was attended by "Greek ambassador to Armenia, Antonios Vlavianos, other dignitaries, government officials and ordinary Armenians".

In Australia, the issue has been raised in the Parliament of Victoria on 4 May 2006, by the Minister for Justice Jenny Mikakos.

On 7 June 2006 Stephen Pound, member of the British House of Commons linked the case of the Ottoman Greeks with the Armenians and Assyrians claiming that "3.5 million of the historic Christian population of Assyrians, Armenians and Greeks then living in the Ottoman empire had been murdered—starved to death or slaughtered—or exiled by 1923."

In Serbia, an event commemorating the Pontian Greek victims of the Greek Genocide was held in the Chapel of the Belgrade Theology School in 1998.

Nongovernmental organizations

In Germany, organizations such as Verein der Völkermordgegner e.V (i.e. "Union against Genocide") or the initiative Mit einer Stimme sprechen (i.e. "Speaking with One Voice") aim at the official recognition of the genocide of Christian minorities, such as Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians in the late Ottoman Empire.

On 19 May 2007, the Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) issued a press release stating that the organization "joins with Pontian Greeks - and all Hellenes around the world - in commemorating 19 May, the international day of remembrance for the genocide initiated by the Ottoman Empire and continued by Kemalist Turkey against the historic Greek population of Pontus" and reaffirms its "determination to work together with all the victims of Turkey's atrocities to secure full recognition and justice for these crimes".

Reasons for limited recognition

The United Nations, the European Parliament, and the Council of Europe have not made any related statements. According to Constantine Fotiadis, professor of Modern Greek History at the University of Western Macedonia, some of the reasons for the lack of wider recognition and delay in seeking acknowledgment of these events are as follows:

• The Pontian Greek Genocide was overshadowed by the much larger Armenian Genocide which preceded it, a view also shared by the historian Mark Levene.
• In contrast to the Treaty of Sèvres, the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 dealt with these events by making no reference or mention, and thus sealed the end of the Asia Minor Catastrophe.
• A subsequent peace treaty (Greco-Turkish Treaty of Friendship in June 1930) between Greece and Turkey. Greece made several concessions to settle all open issues between the two countries in return for peace in the region.
• The Second World War, the Civil War, and the political turmoil in Greece that followed forced Greece to focus on its survival and other problems rather than seek recognition of these events.

One other reason for the lack of recognition of these events can be found in the following statement: "It is necessary to refer to these pre-Armistice persecutions, since there is now a strong tendency to minimize or overlook them, and to regard those that followed the armistice as isolated incidents provoked by the Greek Landing at Smyrna and the general Turkish Policy of the Allies."

It is also believed that the Greek Government has not been very aggressive in genocide recognition for fear of harming efforts at Greek-Turkish rapprochement.

Memorials

Memorials commemorating the plight of Ottoman Greeks have been erected throughout Greece, as well as in a number of other countries including Germany, Canada, the United States and, more recently, Australia. Greek Genocide memorials and the act of commemoration in Greece have been subject to study by Michel Bruneau. Memorials become a place of focus on days of commemoration.

See also

• Academic quotes on the Greek genocide
• Armenian Genocide
• Assyrian Genocide
• Genocide denial
• Greek refugees
• Istanbul Pogrom
• Human rights in Turkey
• Megali Idea
• Pan-Turkism
• Republic of Pontus
• Topal Osman

Notes

1. Stanford pp.239-241
2. Hulse (NYT 2007)
3. Bloxham. p. 150
4. ^ Levene (1998)
5. Ferguson (2006), p. 180
6. Hull (2005), p. 273.
7. King, William C. (1922), p. 437
8. Staff, The Atlanta Constitution, 17 June 1914, p. 1.
9. Horton
10. ^ Rendel G. W. (20 March 1922)
11. Toynbee, p. 270.
12. ^ Rummel (Chapter 5)
13. ^ Taner Akcam, A Shameful Act, p. 322
14. Toynbee (1922), pp. 312-313.
15. ^ Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies: the genocide and its aftermath
16. ^ Halo pp. 26, 27, & 28
17. The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).
18. Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times, The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2006
19. Our Company, Awards, New York Times. See also Pulitzer Prizes awarded to the New York Times' staff.
20. Kateb, Vahe Georges (2003). Australian Press Coverage of the Armenian Genocide 1915-1923, University of Wollongong, Graduate School of Journalism
21. Morgenthau Calls for Check on Turks, New York Times, 5 September 1922, pg. 3
22. Horton
23. United Nations document E/CN.4/1998/NGO/24 (page 3) acknowledging receipt of a letter by the "International League for the Rights and Liberation of Peoples" titled "A people in continued exodus" (i.e., Pontian Greeks) and putting the letter into internal circulation (Dated 1998-02-24)
    If above link doesn't work, search United Nations documents for "A people in continued exodus"
24. Peterson
25. Valavanis, p.24.
26. Bierstadt
27. Mildrasky, pp. 342,377
28. Treaty of Sevres
29. Bassioun, pp. 62-63
30. Geniki Statistiki Ypiresia tis Ellados (Statistical Annual of Greece), Statistika apotelesmata tis apografis sou plithysmou tis Ellados tis 15-16 Maiou 1928, pg.41. Athens: National Printing Office, 1930. Quoted in Kontogiorgi, Elisabeth (2006-08-17). Population Exchange in Greek Macedonia: The Forced Settlement of Refugees 1922-1930. Oxford University Press. pp. 96, footnote 56. ISBN 978-0199278961.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
31. Ascherson p. 185
32. Genocide Scholars Association Officially Recognizes Assyrian, Greek Genocides
33. Greek Genocide 1914-23 Resolution from an IAGS press release as issued on 16 December 2007
34. http://www.genocidescholars.org/blog/?cat=40
35. Horton
36. Morgenthau, p.153
37. Ferguson (2007) p.182
38. ^ Totten, pp 207, 213
39. Naimark,
40. Lieberman,
41. ^ Jatz
42. Fotiadis,
43. Charles King, The Black Sea: A History.
44. Marianna Koromila, The Greeks and the Black Sea.
45. The University of New Mexico University Honors Program, The Holocaust, Genocide, and Intolerance (.pdf), p.28 Archived on December 21, 2006, from http://www.unm.edu/~honors/students/courses/PDFDescription-booklet-SPRING07-UPPER.pdf
46. College of Charleston, New Carolina, Managing Diversity Syllabus, Migration Patterns. Retrieved on 2007-02-04.
47. Before the Silence,The Armenian and Greek Genocides
48. The Pontian Genocide and Asia Minor Holocaust Research Unit
49. Issue 2645/98 & 2193/94, Government Gazette of the Hellenic Republic
50. Web portal of Pontians
51. Cyprus Press Office, New York City
52. Office of the Prime Minister, Directorate General of Press and Information: Turkey Denounces Greek 'Genocide' Resolution (1998-09-30). Retrieved on 2007-02-05
53. "Erdoğan Pressures Karamanlis on Pontic Genocide Memorial". GreekNews. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
54. "EP's Turkey Report Radically Accuses Turks". Journal of Turkish Weekly. Retrieved 2006-10-04.
55. Setting The Record Straight On Pontus Propaganda Against Turkey / Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs: "On 19 May 1919, Mustafa Kemal landed at Samsun mandated by the Ottoman Government to inspect the situation. Contrary to claims being made in Greece, Mustafa Kemal did no more than prepare reports about the situation and dispatch them to the Ottoman Government."
56. South Carolina Recognition
57. New Jersey Recognition
58. Florida Recognition: HR 9161 - Pontian Greek Genocide of 1914-1922
59. Massachusetts Recognition
60. Pennsylvania Recognition
61. Illinois recognition
62. Proclamation by George E. Pataki, governor of the New York State
63. Council of Europe, European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, The First Report of the Republic of Armenia According to Paragraph 1 of Article 15 of European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 2003-09-03, p.39. Retrieved on 2007-02-03.
64. Victims of Pontian Greeks Genocide Commemorated in Armenia, ArmenPress, 19 May 2004 (Reproduction of article can be read here
65. Speech of Victorian Member of Parliament regarding Armenian, Assyrian and Pontian Genocide
66. Victoria Parliament of Australia Raises the Genocide of the Greeks
67. House of Commons Hansard Debates for 7 June 2006
68. Event Commemorating the Genocide of the Greeks in Pontos Was Held in Belgrade, Macedonian Press Agency, 26 May 1998. failed retrieval 19 August 2008. (alternative URL)
69. Verein der Völkermordgegner e.V
70. Mit einer Stimme sprechen
71. ANCA Marks Pontian Greek Genocide Remembrance Day, 19 May 2007
72. Fotiadis,
73. The Greek Genocide 1914-23: Memorials Accessed on 2008-09-18

References

• Ascherson, Neal (1995). Black Sea, New York: Hill and Wang, ISBN 0-8090-3043-8.
• Bassioun, M. Cherif (1999). Crimes Against Humanity in International Criminal Law, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, ISBN 90-411-1222-7.
• Bierstadt, Edward Hale (1924). The Great Betrayal; A Survey of the Near East Problem, New York: R. M. McBride & Co.
• Bloxham, Donald (2005). The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West, New York: Penguin Press, ISBN 1-5942-0100-5.
• Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-century Conflict And the Descent of the West, Penguin Press.
• Fotiadis, Constantinos Emm. (2004 ed.). The Genocide of the Pontus Greeks by the Turks: Volume 13, Thessaloniki: Herodotus.
• Horton, George (1926). The Blight of Asia. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Company.
• Hull, Isabel V. (2005). Absolute Destruction: Military Culture and the Practices of War in Imperial Germany, Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
• Hulse, Carl (2007). U.S. and Turkey Thwart Armenian Genocide Bill, New York Times, 26 October 2007
• Jatz, Colin (2003). With Intent to Destroy: Reflections on Genocide. Essex: Verso. ISBN 1859845509.
• King, Charles (2005). The Black Sea: A History, Oxford: Oxford University Press
• King, William C. (1922). King's Complete History of the World War: Visualizing the Great Conflict in all Theaters of Action 1914-1918, The History Associates, Massachusetts.
• Koromila, Marianna (2002). The Greeks and the Black Sea, Panorama Cultural Society.
• Levene, Mark (1998). Creating a Modern "Zone of Genocide": The Impact of Nation- and State-Formation on Eastern Anatolia, 1878–1923, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Volume 12, Number 3 Winter 1998, pp. 393-433. (abstract).
• Lieberman, Benjamin (2006). Terrible Fate: Ethnic Cleansing in the Making of Modern Europe, Ivan R. Dee.
• Mildrasky, Manus I. (2005). The Killing Trap, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Morgenthau, Henry (1918). Morgenthau's Story, Garden City New York Doubleday, Page & Company.
• Naimark, Norman M. (2001). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press.
• Peterson, Merrill D. (2004). Starving Armenians: America and the Armenian Genocide, 1915-1930 and After, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press
• Rendel, G. W. (20 March 1922). Foreign Office Memorandum on Turkish Massacres and Persecutions of Minorities since the Armistice
• Rummel, R. J. "Statistics of Democide". Chapter 5, Statistics Of Turkey's Democide Estimates, Calculations, And Sources. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
• Staff "Massacre of Greeks Charged to the Turks",The Atlanta Constitution, 17 June 1914.
• Stanford J. Shaw, Ezel Kural Shaw. "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey", Cambridge University.
• Taner, Akcam (2006). A Shameful Act
• Halo, Thea (2001). Not Even My Name, New York: Picador USA.
• Totten, Samuel (2002). Pioneers of Genocide Studies (Clt). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 0765801515. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Toynbee, Arnold J. (1922). The Western question in Greece and Turkey: a study in the contact of civilisations, Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Valavanis, G.K. (1925). Contemporary General History of Pontus (Σύγχρονος Γενική Ιστορία του Πόντου), Athens.

Further reading

Books

• Akcam, Taner. From Empire to Republic: Turkish Nationalism and the Armenian Genocide, New York: Zed Books, 2004.
• Andreadis, George, Tamama: The Missing Girl of Pontos, Athens: Gordios, 1993.
• Barton, James L. The Near East Relief, 1915-1930, New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1943.
• Compton, Carl C. The Morning Cometh, New Rochelle, N.Y.: Aristide D. Caratzas, 1986.
• Karayinnides, Ioannis. Ο γολγοθάς του Πόντου , Salonica: 1978.
• Henry Morgenthau, Sr.. The Murder of a Nation, New York: Armenian General Benevolent Union of America, 1974, 1918.
• —. I Was Sent to Athens, Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co, 1929.
• —. An International Drama, London: Jarrolds Ltd., 1930
• Hofmann, Tessa (ed.), Verfolgung, Vertreibung und Vernichtung der Christen im Osmanischen Reich 1912-1922, Münster: LIT, 2004. ISBN 3-8258-7823-6. (pp. 177-221 on Greeks)
• Housepian Dobkin, Marjorie. Smyrna 1922: the Destruction of a City, New York, NY: Newmark Press, 1998.
• Murat, Jean De. The Great Extirpation of Hellenism and Christianity in Asia Minor: the historic and systematic deception of world opinion concerning the hideous Christianity’s uprooting of 1922, Miami, Fla.: , (Athens : A. Triantafillis) 1999.
• Oeconomos, Lysimachos. The Martyrdom of Smyrna and Eastern Christendom; a file of overwhelming evidence, denouncing the misdeeds of the Turks in Asia Minor and showing their responsibility for the horrors of Smyrna, London: G. Allen & Unwin, 1922.
• Papadopoulos, Alexander. Persecutions of the Greeks in Turkey before the European War: on the basis of official documents, New York: Oxford University Press, American branch, 1919.
• Pavlides, Ioannis. , Salonica, Greece, 1980.
• Tsirkinidis, Harry. At last we uprooted them…The Genocide of Greeks of Pontos, Thrace, and Asia Minor, through the French archives, Thessaloniki: Kyriakidis Bros, 1999.
• Ward, Mark H. The Deportations in Asia Minor 1921-1922, London: Anglo-Hellenic League, 1922.

Articles

• Bjornlund, Matthias, "The 1914 cleansing of Aegean Greeks as a case of violent Turkification", Journal of Genocide Research, Volume 10, Issue 1, March 2008, pp. 41-58.
• Hlamides, Nikolaos, "The Greek Relief Committee: America’s Response to the Greek Genocide", Genocide Studies and Prevention, Volume 3, Issue 3, December 2008, pp. 375-383.
• Vryonis, Speros, "Greek Labor Battalions in Asia Minor", The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies (ed. Hovannisian, Richard), New Brunswick, N.J: Transaction Publishers, 2007, pp. 275-290.

Internet Resources

• Greek Genocide 1914-23
• Information about the genocide on The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies
• The Greek Genocide:1914-1923: Pontus, Asia Minor, Thrace

• Misplaced Pages articles needing page number citations from October 2008
• Articles with dead external links from August 2008
• Genocide
• History of modern Greece
• Pontic Greek Genocide
• Religion and politics
• World War I