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Michel Foucault
File:Foucault5.jpg
Born15 October 1926
Poitiers, France
Died25 June 1984(1984-06-25) (aged 57)
Paris, France
Era20th century philosophy
RegionWestern philosophy
SchoolContinental philosophy, post-structuralism
Main interestsHistory of ideas, epistemology, ethics, political philosophy, philosophy of literature
Notable ideasbiopower, disciplinary institution, dispositif, épistémè, "Genealogy", governmentality, power-knowledge, panopticism, discursive formation

Michel Foucault (Template:IPA-fr; born Paul-Michel Foucault) (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984) was a French philosopher, historian, social theorist, philologist and literary critic. His philosophical theories addressed the nature of power and the manner in which it functions, the means by which it controls knowledge and vice versa, and how it is used as a form of social control. Foucault is best known for his histories of ideas and critical studies of social institutions, most notably psychiatry, the social anthropology of medicine, the human sciences, the prison system, and the history of human sexuality. His writings on power, knowledge, and discourse have been widely influential in both academic and activist circles.

Born in Poitiers, France to an upper-middle-class family, Foucault was educated at the Lycée Henri-IV and then the École Normale Supérieure, where he developed an interest in philosophy and came under the influence of his tutors—philosophers Jean Hyppolite and Louis Althusser. After several years as a cultural diplomat abroad, he returned to France and published his first major book, The History of Madness (later published in English in an abbreviated volume called Madness and Civilization). After obtaining work between 1960 and 1966 at the University of Clermont-Ferrand, he produced two more significant publications, The Birth of the Clinic and The Order of Things, which displayed his increasing involvement with structuralism, a theoretical movement in social anthropology from which he later distanced himself. These first three histories were examples of a historiographical technique Foucault was developing he called archaeology which he would later give a comprehensive account of in The Archaeology of Knowledge. From 1966 to 1968, he lectured at the University of Tunis, Tunisia before returning to France, where he involved himself in several protest movements and left-wing groups. He went on to publish The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish, and The History of Sexuality, his so-called genealogies which emphasized the role power plays in the evolution of discourse in society. Foucault died in Paris of neurological problems compounded by HIV/AIDS; he was the first public figure in France to have died from the disease, with his partner Daniel Defert founding the AIDES charity in his memory.

Foucault rejected the post-structuralist and postmodernist labels later attributed to him, preferring to classify his thought as a critical history of modernity.

Early life

Youth: 1926–1946

Paul-Michel Foucault was born on 15 October 1926 in the small town of Poitiers, west-central France, as the second of three children to a prosperous and socially conservative upper-middle-class family. He had been named after his father, Dr. Paul Foucault, as was the family tradition, but his mother insisted on the addition of the double-barrelled "Michel"; referred to as "Paul" at school, throughout his life he always expressed a preference for "Michel". His father (1893–1959) was a successful local surgeon, having been born in Fontainebleau before moving to Poitiers, where he set up his own practice and married local woman Anne Malapert. She was the daughter of prosperous surgeon Dr. Prosper Malapert, who owned a private practice and taught anatomy at the University of Poitiers' School of Medicine. Paul Foucault eventually took over his father-in-law's medical practice, while his wife took charge of their large mid-19th century house, Le Piroir, in the village of Vendeuvre-du-Poitou. Together the couple had 3 children, a girl named Francine and two boys, Paul-Michel and Denys, all of whom shared the same fair hair and bright blue eyes. The children were raised to be nominal Roman Catholics, attending mass at the Church of Saint-Porchair, and while Michel briefly became an altar boy, none of the family were devout.

"I wasn't always smart, I was actually very stupid in school... here was a boy who was very attractive who was even stupider than I was. And in order to ingratiate myself with this boy who was very beautiful, I began to do his homework for him – and that's how I became smart, I had to do all this work to just keep ahead of him a little bit, in order to help him. In a sense, all the rest of my life I've been trying to do intellectual things that would attract beautiful boys."

— Michel Foucault, 1983.

In later life, Foucault would reveal very little about his childhood. Describing himself as a "juvenile delinquent", he claimed his father was a "bully" who would sternly punish him. In 1930, Foucault began his schooling two years early at the local Lycée Henry-IV. Here he undertook two years of elementary education before entering the main lycée, where he stayed until 1936. He then undertook his first four years of secondary education at the same establishment, excelling in French, Greek, Latin and history but doing poorly at maths. In 1939, the Second World War broke out and France was occupied by Nazi Germany until 1945; his parents opposed the occupation and the Vichy regime, but did not join the Resistance. In 1940, Foucault's mother enrolled him in the Collège Saint-Stanislas, a strict Roman Catholic institution run by the Jesuits. Lonely, he described his years there as the "ordeal", but excelled academically, particularly in philosophy, history and literature. In 1942, he entered his final year, the terminale, where he focused on the study of philosophy, earning his baccalauréat in 1943.

Returning to the local Lycée Henry-IV, he studied history and philosophy for a year, aided by a personal tutor, the philosopher Louis Girard. Rejecting his father's wishes that he become a surgeon, in 1945 Foucault traveled to Paris, where he enrolled in one of the country's most prestigious secondary schools, which was also known as the Lycée Henri-IV. Here, he studied under the philosopher Jean Hyppolite, an existentialist and expert on the work of 19th century German philosopher Hegel who had devoted himself to uniting existentialist theories with the dialectical theories of Hegel and Karl Marx. These ideas influenced Foucault, who adopted Hyppolite's conviction that philosophy must be developed through a study of history.

École Normale Supérieure: 1946–1951

Attaining excellent results, in autumn 1946 Foucault was admitted to the elite École Normale Supérieure (ENS); to gain entry, he undertook exams and an oral interrogation by Georges Canguilhem and Pierre-Maxime Schuhl. Of the hundred students entering the ENS, Foucault was ranked fourth based on his entry results, and encountered the highly competitive nature of the institution. Like most of his classmates, he was housed in the school's communal dormitories on the Parisian Rue d'Ulm. He remained largely unpopular, spending much time alone, reading voraciously. His fellow students noted his love of violence and the macabre; he decorated his bedroom with images of torture and war drawn during the Napoleonic Wars by Spanish artist Francisco Goya, on one occasion chasing a classmate with a dagger. Prone to self-harm, in 1948 Foucault allegedly undertook a failed suicide attempt, for which his father sent him to see the psychiatrist Jean Delay at the Hôpital Sainte-Anne. Obsessed with the idea of self-mutilation and suicide, Foucault attempted the latter several times in ensuing years, praising suicide in later writings. The ENS's doctor examined Foucault's state of mind, suggesting that his suicidal tendencies emerged from the distress surrounding his homosexuality, for though legal, same-sex sexual activity was socially taboo in France. At the time, Foucault engaged in homosexual activity with men whom he encountered in the underground Parisian gay scene, also indulging in drug use; according to biographer James Miller, he enjoyed the thrill and sense of danger that these activities offered him.

Although studying various subjects, Foucault's particular interest was soon drawn to philosophy, reading not only Hegel and Marx but also Immanuel Kant, Edmund Husserl and most significantly, Martin Heidegger. He began reading the publications of philosopher Gaston Bachelard, taking a particular interest in his work exploring the history of science. In 1948, the philosopher Louis Althusser became a tutor at the ENS. A Marxist, he proved to be an influence both on Foucault and a number of other students, encouraging them to join the French Communist Party (Parti communiste français - PCF). Foucault did so in 1950, but never became particularly active in its activities, and never adopted an orthodox Marxist viewpoint, refuting core Marxist tenets such as class struggle. He soon became dissatisfied with the bigotry that he experienced within the party's ranks; he personally faced homophobia and was appalled by the anti-semitism exhibited during the Doctors' plot in the Soviet Union. He left the Communist Party in 1953, but remained Althusser's friend and defender for the rest of his life. Although failing at the first attempt in 1950, he passed his agrégation in philosophy on the second try, in 1951. Excused from national service on medical grounds, he decided to study for a doctorate at the Fondation Thiers, focusing on the philosophy of psychology.

Early career: 1951–1955

In the early 1950s, Foucault came under the influence of German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who remained a core influence on his work throughout his life.

Over the following few years, Foucault embarked on a variety of research and teaching jobs. From 1951 to 1955, he worked as a psychology instructor at the ENS at Althusser's invitation. In Paris, he shared a flat with his brother, who was training to become a surgeon, but for three days in the week commuted to the northern town of Lille, teaching psychology at the Université Lille Nord de France from 1953 to 1954. His lecturing style was looked upon positively by many of his students. Meanwhile, he continued working on his thesis, visiting the Bibliothèque Nationale every day to read the work of psychologists like Ivan Pavlov, Jean Piaget and Karl Jaspers. Undertaking research at the psychiatric institute of the Hôpital Sainte-Anne, he became an unofficial intern, studying the relationship between doctor and patient and aiding experiments in the electroencephalographic laboratory. Foucault adopted many of the theories of the psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, undertaking psychoanalytical interpretation of his dreams and making friends undergo Rorschach tests.

Embracing the Parisian avant-garde, Foucault entered into a romantic relationship with the serialist composer Jean Barraqué. Together, they pushed the boundaries of the human mind, trying to produce their greatest work; making heavy use of drugs, they engaged in sado-masochistic sexual activity. In August 1953, Foucault and Barraqué holidayed in Italy, where the philosopher immersed himself in Untimely Meditations (1873–1876), a collection of four essays authored by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. Later describing Nietzsche's work as "a revelation", he felt that reading the book deeply affected him, and he subsequently "broke with my life" as he had formerly experienced it. Foucault subsequently experienced a groundbreaking self-revelation when watching a Parisian performance of Samuel Beckett's new play, Waiting for Godot, in 1953.

Interested in literature, Foucault was an avid reader of the philosopher Maurice Blanchot's book reviews published in Nouvelle Revue Française. Enamoured with Blanchot's literary style and critical theories, in later works he adopted Blanchot's technique of "interviewing" himself. Foucault also came across Hermann Broch's 1945 novel The Death of Virgil, a work that obsessed both him and Barraqué. While the latter attempted to convert the work into an epic opera, Foucault admired Broch's text for its portrayal of death as an affirmation of life. The couple took a mutual interest in the work of such authors as the Marquis de Sade, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Franz Kafka and Jean Genet, all of whose works explored the themes of sex and violence.

"I belong to that generation who, as students, had before their eyes, and were limited by, a horizon consisting of Marxism, phenomenology and existentialism. For me the break was first Beckett's Waiting for Godot, a breathtaking performance."

— Michel Foucault, 1983.

Interested in the work of Swiss psychologist Ludwig Binswanger, Foucault aided family friend Jacqueline Verdeaux in translating his works into French. Foucault was particularly interested in Binswager's studies of Ellen West who, like himself, had a deep obsession with suicide, eventually killing herself. In 1954, Foucault authored an introduction to Binswager's paper "Dream and Existence", in which he argued that dreams constituted "the birth of the world" or "the heart laid bare", expressing the mind's deepest desires. That same year Foucault published his first book, Mental Illness and Personality (Maladie mentale et personnalité), in which he exhibited his influence from both Marxist and Heideggerian thought, covering a wide range of subject matter from the reflex psychology of Pavlov to the classic psychoanalysis of Freud. Referencing the work of sociologists and anthropologists such as Émile Durkheim and Margaret Mead, he presented his theory that illness was culturally relative. Biographer James Miller noted that while the book exhibited "erudition and evident intelligence", it lacked the "kind of fire and flair" which Foucault exhibited in subsequent works. It was largely critically ignored, receiving only one review at the time. Foucault grew to despise it, unsuccessfully attempting to prevent its republication and translation into English.

Sweden, Poland, and West Germany: 1955–1960

Foucault spent the next five years abroad, first in Sweden, working as cultural diplomat at the University of Uppsala, a job obtained through his acquaintance with historian of religion Georges Dumézil. At Uppsala he was appointed a Reader in French language and literature, while simultaneously working as director of the Maison de France, thus opening the possibility of a cultural-diplomatic career. Although finding it difficult to adjust to the "Nordic gloom" and long winters, he developed close friendships with two Frenchmen, biochemist Jean-François Miquel and physicist Jacques Papet-Lépine, and entered into romantic and sexual relationships with various men. In Uppsala, he became known for his heavy alcohol consumption and reckless driving in his new Jaguar car. In spring 1956, Barraqué broke from his relationship with Foucault, announcing that he wanted to leave the "vertigo of madness". In Uppsala, Foucault spent much of his spare time in the university's Carolina Rediviva library, making use of their Bibliotheca Walleriana collection of texts on the history of medicine for his ongoing research. Finishing his doctoral thesis, Foucault hoped it would be accepted by Uppsala University, but Sten Lindroth, a historian of science there, was unimpressed, asserting that it was full of speculative generalisations and was a poor work of history; he refused to allow Foucault to be awarded a doctorate at Uppsala. In part because of this rejection, Foucault left Sweden.

Again at Dumézil's recognition, in October 1958 Foucault arrived in the Polish city of Warsaw, placed in charge of the University of Warsaw's Centre Français. Foucault found life in Poland difficult due to the lack of material goods and services following the destruction of the Second World War. Witnessing the aftermath of the Polish October in which students had protested against the governing communist Polish United Workers' Party, he felt that most Polish despised their government as a puppet regime of the Soviet Union, and thought that the system ran "badly". Considering the university a liberal enclave, he traveled the country giving lectures; proving popular, he adopted the position of de facto cultural attaché. Like France and Sweden, homosexual activity was legal but socially frowned upon in Poland, and he undertook relationships with a number of men; one was a Polish security agent who hoped to trap Foucault in an embarrassing situation, which would therefore reflect badly on the French embassy. Wracked in diplomatic scandal, he was ordered to leave Poland for a new destination. Various positions were available in West Germany, and so Foucault relocated to Hamburg, teaching the same courses he had given in Uppsala and Warsaw. Spending much time in the Reeperbahn red light district, he entered into a relationship with a transvestite.

Success and fame

Madness and Civilization and Kant's Anthropology: 1960

"Histoire de la folie is not an easy text to read, and it defies attempts to summarise its contents. Foucault refers to a bewildering variety of sources, ranging from well-known authors such as Erasmus and Molière to archival documents and forgotten figures in the history of medicine and psychiatry. His erudition derives from years pondering, to cite Poe, 'over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore', and his learning is not always worn lightly."

— Foucault biographer David Macey, 1993.

In West Germany Foucault completed his doctoral thesis, Folie et déraison: Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (Madness and Insanity: History of Madness in the Classical Age), a philosophical work based upon his studies into the history of medicine. The book discussed how West European society had dealt with madness, arguing that it was a social construct distinct from mental illness. Foucault traces the evolution of the concept of madness through three phases: the Renaissance, the later 17th and 18th centuries, and the modern experience. The work alludes to the work of French poet and playwright Antonin Artaud, who exerted a strong influence over Foucault's thought at the time.

Histoire de la folie was an expansive work, consisting of 943 pages of text, followed by appendixes and a bibliography. Foucault submitted it at the University of Paris, although the university's regulations for awarding a doctorate required the submission of both his main thesis and a shorter complementary thesis. Obtaining a doctorate in France at the period was a multi-step process. The first step was to obtain a rapporteur, or sponsor for the work: Foucault chose Georges Canguilhem. The second was to find a publisher, and as a result Folie et déraison would be published in French in May 1961 by the company Plon, whom Foucault chose over Presses Universitaires de France after being rejected by Gallimard. In 1964, a heavily abridged version was published as a mass market paperback, then translated into English for publication the following year as Madness and Civilization.

Folie et déraison received a mixed reception in France and in foreign journals focusing on French affairs. Critically acclaimed by Blochot, Michel Serres, Roland Barthes, Gaston Bachelard, and Fernand Braudel, much to Foucault's upset it was largely ignored by the leftist press. It was notably criticised for advocating metaphysics by young philosopher Jacques Derrida in a March 1963 lecture at the University of Paris. Responding with a vicious retort, Foucault ignored some of Derrida's points, focusing on criticising his interpretation of René Descartes. The two remained bitter rivals until reconciling in 1981. In the English-speaking world, the work became a significant influence on the anti-psychiatry movement during the 1960s; Foucault took a mixed approach to this, associating with a number of anti-psychiatrists but arguing that most of them misunderstood his work.

Foucault's secondary thesis was a translation and commentary on German philosopher Immanuel Kant's 1798 work Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View. Largely consisting of Foucault's discussion of textual dating – an "archaeology of the Kantian text" – he rounded off the thesis with an evocation of Nietzche, his biggest philosophical influence. This work's rapporteur was his old tutor and then director of the ENS, Hyppolite, who was well acquainted with German philosophy. After both theses were championed and reviewed, he underwent his public defense, the soutenance de thèse, on 20 May 1961. The academics responsible for reviewing his work were concerned about the unconventional nature of his major thesis; reviewer Henri Gouhier noted that it was not a conventional work of history, making sweeping generalisations without sufficient particular argument, and that Foucault clearly "thinks in allegories". They all agreed however that the overall project was of merit, awarding Foucault his doctorate "despite reservations".

University of Clermont-Ferrand, The Birth of the Clinic, and The Order of Things: 1960–1966

In October 1960, Foucault took a tenured post in philosophy at the University of Clermont-Ferrand, commuting to the city every week from Paris, where he lived in a high-rise block on the rue du Dr Finlay. Responsible for teaching psychology, which was subsumed within the philosophy department, he was considered a "fascinating" but "rather traditional" teacher at Clermont. The department was run by Jules Vuillemin, who soon developed a friendship with Foucault. Foucault then took Vuillemin's job when the latter was elected to the Collège de France in 1962. In this position, Foucault took a dislike to another staff member whom he considered stupid: Roger Garaudy, a senior figure in the Communist Party. Foucault made life at the university difficult for Garaudy, leading the latter to transfer to Poitiers. Foucault also caused controversy by securing a university job for his lover, the philosopher Daniel Defert, with whom he retained a non-monogamous relationship for the rest of his life.

Foucault adored the work of Raymond Roussel and authored a literary study of it.

Foucault maintained a keen interest in literature, publishing reviews in literary journals Tel Quel and Nouvelle Revue Française, and sitting on the editorial board of Critique. In May 1963 he published Raymond Roussel, a book devoted to the eponymous poet, novelist and playwright; brought out by Gallimard, it had been written in under two months, and would be described by biographer David Macey as "a very personal book" that resulted from a "love affair" with Roussel's work. It would be published in English in 1983 as Death and the Labyrinth: The World of Raymond Roussel. Receiving few reviews, it was largely ignored. That same year he published a sequel to Folie et déraison, entitled Naissance de la Clinique, subsequently translated as Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeology of Medical Perception. Shorter than its predecessor, it focused on the changes that the medical establishment underwent in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Like his preceding work, Naissance de la Clinique was largely critically ignored, but later gained a cult following. Foucault was also selected to be among the "Eighteen Man Commission" that assembled between November 1963 and March 1964 to discuss university reforms that were to be implemented by Christian Fouchet, the Gaullist Minister of National Education; implemented in 1967, they brought staff strikes and student protests.

In April 1966, Gallimard published Foucault's Les Mots et les choses ("The words and the things"), later translated as The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. Exploring how man came to be an object of knowledge, it argued that all periods of history have possessed certain underlying conditions of truth that constituted what was acceptable as scientific discourse. Foucault argues that these conditions of discourse have changed over time, from one period's episteme to another. Although designed for a specialist audience, the work gained media attention, becoming a surprise bestseller in France. Appearing at the height of interest in structuralism, Foucault was quickly grouped with scholars Jacques Lacan, Claude Lévi-Strauss, and Roland Barthes, as the latest wave of thinkers set to topple the existentialism popularized by Jean-Paul Sartre. Although initially accepting this description, Foucault soon vehemently rejected it. Foucault and Sartre regularly criticised one another in the press; both Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir attacked Foucault's ideas as "bourgeoisie", while Foucault retaliated against their Marxist beliefs by proclaiming that "Marxism exists in nineteenth-century thought as a fish exists in water; that is, it ceases to breathe anywhere else."

University of Tunis and Vincennes: 1966–1970

"I lived for two and a half years. It made a real impression. I was present for large, violent student riots that preceded by several weeks what happened in May in France. This was March 1968. The unrest lasted a whole year: strikes, courses suspended, arrests. And in March, a general strike by the students. The police came into the university, beat up the students, wounded several of them seriously, and started making arrests... I have to say that I was tremendously impressed by those young men and women who took terrible risks by writing or distributing tracts or calling for strikes, the ones who really risked losing their freedom! It was a political experience for me."

— Michel Foucault, 1983.

In September 1966 Foucault took up a position teaching psychology at the University of Tunis in the North African nation of Tunisia. His decision to do so was largely because his lover, Defert, had been posted to the country as part of his national service. Foucault moved a few kilometres from Tunis, to the village of Sidi Bou Saïd, where fellow academic Gérard Deledalle lived with his wife. Soon after his arrival, Foucualt announced that Tunisia was "blessed by history", a nation which "deserves to live forever because it was where Hannibal and St. Augustine lived." His lectures at the university proved very popular, and were well attended. Although many young students were enthusiastic about his teaching, they were critical of what they believed to be his right-wing political views, viewing him as a "representative of Gaullist technocracy", even though he considered himself a leftist.

Foucault was in Tunis during the anti-government and pro-Palestinian riots that rocked the city in June 1967, and which continued for a year. Although highly critical of the violent, ultra-nationalistic and anti-semitic nature of many protesters, he used his status to try and prevent some of his militant leftist students from being arrested and tortured for their role in the agitation. Hiding their printing press in his own garden, he tried to testify on their behalf at their trials, but was prevented when the trials became closed-door events. While in Tunis, Foucault had continued to write. Inspired by a correspondence with the surrealist artist René Magritte, Foucault set about writing a book upon the impressionist artist Eduard Manet, but it was never completed.

In 1968, Foucault returned to France, moving in to an apartment on the Rue de Vaugirard in Paris. Following the May 1968 student protests, Minister of Education Edgar Faure decided on educational reform by founding new universities with greater autonomy. Most prominent of these was the Centre Expérimental de Vincennes in Vincennes on the outskirts of Paris. A group of prominent academics were asked to select teachers to run the Centre's departments, with Canguilheim recommending Foucault as head of the philosophy department. Becoming a tenured professor of Vincennes, Foucault's desire was to obtain “the best in French philosophy today” for his department, employing Michael Serres, Judith Miller, Alan Badiou, Jacques Rancière, François Regnault, Henri Weber, Etienne Balibar, and François Châtelet; almost all of them were Marxists and ultra-left activists.

Lectures began at the university in January 1969, and straight away its students and staff – among them Foucault – were involved in occupations and clashes with police, resulting in arrests. In February, Foucault gave a speech denouncing police provocation to protesters at the Latin Quarter of the Mutualité. Such actions marked Foucault's embrace of the ultra-left, undoubtedly influenced by Defert, who had gained a job at Vincennes' sociology department and who had become a Maoist. Most of the courses given at Foucualt's philosophy department were Marxist-Leninist oriented, although Foucault himself gave courses on Nietzche, "The end of Metaphysics", and "The Discourse of Sexuality"; they proved highly popular and were hugely over-subscribed. While the right-wing press was heavily critical of this new institution, new Minister of Education Olivier Guichard was angered by its ideological bent and the lack of exams, with students being awarded degrees in a haphazard manner. He refused national accreditation of the department's degrees, resulting in a public rebuttal from Foucault.

Collège de France and Discipline and Punish: 1970–1975

Foucault desired to leave Vincennes and become a fellow of the prestigious Collège de France. He proposed that he be permitted to join, taking up a chair in what he called the "history of systems of thought," and his proposal was championed by members Dumézil, Hyppolite, and Vuillemin. In November 1969, when an opening became available, Foucault was elected to the Collège, though with a large minority opposed. He gave his inaugural lecture in December 1970, which was subsequently published as L'Ordre du discours (The Discourse of Language).. He was obliged to give 12 weekly lectures a year – and did so for the rest of his life – covering the topics that he was researching at the time; these became “one of the events of Parisian intellectual life” and were repeatedly packed out events.

In May 1971, Foucault co-founded the Group d'Information sur les Prisons (GIP) along with historian Pierre Vidal-Naquet and journalist Jean-Marie Domerach. The GIP's aim was to investigate and expose poor conditions in prisons and allow prisoners and ex-prisoners to have a voice in French society. They were highly critical of the penal system, believing that it converted petty criminals into hardened delinquents. The GIP gave press conferences and staged protests surrounding the events of the Toul prison riot in December 1971, alongside other prison riots that it sparked off; in doing so they faced police crack down and repeated arrest. The group became active across France, with a membership of between 2,000 and 3,000, although had disbanded before 1974. Also campaigning against the death penalty, Foucault authored a short book on the case of the executed murderer Pierre Rivière. On the back of his research into the penal system, Foucault published Surveiller et punir: Naissance de la prison (Discipline and Punish) in 1975, offering a history of the system in western Europe. Biographer Didier Eribon described it as "perhaps the finest" of Foucault's works, and it was critically well received.

The History of Sexuality and Iranian Revolution: 1975–1983

In the late 1970s, political activism in France trailed off with the disillusionment of many left-wing intellectuals. A number of young Maoists abandoned their beliefs to become the so-called New Philosophers, often citing Foucault as their major influence, a status Foucault had mixed feelings about. Foucault in this period embarked on a six-volume project The History of Sexuality, which he never completed. Its first volume was published in French as La Volonté de Savoir (1976), then in English as The History of Sexuality: An Introduction (1978). The second and third volumes did not appear for another eight years, and they surprised readers by their subject matter (classical Greek and Latin texts), approach and style, particularly Foucault's focus on the human subject, a concept that some believed he had previously neglected.

Foucault began to spend more time in the United States, at the University at Buffalo (where he had lectured on his first ever visit to the United States in 1970) and especially at UC Berkeley. In 1975, he took LSD at Zabriskie Point in Death Valley National Park, later calling it the best experience of his life.

In 1979, Foucault made two tours of Iran, undertaking extensive interviews with political protagonists in support of the new interim government established soon after the Iranian Revolution. In the tradition of Nietzsche and Georges Bataille, Foucault had embraced the artist who pushed the limits of rationality, and he wrote with great passion in defense of irrationalities that broke boundaries. In 1978, Foucault found such transgressive powers in the revolutionary figures Ayatollah Khomeini, Ali Shariati and the millions who risked death as they followed them in the course of the revolution. Both Foucault and the revolutionaries were highly critical of modernity and sought a new form of politics, they both also looked up to those who risked their lives for ideals; and both looked to the past for inspiration. Later on when Foucault went to Iran “to be there at the birth of a new form of ideas,” he wrote that the new “Muslim” style of politics could signal the beginning of a new form of “political spirituality,” not just for the Middle East, but also for Europe, which had adopted the practice of secular politics ever since the French Revolution. Foucault recognized the enormous power of the new discourse of militant Islam, not just for Iran, but for the world. He wrote:

As an Islamic movement, it can set the entire region afire, overturn the most unstable regimes, and disturb the most solid. Islam which is not simply a religion, but an entire way of life, an adherence to a history and a civilization, has a good chance to become a gigantic powder keg, at the level of hundreds of millions of men. . . Indeed, it is also important to recognize that the demand for the 'legitimate rights of the Palestinian people' hardly stirred the Arab peoples. What it be if this cause encompassed the dynamism of an Islamic movement, something much stronger than those with a Marxist, Leninist, or Maoist character? (“A Powder Keg Called Islam”)

During his two trips to Iran, Foucault was commissioned as a special correspondent of a leading Italian newspaper and his articles appeared on the front page of that paper. His many essays on Iran, published in the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, only appeared in French in 1994 and then in English in 2005. These essays caused some controversy, with some commentators arguing that Foucault was insufficiently critical of the new regime. The more common attempts to bracket out Foucault's writings on Iran as "miscalculations," reminds some authors of what Foucault himself had criticized in his well known 1969 essay, "What is an Author?" Foucault believed that when we include certain works in an author's career and exclude others that were written in a "different style," or were "inferior" (Foucault 1969, 111), we create a stylistic unity and a theoretical coherence. This is done by privileging certain writings as authentic and excluding others that do not fit our view of what the author ought to be: "The author is therefore the ideological figure by which one marks the manner in which we fear the proliferation of meaning" (Foucault 1969, 110). This controversy is frequently discussed in the Foucault literature.

Throughout this period Foucault continued to lecture at the Collège de France about the penal system, security, biopower and biopolitics. In his lecture on The Hermeneutics of the Subject Foucault encouraged a process which he called "transsubjectivation", he "conceived as a journey within oneself... the product of a transformation." Foucault used the word ethopoiein from the Greek word ethos to describe the transformation. "Ethopoiein", says Foucault, "means making ethos, producing ethos, changing, transforming ethos, the individual’s way of being, his mode of existence”.

Illness and death: 1983–1984

In the philosopher's later years, interpreters of Foucault's work attempted to engage with the problems presented by the fact that the late Foucault seemed in tension with the philosopher's earlier work. When this issue was raised in a 1982 interview, Foucault remarked "When people say, 'Well, you thought this a few years ago and now you say something else,' my answer is... 'Well, do you think I have worked hard all those years to say the same thing and not to be changed?'" He refused to identify himself as a philosopher, historian, structuralist, or Marxist, maintaining that "The main interest in life and work is to become someone else that you were not in the beginning." In a similar vein, he preferred not to state that he was presenting a coherent and timeless block of knowledge; he rather desired his books "to be a kind of tool-box others can rummage through to find a tool they can use however they wish in their own area... I don't write for an audience, I write for users, not readers."

During these trips to California, Foucault spent many evenings in the gay scene of the San Francisco Bay Area. He frequented a number of sado-masochistic bathhouses, engaging in sexual intercourse with other patrons. He would praise sado-masochistic activity in interviews with the gay press, describing it as "the real creation of new possibilities of pleasure, which people had no idea about previously." The American academic James Miller would later claim that Foucault's experiences in the gay sadomasochism community during the time he taught at Berkeley directly influenced his political and philosophical works. Miller's ideas have been rebuked by certain Foucault scholars as being either simply misdirected, a sordid reading of his life and works, or as a politically motivated, intentional misreading. Through this sexual activity, Foucault contracted HIV, which eventually developed into AIDS. Little was known of the virus at the time; the first cases had only been identified in 1980. In summer 1983, he developed a persistent dry cough, which concerned friends in Paris, but Foucault insisted it was just a pulmonary infection. Only when hospitalized was Foucault correctly diagnosed; placed on antibiotics, he delivered a final set of lectures at the Collège de France. Foucault entered Paris' Hôpital de la Salpêtrière – the same institution that he had studied in Madness and Civilisation – on 9 June 1984, with neurological symptoms complicated by septicemia. He died in the hospital on 25 June.

On 26 June, the newspaper Libération announced his death, mentioning the rumour that it had been brought on by AIDS. The following day, Le Monde issued a medical bulletin cleared by his family which made no reference to HIV/AIDS. On 29 June, Foucault's la levée du corps ceremony was held, in which the coffin was carried from the hospital morgue. Hundreds attended, including activist and academic friends, while Gilles Deleuze gave a speech using text from The History of Sexuality. Soon after his death, Foucault's partner Daniel Defert founded the first national HIV/AIDS organisation in France, AIDES; a pun on the French language word for "help" (aide) and the English language acronym for the disease. On the second anniversary of Foucault's death, Defert publicly revealed that Foucault's death was AIDS-related in California-based gay magazine, The Advocate.

Personal life

Foucault's first biographer, Didier Eribon, described the philosopher as "a complex, many-sided character", and that "under one mask there is always another". He also noted that he exhibited an "enormous capacity for work". At the ENS, Foucault's classmates unanimously summed him up as a figure who was both "disconcerting and strange" and "a passionate worker". His personality would change as he aged however; Eribon noted that while he was a "tortured adolescent", post-1960, he had become "a radiant man, relaxed and cheerful", even being described by those who worked with him as a dandy.

Foucault was a fan of classical music, particularly enjoying the work of Johann Sebastian Bach and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart.

Politically, Foucault remained a leftist throughout his life, but his particular stance within the left often changed. In the early 1950s he had been a member of the French Communist Party, although never adopted an orthodox Marxist viewpoint and left the party after three years, disgusted by the prejudice towards Jews and homosexuals within its ranks. After spending some time working in Poland, then governed as a socialist state by the Communist Party of Poland, he became further disillusioned with eastern so called "communist" dictatures. That explains why in the early 1960s he was considered to be "violently anticommunist" by some of his detractors, even though totally involved in Marxist campaigns along with most of his students and colleagues.

Thought

"The theme that underlies all Foucault's work is the relationship between power and knowledge, and how the former is used to control and define the latter. What authorities claim as 'scientific knowledge' are really just means of social control. Foucault shows how, for instance, in the eighteenth century 'madness' was used to categorize and stigmatise not just the mentally ill but the poor, the sick, the homeless and, indeed, anyone whose expressions of individuality were unwelcome."

Philip Stokes, Philosophy: 100 Essential Thinkers, 2004.

Philosopher Philip Stokes of the University of Reading noted that overall, Foucault's work was "dark and pessimistic", but that it did leave some room for optimism, in that it illustrates how the discipline of philosophy can be used to highlight areas of domination. In doing so, Stokes claimed, we are able to understand how we are being dominated and strive to build social structures that minimize this risk of domination. In all of this development there had to be close attention to detail; it is the detail which eventually individualises people.

Literature

In addition to his philosophical work, Foucault also wrote on literature. Death and the Labyrinth: The World of Raymond Roussel was published in 1963, and translated into English in 1986. It is Foucault's only book-length work on literature. Foucault described it as "by far the book I wrote most easily, with the greatest pleasure, and most rapidly." Foucault explores theory, criticism, and psychology with reference to the texts of Raymond Roussel, one of the first notable of experimental writers.

Influence

Foucault's discussions on power and discourse have inspired many critical theorists, who believe that Foucault's analysis of power structures could aid the struggle against inequality. They claim that through discourse analysis, hierarchies may be uncovered and questioned by way of analyzing the corresponding fields of knowledge through which they are legitimated. This is one of the ways that Foucault's work is linked to critical theory.

In 2007, Foucault was listed as the most cited scholar in the humanities by the ISI Web of Science.

Criticisms

Philosopher Jürgen Habermas has described Foucault as a "crypto-normativist", covertly reliant on the very Enlightenment principles he attempts to deconstruct (see also Foucault–Habermas debate). Central to this problem, Habermas argues, is the way Foucault seemingly attempts to remain both Kantian and Nietzschean in his approach.

Philosopher Richard Rorty has argued that Foucault's 'archaeology of knowledge' is fundamentally negative, and thus fails to adequately establish any 'new' theory of knowledge per se. Rather, Foucault simply provides a few valuable maxims regarding the reading of history. Says Rorty:

As far as I can see, all he has to offer are brilliant redescriptions of the past, supplemented by helpful hints on how to avoid being trapped by old historiographical assumptions. These hints consist largely of saying: "do not look for progress or meaning in history; do not see the history of a given activity, of any segment of culture, as the development of rationality or of freedom; do not use any philosophical vocabulary to characterize the essence of such activity or the goal it serves; do not assume that the way this activity is presently conducted gives any clue to the goals it served in the past."

Bibliography

Main article: Bibliography of Michel Foucault

See also

2

References

Citations

  1. Jacques Derrida points out Foucault's debt to Artaud in his essay "La parole soufflée," in Derrida, Writing and Difference, trans. Alan Bass (Chicago, 1978), p. 326n.26.
  2. Gary Gutting, Foucault: A Very Short Introduction, OUP Oxford, 2005.
  3. Macey 1993, p. 3; Miller 1993, p. 39.
  4. Eribon 1991, pp. 4–5; Macey 1993, p. 3; Miller 1993, p. 39.
  5. Eribon 1991, p. 5; Macey 1993, pp. 1–2.
  6. Eribon 1991, p. 5; Macey 1993, p. 1.
  7. Eribon 1991, p. 5; Macey 1993, p. 2.
  8. Eribon 1991, p. 5; Macey 1993, p. 3.
  9. Eribon 1991, p. 5; Macey 1993, p. 4.
  10. Miller 1993, p. 56.
  11. Macey 1993, p. 4; Miller 1993, p. 39.
  12. Miller 1993, p. 39.
  13. Macey 1993, pp. 8–9.
  14. Macey 1993, p. 7.
  15. Eribon 1991, pp. 6–7; Macey 1993, p. 10; Miller 1993, pp. 39–40; Smart 2002, p. 19.
  16. Macey 1993, p. 10.
  17. Macey 1993, p. 13.
  18. Eribon 1991, p. 9; Macey 1993, p. 11.
  19. Eribon 1991, pp. 11, 14–21; Macey 1993, pp. 15–17; Miller 1993, pp. 40–41.
  20. Eribon 1991, pp. 24–25; Macey 1993, pp. 17–22; Miller 1993, p. 45.
  21. Eribon 1991, p. 26; Miller 1993, p. 45.
  22. Eribon 1991, p. 26; Macey 1993, pp. 27–28; Miller 1993, pp. 54–55.
  23. Eribon 1991, p. 26; Miller 1993.
  24. Macey 1993, p. 30; Miller 1993, pp. 55–56.
  25. Macey 1993, p. 34; Miller 1993, p. 46.
  26. Macey 1993, p. 35; Miller 1993, pp. 60–61.
  27. Eribon 1991, pp. 32–36, 51–55; Macey 1993, pp. 23–26, 37–40; Miller 1993, p. 57.
  28. Eribon 1991, pp. 56–57; Macey 1993, pp. 39–40; Miller 1993, pp. 57–58.
  29. Eribon 1991, pp. 36–38; Macey 1993, pp. 43–45; Miller 1993, p. 61.
  30. Eribon 1991, pp. 39–40; Macey 1993, pp. 45–46, 49.
  31. Miller 1993, p. 61.
  32. Eribon 1991, p. 50; Macey 1993, p. 49; Miller 1993, p. 62.
  33. Eribon 1991, pp. 61–62; Macey 1993, p. 47.
  34. Macey 1993, p. 56.
  35. Macey 1993, p. 49; Miller 1993, pp. 61–62.
  36. Eribon 1991, pp. 41–49; Macey 1993, pp. 56–58; Miller 1993, p. 62.
  37. Eribon 1991, pp. 30, 43; Miller 1993, pp. 62–63.
  38. Eribon 1991, pp. 65–68; Macey 1993, p. 50–53; Miller 1993, pp. 66, 79–82, 89–91.
  39. Eribon 1991, p. 52; Macey 1993, p. 50; Miller 1993, pp. 64–67.
  40. Macey 1993, p. 41; Miller 1993, pp. 64–65.
  41. Eribon 1991, p. 58; Macey 1993, p. 55; Miller 1993, pp. 82–84.
  42. Eribon 1991, p. 66; Macey 1993, p. 53; Miller 1993, pp. 84–85.
  43. Eribon 1991, p. 31; Macey 1993, pp. 51–52.
  44. Miller 1993, p. 65.
  45. Eribon 1991, pp. 44–45; Macey 1993, pp. 59–61; Miller 1993, pp. 73–75.
  46. Eribon 1991, pp. 45–46; Macey 1993, pp. 67–69; Miller 1993, pp. 76–77.
  47. Eribon 1991, pp. 68–70; Macey 1993, pp. 63–66; Miller 1993, p. 63.
  48. Miller 1993, pp. 63.
  49. Macey 1993, p. 67.
  50. Eribon 1991, p. 70.
  51. Eribon 1991, pp. 73–74; Macey 1993, pp. 70–71.
  52. Eribon 1991, pp. 76–78; Macey 1993, pp. 73, 76.
  53. Eribon 1991, pp. 74–77; Macey 1993, pp. 74–75.
  54. Eribon 1991, p. 68; Macey 1993, p. 81; Miller 1993, p. 91.
  55. Macey 1993, p. 78.
  56. Eribon 1991, pp. 83–86; Macey 1993, p. 79–80.
  57. Eribon 1991, p. 87; Macey 1993, p. 84; Miller 1993, p. 91.
  58. Eribon 1991, p. 194; Macey 1993, pp. 84–85.
  59. Eribon 1991, p. 88; Macey 1993, pp. 85–86.
  60. Eribon 1991, p. 89; Macey 1993, pp. 86–87.
  61. Eribon 1991, pp. 89–90; Macey 1993, pp. 87–88.
  62. Macey 1993, p. 88.
  63. Macey 1993, p. 96.
  64. Macey 1993, p. 102; Miller 1993, p. 96.
  65. ^ Eribon 1991, p. 101.
  66. Eribon 1991, pp. 90–92; Macey 1993, pp. 88–89.
  67. Eribon 1991, pp. 101–102; Macey 1993, pp. 103–106.
  68. Eribon 1991, pp. 105–107; Macey 1993, pp. 106–109; Miller 1993, pp. 117–118.
  69. Eribon 1991, p. 122; Miller 1993, pp. 118.
  70. Eribon 1991, p. 116; Macey 1993, pp. 113–119; Miller 1993, p. 118.
  71. Eribon 1991, pp. 119–121; Macey 1993, pp. 142–145; Miller 1993, pp. 118–119.
  72. Eribon 1991, pp. 122–126.
  73. Eribon 1991, p. 110; Macey 1993, p. 89.
  74. Eribon 1991, pp. 111–113.
  75. Miller 1993, pp. 104–105.
  76. Eribon 1991, p. 115.
  77. Eribon 1991, p. 129; Macey 1993, p. 109.
  78. Macey 1993, p. 92.
  79. Eribon 1991, pp. 140–141.
  80. Eribon 1991, p. 131; Macey 1993, p. 109.
  81. Eribon 1991, p. 137.
  82. Eribon 1991, pp. 136–138; Macey 1993, pp. 109–110.
  83. Eribon 1991, pp. 141–142; Macey, pp. 92–93, 110 sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMacey (help); Halperin 1997, p. 214.
  84. Eribon 1991, pp. 141, 151; Macey 1993, pp. 120–121.
  85. Eribon 1991, pp. 145–148; Macey 1993, pp. 124–129.
  86. ^ Macey 1993, pp. 140–142.
  87. Eribon 1991, pp. 152–154; Macey 1993, pp. 130–137.
  88. Eribon 1991, pp. 133–136.
  89. Eribon 1991, pp. 155–156; Macey 1993, p. 159.
  90. Eribon 1991, pp. 158–159.
  91. Eribon 1991, pp. 155, 159; Macey 1993, p. 160.
  92. Eribon 1991, pp. 1605–162, 167.
  93. Macey 1993, pp. 173–177.
  94. Eribon 1991, p. 194.
  95. Eribon 1991, pp. 187–188; Macey 1993, pp. 145–146.
  96. Eribon 1991, pp. 188–189.
  97. Eribon 1991, pp. 192–193.
  98. Eribon 1991, p. 190; Macey 1993, p. 173.
  99. Eribon 1991, p. 198.
  100. Eribon 1991, pp. 201–202.
  101. Eribon 1991, pp. 203–205.
  102. Eribon 1991, p. 205.
  103. Eribon 1991, p. 206.
  104. Eribon 1991, p. 201.
  105. Eribon 1991, p. 209.
  106. Eribon 1991, p. 207.
  107. Eribon 1991, pp. 207–208.
  108. Eribon 1991, pp. 212–218.
  109. Eribon 1991, pp. 212, 219.
  110. Eribon 1991, pp. 222–223.
  111. Eribon 1991, pp. 224–229.
  112. Eribon 1991, pp. 231–232.
  113. Eribon 1991, pp. 233–234.
  114. Eribon 1991, pp. 234–235.
  115. Eribon 1991, pp. 235–236.
  116. Hazareesingh, Sudhir (1991). Intellectuals and the French Communist Party. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 166. ISBN 0-19-827870-5.
  117. Peter Dews, "The Nouvelle Philosophie and Foucault," Economy and Society 8(2) (May 1979), pp. 127–71.
  118. Jim Miller (1993). The Passion of Michel Foucault. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671695509.
  119. Janet, Afary & Kevin, Anderson (2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. Chicago University Press, pp. 13.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  120. Eribon 1991.
  121. Janet, Afary & Kevin, Anderson ((2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. Chicago University Press, pp. 209. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
  122. Janet, Afary & Kevin, Anderson ((2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. Chicago University Press, pp. 241. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
  123. See e.g. Janet, Afary & Kevin, Anderson ((2005). Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islamism. Chicago University Press. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link) Eribon, Didier ((1989)1991). Michel Foucault. Harvard University Press. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link) Paul Veyne (2008). Foucault. Sa pensée, sa personne. Albin Michel.
  124. Foucault, Michel (2006). The hermeneutics of the subject : lectures at the Collège de France, 1981-1982. New York: Picador. p. 237. ISBN 9780312425708.
  125. ^ David Gauntlett. Media, Gender and Identity',' London: Routledge, 2002.
  126. Michel Foucault (1974). 'Prisons et asiles dans le mécanisme du pouvoir' in Dits et Écrits, t. II. Paris: Gallimard, 1994, pp. 523–4).
  127. Miller 1993, pp. 26–27.
  128. Miller 1993.
  129. Scialabba, George. Review: "The Passion of Michel Foucault by James Miller." Boston Globe, 30 January 1993.
  130. Rubenstein, Diane 1995 Modern Fiction Studies 41.3–4 681–698
  131. Williams, James S. The French Review March 1997, Vol. 70, No. 4 pp. 604–605
  132. Carrette, Jeremy R. Religion and culture By Michel Foucault. Manchester University. 15 August 1999. ISBN 9780719054679. Retrieved 18 March 2012.
  133. Halperin 1997.
  134. Miller 1993, pp. 21–22.
  135. Miller 1993, p. 26.
  136. Miller 1993, p. 23.
  137. Miller 1993, pp. 21, 24.
  138. Miller 1993, p. 21.
  139. Miller 1993, pp. 34–36.
  140. Miller 1993, pp. 23–24.
  141. Miller 1993, pp. 24–25.
  142. Eribon 1991, pp. xi.
  143. Eribon 1991, p. 64.
  144. Eribon 1991, p. 30.
  145. Eribon 1991, p. 138.
  146. Eribon 1991, p. 83.
  147. Eribon 1991, p. 136.
  148. ^ Stokes 2004, p. 187.
  149. J.D. Marshall (30 June 1996). Michel Foucault: Personal Autonomy and Education. Springer. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-7923-4016-4. Retrieved 6 December 2012.
  150. Foucault, Michel (2004). "An Interview with Michel Foucault by Charles Ruas". Death and the labyrinth : the world of Raymond Roussel. London New York: Continuum. p. 186. ISBN 978-0-8264-9362-0.
  151. Van Loon, Borin (2001). Introducing Critical Theory. Thriplow: Icon Books Ltd.
  152. "The most cited authors of books in the humanities". timeshighereducation.co.uk. 26 March 2009. Retrieved 16 November 2009.
  153. Richard Rorty. Foucault and Epistemology in Hoy, D (eds) 'Foucault: A critical reader' Basil Blackwell. Oxford, 1986.

Sources

Further reading

  • Artières, Philippe; Bert, Jean-François; Gros, Frédéric and Revel, Judith (ed.). Cahier Foucault. (L'Herne, 2011).
  • Braver, Lee. A Thing of This World: a History of Continental Anti-Realism. Northwestern University Press: 2007. This study covers Foucault and his contribution to the history of Continental Anti-Realism.
  • Carrette, Jeremy R. (ed.). Religion and culture: Michel Foucault. (Routledge, 1999).
  • Cusset, Francois. (Translated by Jeff Fort) French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008)
  • Derrida, Jacques. Cogito and the History of Madness. In Alan Bass (tr.), Writing and Difference, pp. 31–63. (Chicago University Press, 1978).
  • Dillon, M. Foucault on Politics, Security and War, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).
  • Dreyfus, Herbert L. and Paul Rabinow. Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics, 2nd edition. (University of Chicago Press, 1983).
  • Elden, Stuart. ""Power, Nietzsche and the Greeks: Foucault’s Leçons sur la volonté de savoir", Berfrois, July 2011.
  • Eribon, Didier. Insult and the Making of the Gay Self (Duke University Press, 2004). The third part—about 150 pages of this book—is devoted to Foucault and a reinterpretation of his life and work.
  • Eribon, Didier. Michel Foucault (Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1991). Considered in France, according to Le Monde, as the best biography of Foucault.
  • Foucault, Michel. Sexual Morality and the Law (originally published as La loi de la pudeur), is the Chapter 16 of Politics, Philosophy, Culture (see “Notes”), pp. 271–285.
  • Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. Anti-Oedipus. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1983).
  • Deleuze, Gilles. Foucault. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988).
  • Güven, Ferit. Madness and Death in Philosophy, (Albany: SUNY Press, 2005).
  • Halperin, David M. Saint Foucault: Towards a Gay Hagiography (Oxford University Press, 1995).
  • Hoy, D. (Ed.). Foucault. (Oxford, Blackwell, 1986).
  • Hicks, Stephen R. C. Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault (Scholargy Publishing, 2004).
  • Isenberg, Bo. ”Habermas on Foucault. Critical remarks” (Acta Sociologica, Vol. 34 (1991), No. 4:299–308). (SAGE Acta Sociologica)
  • Macey, David. The Lives of Michel Foucault (London: Hutchison, 1993)—This is the most detailed biography of Foucault.
  • MacIntyre, Alasdair (1990). Three Rival Versions of Moral Enquiry: Encyclopaedia, Genealogy, and Tradition. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.
  • Merquior, J. G. Foucault, University of California Press, 1987 (A critical view of Foucault's work)
  • Milchman, Alan (Ed.). "Foucault and Heidegger." Contradictions Vol. 16 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003).
  • Miller, James, The Passion of Michel Foucault (London: HarperCollins, 1993)—A number of scholars have expressed reservations in relation to some of the sensational claims made in this biography.
  • O'Farrell, Clare. Michel Foucault. (London: Sage, 2005). Includes a chronology of Foucault's life and times and an extensive list of key terms in Foucault's work, which includes references to where these terms appear in his work.
  • Olssen, M. Toward a Global Thin Community: Nietzsche, Foucault and the cosmopolitan commitment, Paradigm Press, Boulder, Colorado, USA, October 2009
  • Élisabeth Roudinesco, Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida, Columbia University Press, New York, 2008.
  • Smart, B. Foucault. (Chichester, Ellis Horwood, 1985).
  • Sim, Stuart, & Van Loon, Borin. Introducing Critical Theory. Thriplow: Icon Books Ltd., 2001
  • Veyne, Paul. Foucault. Sa pensée, sa personne. (Paris: Albin Michel, 2008).
  • Wilson, Timothy H. "Foucault, Genealogy, History." Philosophy Today, 39.2 (1995): 157–70.
  • Wolin, Richard. Telos 67, Foucault's Aesthetic Decisionism. New York: Telos Press Ltd., Spring 1987. (Telos Press).

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