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The Vedic civilization is the culture associated with the Vedas. Mainstream scholarship places the Vedic civilization into the 2nd and 1st millennia BCE. Hindu traditions suggest dates as early as the 6th millennium BCE. The use of Vedic Sanskrit continued up to the 6th century BCE, when the culture began to be transformed into classical forms of Hinduism. This time period in the history of India is known as the Vedic period or Vedic age. In its late phase (from ca. 700 BCE), it saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, and was succeeded by the golden age of Hinduism and classical Sanskrit literature, the Maurya Empire (from ca. 320 BCE) and the Middle kingdoms of India.
Overview
The reconstruction of the history of Vedic India is based on text-internal details. Linguistically, the Vedic texts could be classified in five chronological strata:
1. Rigvedic: The Rigveda is by far the most archaic of the Vedic texts preserved, and it retains many common Indo-Iranian elements, both in language and in content, that are not present in any other Vedic texts. Its creation must have taken place over several centuries, and apart from the youngest books (1 and 10), it must have been essentially complete by 1500 BCE . Archaeologically, this period may correspond with the Gandhara Grave culture, and the successors of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC), Cemetery H cultures of the Punjab and the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (OCP) further east. It is undisputed (but particularly emphasized by Hindu scholars) that there is a strong component of cultural continuity of the indigenous IVC.
2. Mantra language: This period includes both the mantra and prose language of the Atharvaveda (Paippalada and Shaunakiya), the Rigveda Khilani, the Samaveda Samhita (containing some 75 mantras not in the Rigveda), and the mantras of the Yajurveda. These texts are largely derived from the Rigveda, but have undergone certain changes, both by linguistic change and by reinterpretation. Conspicuous changes include change of vishva "all" by sarva, and the spread of the kuru- verbal stem (for Rigvedic krno-). This is the time of the early Iron Age in north-western India, corresponding to the Black and Red Ware (BRW) culture, and the kingdom of the Kurus, dating from ca. the 12th century BCE.
3. Samhita prose: This period marks the beginning of the collection and codification of a Vedic canon. An important linguistic change is the complete loss of the injunctive, of the subjunctive, and of the aorist. The commentary part of the Yajurveda (MS, KS) belongs to this period. Archaeologically, the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture from ca. 900 BCE corresponds, and the shift of the political center from the Kurus to the Pancalas at the Ganges.
4. Brahmana prose: The Brahmanas proper of the four Vedas belong to this period, as well as the oldest of the Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB).
5. Sutra language: This is the last stratum of Vedic Sanskrit leading up to 500 BCE, comprising the bulk of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras, and some Upanishads (E.g. KathU, MaitrU. Younger Upanishads are post-Vedic). Videha as a third political center is established.
6. Epic and Paninian Sanskrit: The language of the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, and the Classical Sanskrit described by Panini is considered post-Vedic, and belongs to the time after 500 BCE. Archaeologically, the rapid spread of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP) over all of northern India corresponds to this period. The Vedanta, the Buddha, and the Pali Prakrit dialect of Buddhist scripture belong to this period.
Historical records set in only after the end of the Vedic period, and remain scarce throughout the Indian Middle Ages. The end of Vedic India is marked by linguistic, cultural and political changes. The grammar of Panini marks a final apex in the codification of sacred texts, and at the same time the beginning of Classical Sanskrit. The invasion of Darius I of the Indus valley in the late 6th century BC marks the beginning of outside influence, continued in the kingdoms of the Indo Greeks, new waves of immigration from 150 BCE (Abhira, Shaka), and ultimately the medieval Islamic Sultans. The most important historical source of the geography of post-Vedic India is the 2nd century Greek historian Arrian.
Rigvedic period
- See also Rigvedic tribes
The origin of the Vedic civilization and its relation to the Indus Valley civilization and related cultures and an Indo-Aryan migration and the Gandhara Grave culture remains controversial and politically charged in Indian society; see the Aryan Invasion Theory for details. The Rigveda is primarily a collection of religious hymns, and allusions to, but not explanation of, various myths and stories, mainly in the younger books 1 and 10. The oldest hymns, probably in books 2–7, although some people hold book 9, the Soma Mandala, to be even more ancient, contain many elements inherited from pre-Vedic, common Indo-Iranian society. Therefore, it is difficult to define the precise beginning of the "Rigvedic period", as it emerges seamlessly from the era preceding it. Also, due to the nomadic nature of the society described, it cannot be localized, and in its earliest phase describes tribes that were essentially on the move.
Political organization
The grama (village), vis and jana were political units of the early Vedic Aryans. A vish was probably a subdivision of a jana, and a grama was probably a smaller unit than the other two. The leader of a grama was called gramani and that of a vish was called vishpati. Another unit was the gana whose head was a jyeshta (elder).
The rashtra (state) was governed by a rajan (king). The king is often referred to as gopa (protector) and samrat (supreme ruler). He governed the people with their consent and approval. It is possible that he was sometimes elected. The sabha and samiti were popular councils.
The main duty of the king was to protect the tribe. He was aided by two functionaries, the purohita (chaplain) and the senani (army chief; sena: army). The former not only gave advice to the ruler but also practiced spells and charms for success in war. Soldiers on foot (patti) and on chariots (rathins), armed with bow and arrow were common. The king employed spasa (spies) and dutas (messengers). He often got a ceremonial gift, bali, from the people.
Society and economy
Rig Vedic society was characterized by a nomadic lifestyle, with cattle rearing being the chief occupation. Cattle and cows were held in high esteem and frequently appear in Rigvedic hymns; goddesses were often compared to cows, and gods to bulls. Agriculture grew more prominent with time as the community settled down. Money was unknown, and bartering with cattle and other valuables replaced financial commerce.
Families were patrilineal, and people prayed for abundance of sons. Society was strictly organized in a system of caste. The four major varnas were Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra. Those who are outside these caste structure are known as adivasis.
The food of the Rigvedic Aryans consisted of parched grain and cakes, milk and milk products, and various fruits and vegetables. Consumption of meat was also common, at least among the upper classes. The Rigveda contains many references to animal sacrifice and meat offered to the gods.
Vedic Religious Practices
Main article: historical Vedic religion.
These forms of belief are the precursor to modern Hinduism. Texts considered to date to the Vedic period are mainly the four Vedas, but the Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads are also considered Vedic. The Vedas record the liturgy connected with the rituals and sacrifices performed by the purohitas. The Rig-veda is considered to be the oldest written text that is in existence today.
The rishis, the composers of the hymns of the Rigveda, were considered divinely inspired seers (or rather "hearers", shrauta means "what is heard").
The mode of worship was performance of sacrifices and chanting of verses (see Vedic chant). The priests helped the common man in performing rituals. People prayed for abundance of children, cattle and wealth.
The main deities of the Vedic pantheon were Indra, Agni (fire), and Soma. Other deities were Varuna (the sky), Surya (the Sun), Mitra (the friend or ally), Vayu (the wind). Goddesses included Ushas (the dawn), Prithvi (the Earth) and Aditi (the mother of gods or sometimes the cow). Rivers, especially Saraswati, were also considered goddesses. Deities were not viewed as all-powerful. The relationship between the devotee and the deity was one of transaction, with Agni (the sacrificial fire) taking the role of messenger between the two. Strong traces of a common Indo-Iranian religion remain visible, especially in the Soma cult and the fire worship also preserved in Zoroastrianism. The Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice) has parallels in the 2nd millennium BC Andronovo culture, in India allegedly continued until the 4th century AD.
Rig-Veda advocates prohibition of cow-slaughter in numerous places such as follows :
You should impart love to each other as the non-killable cow does for its calf (RgVeda VII.56.17) Punish the killer of the cow and the man.(RgVeda VIII.101.15) Cow is pure, do not kill it.(RgVeda X.10.87.16)
Vegetarianism, the practice now thought by many to be so characteristic of Hinduism, arose as a continuitation of prohibition of cow-slaughter to prohibit eating all animals. This occured in the late Vedic or post-Vedic times, possibly already at the time of Panini: The root-compound goghan "slaying cattle", in RV 7.56.17 used parallel to nrhan "slaying men" in reference to the referring to the weapon vadha of the Maruts,
- 17c aaré gohaá nRhaá vadháH vaH astu "far be your cow-slaying, men-slaying weapon!"
in Panini is taught to refer to a "receiver of a cow" exclusively; this change occurred parallel to the rise of, and possibly under the influence of, Buddhism, which began as a reform-movement of some practices of the Vedic religion namely indulgences by priests. In Rig-Veda, Upanishads and later texts, the cow is often described as aditi and aghnya (that which should not be killed).
Vedic religion evolved into the Hindu paths of Yoga and Vedanta, a religious path considering itself the 'essence' of the Vedas, interpreting the Vedic pantheon as a unitary view of the universe with God seen as immanent and transcendent in the forms of Ishvara and Brahman, projected into various deities in the human mind. These post-Vedic systems of thought, along with later texts like Upanishads, epics (namely Gita of Mahabharat) Brahmanas, have been fully preserved and form the basis of modern Hinduism. The ritualistic traditions of Vedic religion are most faithfully preserved in the conservative Shrauta tradition.
The later Vedic period
The transition from the early to the later Vedic period was marked by the emergence of agriculture as the dominant economic activity and a corresponding decline in the significance of cattle rearing. Several changes went hand in hand with this. For instance, several large kingdoms arose because of the increasing importance of land and its protection. The late Vedic period from ca. 500 BC more or less seamlessly blends into the period of the Middle kingdoms of India known from historical sources.
Kingdoms
16 mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) are referred to in some of the literature. By this time the Aryan tribes had spread from their original home in the west to much of the east and the south. The power of the king greatly increased. Rulers gave themselves titles like ekarat (the one ruler), sarvabhumi (ruler of all the earth) and chakravartin (protector of land). The kings performed sacrifices like rajasuya, (royal consecration) vajapeya (drink of strength) and ashvamedha (horse sacrifice). The coronation ceremony was a major social occasion. Several functionaries came into being in addition to the purohita and the senani of earlier times. The participation of the people in the activities of the government decreased.
Society
The concept of varna and the rules of marriage became more rigid, but not yet watertight. The status of the Brahmins and Kshatriyas increased greatly. The Brahmins propagated specialization of an extreme order. Functioning as an intellectual bureaucracy, they also restricted social mobility, as in fields of science, war, literature, religion and the environment. The proper enunciation of verses was considered essential for prosperity and success in war and harvests. Kshatriyas amassed wealth, and commissioned the performance of sacrifices. Kshatriyas administered the state, maintained society and the economy of a kingdom. They also functioned to maintain law and order. They presided over an assembled court of intellectuals and warriors. They distributed the finances of their treasuries, with respect to acts and deeds. They also maintained budgets of the kingdom with the assistance of ministers.
Notes
- themselves dateable to the early centuries CE, with scholars like Aryabhata (5th c.)
References
- Bokonyi, S. 1997b. "Horse Remains from the Prehistoric Site of Surkotada, Kutch, Late 3rd Millennium BC.", South Asian Studies 13: 297-307.
- Kocchar, Rajesh, The Vedic people: their history and geography, Hyderabad: Orient Longmans (1999).
- Lal, B.B. 2005. The Homeland of the Aryans. Evidence of Rigvedic Flora and Fauna & Archaeology, New Delhi, Aryan Books International.
- R.C. Majumdar and others. An Advanced History of India, MacMillan, 1967.
- Michael Witzel, Tracing the Vedic dialects in Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes ed. Caillat, Paris, 1989, 97–265.
- Michael Witzel, The Pleiades and the Bears viewed from inside the Vedic texts, EVJS Vol. 5 (1999), issue 2 (December) .
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