Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 6ullga (talk | contribs) at 14:45, 20 April 2019 (That massacre already has it's own article https://en.m.wikipedia.org/Indian_massacre_of_1622 there is no reason for it to be here, let alone this prominently except to empathize the colonists as victims of "Indian massacres" over the Indians themselves which seems extremely POV, the article already mentions killings of colonists so there is no reason to have this here...). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

In the history of the European colonization of the Americas, an atrocity termed "Indian massacre" is a specific incident wherein a group of people (military, mob or other) deliberately kill a significant number of unarmed, defenseless people — usually civilian noncombatants — or to the summary execution of prisoners-of-war. The term usually refers to the killing of unarmed Native American women, children, and elders by colonists and the colonizing military forces. In historical usage, it has also been used by colonists to describe the actions of Native Americans killing colonists.

Overview

"Indian massacre" is a phrase whose use and definition has evolved and expanded over time. The phrase was initially used by European colonists to describe attacks by indigenous Americans which resulted in mass colonial casualties. While similar attacks by colonists on Indian villages were called "raids" or "battles", successful Indian attacks on white settlements or military posts were routinely termed "massacres". Knowing very little about the native inhabitants of the American frontier, the colonists were deeply fearful, and as time passed, "far more white Americans eagerly consumed Indian atrocity stories around the family table and in popular literature and newspapers than ever interacted with Indians or witnessed an Indian raid." Emphasis was placed on the depredations of "murderous savages" in their information about Indians, and as the migrants headed further west, fear was the prevailing emotion behind their thoughts and actions concerning Indians. In some instances motivated by politics, in Colorado for example, "stories in the News continued to stir those fears: wild rumors of Indian conspiracies were heralded as fact; any violence at all between whites and Indians was reported as an Indian 'massacre'".

The phrase eventually became commonly used also to describe mass killings of American Indians. Killings described as "massacres" often had an element of indiscriminate targeting, barbarism, or genocidal intent. According to one historian, "Any discussion of genocide must, of course, eventually consider the so-called Indian Wars", the term commonly used for U.S. Army campaigns to subjugate Indian nations of the American West beginning in the 1860s. In an older historiography, key events in this history were narrated as battles.

Since the late 20th century, it has become more common for scholars to refer to certain of these events as massacres, especially if there were large numbers of women and children as victims. This includes the Colorado territorial militia's slaughter of Cheyenne at Sand Creek (1864), and the US army's slaughter of Shoshone at Bear River (1863), Blackfeet on the Marias River (1870), and Lakota at Wounded Knee (1890). Some scholars have begun referring to these events as "genocidal massacres," defined as the annihilation of a portion of a larger group, sometimes to provide a lesson to the larger group.

It is difficult to determine the total number of people who died as a result of "Indian massacres". In The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, lawyer William M. Osborn compiled a list of alleged and actual atrocities in what would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact in 1511 until 1890. His parameters for inclusion included the intentional and indiscriminate murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. His list included 7,193 people who died from atrocities perpetrated by those of European descent, and 9,156 people who died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans. Many of the incidents included on this list are not mentioned in Osborn's book.

List of massacres

This is a listing of some of the events reported then or referred to now as "Indian massacre". This list contains only incidents that occurred in Canada or the United States, or territory presently part of the United States.

Pre-Columbian era

1500–1830

Massacres from the American Revolution onwards

1830–1911

California Genocide

In An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846-1873, historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873. He found evidence that during this period at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians. Most of these killings occurred in what he said were more than 370 massacres (defined by him as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise").

Other massacres

See also

• American Indian Wars
• Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas
• List of events named massacres
• List of massacres in the United States
• List of conflicts in the United States

References

1. Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia; Peter Knight; ABC-CLIO, 2003; Pg. 523
2. American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World; David E. Stannard; Oxford University Press, 1993; Pg. 130
3. Genocide and International Justice; Rebecca Joyce Frey; InfoBase Publishing, 2009; Pgs. 7-12, 31-54
4. Genocide and American Indian History; Jeffrey Ostler; University of Oregon, 2015
5. Osborn, William M. (2001). The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee. Garden City, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50374-0.
6. "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
7. ^ Duncan, David Ewing (1997). Hernando de Soto: A Savage Quest in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 286–291, 376–384.
8. Clayton, Lawrence A., "Hernando de Soto: A Brief".
9. Wilford, John Noble, "De Soto's Trail: Courage and Cruelty Come Alive", New York Times, May 19, 1987
10. ^ Steele, Ian Kenneth, Warpaths: Invasions of North America, Oxford University Press, 1994. pp. 15, 47, 116.
11. Sauer, C., Sixteenth Century North America; the land and the people as seen by the Europeans, University of California Press, 1971, p. 141.
12. Flint, R., No settlement, no conquest : a history of the Coronado Entrada, University of New Mexico Press, 2008, pp. 144–153.
13. Brooke, James (February 9, 1998). "Conquistador Statue Stirs Hispanic Pride and Indian Rage" – via query.nytimes.com.
14. Weber, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, pp. 85–86.
15. Riley, Carroll, L., Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt, University of Utah Press, 2007, p. 252, ISBN 978-0-87480-496-6
16. Staff, Times-Dispatch. "Highway marker dedicated for Paspahegh tribe".
17. Schlotterbeck, J., Daily Life in the Colonial South, Greenwood, 2013, p. 333, ISBN 978-0313340697
18. "Research Jamestown: Legacy of the Massacre of 1622 - Americans at War". www.bookrags.com.
19. Spencer C. Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (30 September 2011). 'The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8.
20. Miller, D.W. The Forced Removal of American Indians from the Northeast: A History of Territorial Cessions and Relocations, 1620–1854, McFarland, 2011, p. 14., ISBN 978-0-786464-96-8
21. Adams, D. Jr., Charles F., Wessagusset and Weymouth, Nabu Press, pp. 24–26, ISBN 978-1-248636-92-3
22. Muehlbauer, Matthew S.; Ulbrich, David J. (2013). Ways of War: American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 9781136756047. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
23. Lucas, Beverly (2008). Wethersfield. Arcadia Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 9780738563459. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
24. Cave, Alfred A., The Pequot War, University of Massachusetts Press, 1996, pp. 144–154.
25. Grumet, Robert S. First Manhattans: A History of the Indians of Greater New York, University of Oklahoma Press, 2011, p33-34, ISBN 978-0-806141-63-3
26. "William Keift". www.njcu.edu.
27. Winkler, David F. (1998). Revisiting the Attack on Pavonia. New Jersey Historical Society.
28. Beck, Sanderson (2006). "New Netherland and Stuyvesant 1642–64".
29. Churchill 1997, p. 198
30. LaPlante, Eve (2004). American Jezebel, the Uncommon Life of Anne Hutchinson, the Woman who Defied the Puritans. San Francisco: Harper Collins. p. 231. ISBN 0-06-056233-1.
31. Tucker, S.C. The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History, ABC-Clio, p. 414, ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8
32. Major, D.C., Major, J.S. A Huguenot on the Hackensack: David Demarest and His Legacy, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007, p. 55, ISBN 978-1-611473-68-1
33. Spencer C. Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (30 September 2011). 'The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8.
34. Trelease, A., Indian Affairs in Colonial New York; The Seventeenth Century, pp. 79–80.
35. Karnoutsos, Carmela (2007). "Peach Tree War". Jersey City A to Z. New Jersey City University. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
36. Murrin, John M., Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, p85, Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc, 2010, p. 85, ISBN 978-0495904991
37. "King Philip's War Breaks Out". www.massmoments.org.
38. Ellis, George W., Morris, John E., King Philip's War, Grafton Historical Series, The Grafton Press, 1906, pp. 152–155
39. Rajtar, Steve, Indian War Sites: A Guidebook to Battlefields, Monuments, and Memorials, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 1999
40. Nine Men's Misery Marker, Joseph Bucklin Society, accessdate February 17, 2013
41. Franko, Victor, Nine Men's Misery Part 2 Historical Research, 2003, Joseph Bucklin Society, accessdate February 17, 2013
42. Demallie, Raymond J. Tutelo and Neighboring Groups. Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004, ISBN 0-16-072300-0
43. Mandell, Daniel R., King Philip's War: the conflict over New England, Chelsea House Publishers, 2007, p. 100, ISBN 978-0-7910-9346-7
44. Kiernan 2007, p. 239
45. Resistance and Accommodation in New Mexico Archived September 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
46. George, Charles; Douglas Roberts (1897). A History of Canada. Boston: The Page Company. pp. 93–94.
47. Preucel, Robert W., Archaeologies of the Pueblo revolt: identity, meaning, and renewal in the Pueblo world, University of New Mexico Press, 2007, p. 56, ISBN 978-0-8263-2247-0
48. Konstantin 2002, p. 33
49. Banks, Charles Edward, History of York, Maine, successively known as Bristol (1632), Agamentious (1641), Gorgeana (1642), and York (1652). With contributions on topography and land titles by Angevine W. Gowen. Sketches by the author. Baltimore, Regional Publishing Company, 1967 reprint of first edition: Charles E. Banks, Boston, 1931 Vol. 1
50. Gallay 2003, pp. 147–148
51. Konstantin 2002, p. 48
52. ^ "The Tuscarora War (1711–1715)".
53. Ashlee, Laura R. Traveling Through Time: A Guide to Michigan's Historical Markers, University of Michigan Press, 2005, p. 502, ISBN 978-0-47203-066-8
54. Gallay 2003, p. 284
55. Read, Milton, The tar heel state: a history of North Carolina, University of South Carolina Press, 2005, pp. 36–37, ISBN 978-1-57003-591-3
56. Gallay 2003, p. 328
57. ^ Reynolds, William R. The Cherokee Struggle to Maintain Identity in the 17th and 18th Century, McFarland and Company, Inc, 2015, pp. 34–35, ISBN 9780786473175
58. Grenier, John The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760, University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 84, ISBN 978-0-80613-876-3
59. Barnett, James F., The Natchez Indians: a history to 1735, University Press of Mississippi, 2007, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-57806-988-0
60. Onofrio, J. Dictionary of Indian Tribes of the Americas, Volume 1, American Indian Publishers, Inc., 1993, p. 250, ISBN 9780937862285
61. Edmunds, R. Davids and Peyser, Joseph L. The Fox Wars: Mesquakie Challenge to New France, University of Oklahoma Press, 1993, pp. 151-156, ISBN 978-0-80612-551-0
62. Maxson, Thomas F. Mount Nimham: The Ridge of Patriots, Rangerville Press, 2010, p. 22, ISBN 978-0578025810
63. Grumet, Robert S. The Munsee Indians: A History, University of Oklahoma Press, 2014, p. 263
64. Blackhawk, Ned, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West, Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-67402-290-4
65. "Drapers Meadow: Few traces remain of the site of a bloody 1755 Indian attack". The Roanoke Times. Archived from the original on September 30, 2012. Retrieved November 14, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
66. Konstantin 2002, p. 224
67. Hamalainen 2008, pp. 58-59
68. Bruchac, Marge, Reading Abenaki Traditions and European Records of Rogers' Raid Archived September 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, August 2006, pp. 3-4
69. Nester, "Haughty Conquerors", 86, gives the number of traders killed at Sandusky as 12; Dixon, Never Come to Peace, mentions "three or four", while Dowd, War under Heaven, 125, says that it was "a great many".
70. Konstantin 2002, p. 260
71. Taylor, Alan, American Colonies, New York: Viking Press, 2001
72. "A Narrative of the Late Massacres..." Archived April 27, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, Benjamin Franklin's account of the massacre and criticism of the Paxton Boys
73. ^ "A Disquisition Portraying the History Relative to the Enoch Brown Incident", Greencastle Museum
74. Hamalainen 2008, p. 78
75. Konstantin 2002, p. 106
76. Konstantin 2002, p. 181
77. "Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission - The Battle of Wyoming and Hartley's Expedition".
78. Wallace, Paul A. W., Indians in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, 2007, 200 pages, pp. 162–164, ISBN 978-0-89271-017-1
79. Konstantin 2002, p. 246
80. Konstantin 2002, p. 321
81. Belcher, Ronald Clay, (2011) Westervelt Massacre in Kentucky in 1780. Blue Grass Roots. Quarterly Journal of the Kentucky Genealogical Society. Frankfurt, Kentucky. Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 30-37.
82. Priest, Josiah, Stories of the Revolution with an account of the lost child of the Delaware, 1836, Hoffman and White Albany, New York, accessdate February 17, 2013
83. "Dietz Massacre". Archived from the original on February 15, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
84. Wilcox, G.T., An account of the Long Run Massacre and Floyd's Defeat as told by G. T. Wilcox, Squire Boone's Grandson in a letter to Hon. Thos. W. Bullitt. Kentucky Genealogy 28, June 2000, accessdate December 28, 2012.
85. Akers, Vincent J. History of Painted Stone Station. Painted Stone Settlers Organization. 2012, accessdate December 28, 2012.
86. Asche, J. L. "Tuscarawas County, Ohio". freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com.
87. Konstantin 2002, p. 57
88. Reynolds 2015, p. 357
89. Reynolds 2015, p. 358
90. Fairfax Downed, Indian Wars of the U.S. Army 1776–1865 (1963), pp. 54–59
91. Denetdale, Jennifer Nez, Reclaiming Diné History: The Legacies of Navajo Chief Manuelito and Juanita, University of Arizona Press; 2007, p. 56. ISBN 978-0-81652-660-4.
92. Konstantin 2002, p. 231
93. Allison, Harold (©1986, Harold Allison). The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians. Turner Publishing Company, Paducah.
94. Konstantin 2002, p. 20
95. Konstantin 2002, p. 245
96. "Fort Sinquefield". Clarke County Historical Museum. Retrieved November 27, 2008.
97. Borneman, Walter R. (2004). 1812: The War That Forged a Nation. page 149. Harper. ISBN 9780060531126.
98. Tom Kanon. 2014. Tennesseans at War, 1812–1815: Andrew Jackson, the Creek War, and the Battle of New Orleans. University of Alabama Press p. 75-76
99. Steve Rajtar. 1999 Indian War Sites: A Guidebook to Battlefields, Monuments, and Memorials, State by State with Canada and Mexico. McFarland.
100. Heidler D.S., Heidler J.T., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812, Naval Institute Press, 2004, p. 239, ISBN 978-0-87436-968-7
101. McKenney, T.L., Indian Tribes of America, Applewood Books, 2010, p. 307, ISBN 978-1-4290-2265-1
102. Missall, John (2004). The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. Florida: University Press of Florida. pp. 36–37.
103. Himmel, Kelly F. (1999). The conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821-1859. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3. {{cite book}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help)
104. "The Fall Creek Massacre". Conner Prairie. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved April 16, 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
105. Himmel 1999, p. 50
106. Madley 2016, p.11, p.351
107. Konstantin 2002, p. 128
108. Konstantin 2002, p. 213
109. May, Jon D., "Battle of Cutthroat Gap" Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, retrieved May 24, 2012.
110. Konstantin 2002, p. 127
111. Madley 2016, p.40
112. Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief, University of Oklahoma Press, 1995, p. 33, ISBN 978-0806126067
113. Dean, Kenneth Remembering The Killough Massacre, June 21, 2010, East Texas News, Tyler Paper, accessed February 16, 2013.
114. Abbott, Peyton O., Webster massacre, Texas State Historical Association, Handbook of Texas Online, accessed February 16, 2013.
115. Anderson 2005, pp. 182–183
116. Knetsch, Joe., Florida's Seminole Wars 1817–1858, Arcadia Publishing (September 18, 2012), p. 128
117. Anderson 2005, pp. 190–191
118. Perez, Vincent, Remembering the Hacienda: History and Memory in the Mexican American Southwest, Texas A&M University Press, 2006, p. 85, ISBN 978-1-58544-511-0
119. Mcwilliams, Carey, North From Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States, Praeger, 1990, p. 115, ISBN 978-0275932244
120. Konstantin 2002, p. 336
121. Anderson 2005, pp. 226–227
122. Diary of Oliver B. Huntington, Vol. 2 (BYU Special Collections)
123. Farmer, Jared (2008). On Zion's Mount: Mormons, Indians, and the American Landscape. Harvard University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9780674027671.
124. The Tucson Citizen, September 26, 1913
125. Himmel 1999, p. 101
126. Schwartz 1997, pp. 61–62
127. Schwartz 1997, p. 63
128. Madley, Benjamin California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History in Western Historical Quarterly 39 (Autumn 2008): 303–332, pp. 303–304
129. Oregon Trail in Idaho—Ward Massacre Site idahohistory.net
130. Ward Massacre Archived June 22, 2006, at the Wayback Machine washingtonwars.net
131. Michno 2003, pp. 28–29
132. Sprague, Donovin A. Rosebud Sioux (Images of America: South Dakota), Arcadia Publishing, 2005, p. 21. 978-0738534473
133. Schwartz 1997, pp. 86–88
134. ^ Madley 2012, p. 121
135. Massacre on the Grande Ronde River in Oregon, sos.wa.gov
136. "Native Americans attack Americans at the Cascades of the Columbia on March 26, 1856. – HistoryLink.org". www.historylink.org.
137. Gardner-Sharp, Abbie History of the Spirit Lake Massacre and Captivity of Miss Abbie Gardner, Des Moines: Iowa Printing, 1885 (reprinted 1892, 1910), accessdate December 28, 2012
138. Anderson 2005, pp. 331–332
139. Owyhee County Cattlemen, pages 172–180
140. Baumgardner 2006, pp. 204–206
141. Thrapp, Dan L. (1979). The Conquest of Apacheria. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1286-7.
142. Sonneborn, L. Chronology of American Indian History, Facts on File, p. 164, ISBN 978-0-816067701
143. Baumgardner 2006, p. 243
144. Madley 2012b, p. 34
145. Heizer, Robert, Handbook of North American Indians: California, Volume 8, William Sturtevant, General Editor, Smithsonian Institution, 1978, p. 111
146. Kunnen-Jones, Marianne (August 21, 2002). "Anniversary Volume Gives New Voice To Pioneer Accounts of Sioux Uprising". University of Cincinnati. Archived from the original on June 19, 2008. Retrieved June 6, 2007. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
147. University of Cincinnati News: Tolzmann Edits Pioneer Accounts of Sioux Archived June 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
148. Sonnichsen, C. L. The Mescalero Apaches (The Civilization of the American Indian Series), University of Oklahoma Press, 1979, pp. 111-112, ISBN 978-0806116150
149. Michno 2003, pp. 105–106
150. Kiernan 2007, p. 356
151. Hart, Newell, The Bear River Massacre. Cache Valley Newsletter Publishing Company, Preston, Idaho. 1982. ISBN 0-941462-01-3
152. Browne, R. John, Adventures in the Apache County: a tour through Arizona and Sonora with notes on the silver regions of Nevada. 1869. New York: Harpers & Brothers Publishers.
153. Madley 2012b, p. 40
154. McGinnis, Ralph and Smith, Calvin, Abraham Lincoln and the western territories, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1994, p. 90, ISBN 978-0-8304-1247-1
155. Thrapp 1975, pp. 29–31
156. Braatz 2003, pp. 89-90, p. 105
157. Newton C.H., The reasons why place names in Arizona are so named, Tecolote Press, 1978, p. 40, ISBN 978-0-915030-25-5
158. Michno 2003, pp. 157–159
159. Smiley, Brenda "Sand Creek Massacre", Archeology magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, accessdate December 26, 2012.
160. Egan, Ferol Sand in a whirlwind, 30th Anniversary Edition: The Paiute Indian War of 1860, University of Nevada Press, 1985, p. 226. ISBN 978-0-87417-097-9
161. Peter Gottfredson. History of Indian depredations in Utah. Fenestra Books. ISBN 978-1587361272.
162. Modoc NF History, 1945 – Chapter I, General Description United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
163. Knack, Martha, Boundaries Between: The Southern Paiutes, 1775–1995, University of Nebraska Press, 2004, p. 85, ISBN 0-8032-7818-7
164. Thrapp 1975, pp. 37–38
165. Braatz 2003, p. 105
166. "Headlines: Error Page". www.historyandtheheadlines.abc-clio.com.
167. Andrist, Ralph K., The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, 371 pages, pp 157-162, ISBN 978-0-8061-3308-9
168. Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Henry Holt and Co., 2007, 487 pages, pp 167-169, ISBN 978-0-8050-8684-3
169. Churchill 1997, p. 236
170. "Colorado Humanities - Sand Creek Memorial and Washita Sites". Archived from the original on February 27, 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
171. "Washita Battlefield, Oklahoma", ExploreSouthernHistory.com
172. Giago, Tim, "Honoring Those Who Died at Washita"
173. "The 140th Anniversary of the Washita Massacre of Nov. 27, 1868 - Native American Netroots". www.nativeamericannetroots.net.
174. "Washita", The West, PBS
175. "Cherry Creek Massacre recognized in magazine", The Saint Francis Herald (St. Francis, KS), November 17, 2005
176. Zeman, Scott C., Chronology of the American West from 23,000 B.C.E. through the Twentieth Century, ABC-CLIO, 2002, 381 pages, p. 155, ISBN 978-1-57607-207-3
177. Michno 2003, p. 241
178. Terrell, J., Land Grab, pp. 4–10.
179. Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Chip, Western Apache Oral Histories and Traditions of the Camp Grant Massacre. The American Indian Quarterly - Volume 27, Number 3&4, Summer/Fall 2003, pp. 639–666., accessdate December 26, 2012
180. "The Indian Attack Upon an Arizona Stage The Driver and Five Passengers Killed". The New York Times. November 20, 1871.
181. "The Late Frederick W. Loring" (PDF). The New York Times. November 24, 1871. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
182. Braatz 2003, pp. 2–3; p. 138
183. Hildebrandt, Walter. "Cypress Hills Massacre". The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. Retrieved March 28, 2008.
184. Churchill 1997, p. 237
185. Greene, Jerome A. (2000). "6". Nez Perce Summer 1877: The U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis. Helena, MT: Montana Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-917298-68-3.
186. Michno 2003, pp. 322–323
187. Boye, Alan, Holding Stone Hands: On the Trail of the Cheyenne Exodus, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pp. 66–67, ISBN 978-0-8032-1294-7
188. "Milk Creek battlefield". National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. Retrieved March 17, 2008.
189. "Milk Creek battle (or Meeker Massacre)". Meeker Colorado Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
190. "Alma Massacre, Pioneer Story, New Mexico". October 7, 2008. Archived from the original on October 7, 2008. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
191. ^ Gonzalez 1998, p. 294
192. Michno 2003, p. 351
193. Jensen, Richard, Paul, Eli and Hanson, James, Eyewitness at Wounded Knee, University of Nebraska Press, 1991, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-8032-1409-5
194. Early Native Americans nevada-history.org
195. "Book Review, The Last Massacre". The New York Times. January 17, 1988.
196. "Policeman Edward Hogle, Nevada State Police" The Officer Down Memorial Page

Bibliography

• Anderson, Gary C., The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820-1875, University of Oklahoma Press, 2005, 544 pages, ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3
• Baumgardner, Frank, Killing for Land in Early California – Indian Blood at Round Valley, Algora Publishing, 2006, 312 pages, ISBN 978-0-87586-364-1
• Braatz, Timothy, Surviving conquest: a history of the Yavapai peoples, University of Nebraska Press, 2003, 336 pages, ISBN 978-0-8032-2242-7
• Churchill, Ward, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present, City Lights, 1997, 381 pages, ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1
• Heizer, Robert F., The Destruction of California Indians, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1993, 321 pages, ISBN 978-0-8032-7262-0
• Gallay, Alan, The Indian Slave Trade: The rise of the English Empire in the American South, Yale University Press, 2003, 464 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-10193-5
• Gonzalez, Mario and Cook-Lynn, Elizabeth, The Politics of Hallowed Ground: Wounded Knee and the Struggle for Indian Sovereignty, University of Illinois Press, 1998, 448 pages, ISBN 978-0-25206-669-6
• Hamalainen, Pekka, The Comanche Empire, Yale University Press, 2008, 512 pages, ISBN 978-0-30012-654-9
• Himmel, Kelly F., The Conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821–1859, TAMU Press, 1999, 216 pages, ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3
• Kiernan, Ben, "Blood and Soil: a World History of Genocide and Massacre from Sparta to Darfur", Yale University Press, 2007, 768 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3
• Konstantin, Phil, This Day in North American Indian History: Events in the History of North America's Native Peoples, Da Capo Press, 2002, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-306-81170-8
• Madley, Benjamin, Tactics of Nineteenth Century Colonial Massacre: Tasmania, California and Beyond in Philips G. Dwyer and Lyndall Ryan, eds., Theatres of Violence: Massacres, Mass Killing and Atrocity Throughout History, Berghan Books, 2012, 350 pages, ISBN 978-0-85745-299-3
• Madley, Benjamin, The Genocide of California's Yana Indians in Samuel Totten and Williams S. Parsons, eds., Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, Routledge, 2012, pp. 16-53, 611 pages, ISBN 978-0-415871-921
• Madley, Benjamin, An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846-1873, Yale University Press, 2016, 692 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-18136-4
• Michno, Gregory F., Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850–1890, Mountain Press Publishing Co., 2003, 448 pages, ISBN 978-0-87842-468-9
• Norton, Jack, "Genocide in Northwestern California : when our worlds cried", Indian Historian Press, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913436-26-2
• Reynolds, W.R., The Cherokee Struggle to Maintain Identity in the 17th and 18th Centuries, McFarland, 2015, 436 pages, ISBN 978-0-78647-317-5
• Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology, Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, 512 pages, ISBN 978-0-631-22349-8
• Schwartz, E. A, The Rogue River Indian War and its aftermath, 1850–1980, University of Oklahoma Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-8061-2906-8
• Thornton, Russell, "American Indian Holocaust and Survival: a Population History since 1492", University of Oklahoma Press, 1990, 312 pages, ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5
• Thrapp, Dan, "The Conquest of Apacheria", University of Oklahoma Press, 1975, 422 pages, ISBN 978-0-8061-1286-2

• Indian massacres
• Military history of the United States
• Native American genocide
• Native American history
• Massacres of ethnic groups
• Massacres in the United States