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{{Good article}}
{{Short description|Chemical compound found in some lichens}} {{Short description|Chemical compound found in some lichens}}
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'''Lichexanthone''' is an ] in the structural class of chemicals known as ]s. Lichexanthone was first isolated and identified by Japanese chemists from a species of ] in the 1940s. The compound is known to occur in many ]s, and it is important of the ] of species in several ], such as '']'' and '']''. Lichexanthone is also found in several plants (many are from the families ] and ]), and a couple of species of ] that do not form lichens. '''Lichexanthone''' is an ] in the structural class of chemicals known as ]s. Lichexanthone was first isolated and identified by Japanese chemists from a species of ] in the 1940s. The compound is known to occur in many ]s, and it is important in the ] of species in several ], such as '']'' and '']''. More than a dozen lichen species have a variation of the word lichexanthone incorporated as part of their ]. The presence of lichexanthone in lichens causes them to ] a greenish-yellow colour under long-wavelength ]; this feature is used to help identify some species. Lichexanthone is also found in several plants (many are from the families ] and ]), and some species of ] that do not form lichens.


Although it has been suggested that lichexanthone functions in nature as a ]—protecting resident ]l populations (]s) in lichens from high-intensity ]—its complete ecological function is not fully understood. Some ] of lichexanthone that have been demonstrated in the laboratory include ], ], and ]-enhancing activities. Many lichexanthone ] are known, some produced naturally in lichens, and others created ]; like lichexanthone, some of these derivatives also have biological activities. More than a dozen lichen species have a variation of the word lichexanthone incorporated as part of their ]. In lichens, the ] of lichexanthone occurs through a set of ]s that start with the molecule ] and sequentially add successive units, forming a longer chain that is ] into a double-ring structure. Although it has been suggested that lichexanthone functions in nature as a ]—protecting resident ]l populations (]s) in lichens from high-intensity ]—its complete ecological function is not fully understood. Some ] of lichexanthone that have been demonstrated in the laboratory include ], ], and ]-enhancing activities. Many lichexanthone ] are known, some produced naturally in lichens, and others created ]; like lichexanthone, some of these derivatives are also biologically active.


==History== ==History==
Lichexanthone was first reported by Japanese chemists ] and Hisasi Nogami in 1942. They isolated the chemical from ''Parmelia formosana''<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> (known today as '']''<ref name="IF: Hypotrachyna formosana"/>), a lichen that occurs in Taiwan and Japan.<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> Another early publication described its isolation from ''Parmelia quercina'' (now '']''<ref name="IF: Parmelia quercina"/>).<ref name="Aghoramurthy and Seshadri 1953"/> Lichexanthone was the first ] to be reported from lichens.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> Lichexanthone was first reported by Japanese chemists ] and Hisasi Nogami in 1942. They isolated the ] from ''Parmelia formosana''<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> (known today as '']''), a lichen that is widespread in Asia.<ref name="Park & Hale 1989"/> Another early publication described its isolation from ''Parmelia quercina'' (now '']''<ref name="IF: Parmelia quercina"/>).<ref name="Aghoramurthy and Seshadri 1953"/> Lichexanthone was the first ] to be reported from lichens,<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> and it was given its name by Asahina and Nogami for this reason.<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/>


Asahina and Nogami used a chemical method called potash fusion (] with a hot solution of the strong base ]) on lichexanthone to produce ].<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> The earliest ] of lichexanthone used ] aldehyde and ] as starting reactants in the "Tanase method".<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> This method, one of six standard ways of synthesising xanthone derivatives, enables the creation of partially ] polyhydroxyxanthones.<ref name="Khan & Ather 2006"/> In the reaction, the two starting reactants, in the presence of ] and ], produce a ] derivative that is subsequently ] to give a ] derivative, which, after subsequent methylation and ], lead to a xanthone with three methoxy groups. Afterwards, one of the methoxy groups is ] to yield lichexanthone.<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> A simpler synthesis, starting from ] (2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-6-methylbenzoic acid) and phloroglucinol,<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> was proposed in 1956.<ref name="Grover et al. 1956"/> These early syntheses also functioned to helped confirm the structure of lichexanthone before ] of analysis were widely available.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> In 1977, Harris and Hay proposed a biogenetically modelled synthesis of lichexanthone starting from the ] compound 3,5,7,9,11,13-hexaoxotetradecanoic acid. In this synthesis, an ] ] between positions 8 and 13 followed by a ] between positions 1 and 6 leads to the formation of a group of compounds that includes lichexanthone.<ref name="Harris & Hay 1977"/> Asahina and Nogami used a chemical method called potash fusion (] with a hot solution of the strong base ]) on lichexanthone to produce ].<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> The earliest ] of lichexanthone used ] aldehyde and ] as starting reactants in the ].<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> This method, one of six standard ways of synthesising xanthone derivatives, enables the creation of partially ] polyhydroxyxanthones.<ref name="Khan & Ather 2006"/> In the reaction, the two substrates, in the presence of ] and ], produce a ] derivative that is subsequently ] to give a ] derivative, which, after subsequent methylation and ], leads to a xanthone with three methoxy groups. Afterwards, one of the methoxy groups is ] to yield lichexanthone.<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942"/> A simpler synthesis, starting from ] (2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-6-methylbenzoic acid) and phloroglucinol,<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> was proposed in 1956.<ref name="Grover et al. 1956"/> These early syntheses also helped to confirm the structure of lichexanthone before ] of analysis were widely available.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> In 1977, Harris and Hay proposed a biogenetically modelled synthesis of lichexanthone starting from the ] compound 3,5,7,9,11,13-hexaoxotetradecanoic acid. In this synthesis, an ] ] between positions 8 and 13 followed by a ] between positions 1 and 6 leads to the formation of a group of compounds that includes lichexanthone.<ref name="Harris & Hay 1977"/>


==Properties== ==Properties==
] and ] of the crustose lichen '']''; the yellowish colour results from the fluorescence of lichexanthone.]] ] and ] of the crustose lichen '']''; the yellowish colour results from the fluorescence of lichexanthone.]]
Lichexanthone is a member of the class of chemical compounds called ]s. Specifically, it is a 9H-xanthen-9-one substituted by a ] at position 1, a ] at position 8 and ]s at positions 3 and 6. Its ] is 1-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxy-8-methylxanthen-9-one. Lichexanthone has a ] of C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, and a ] of 286.27 ].<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> In its purified ]line form, it exists as long yellow prisms<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> with a ] of {{convert|189|–|190|C|F}}. An ]ic solution of lichexanthone reacts with ] to produce a purple colour; an ] solution containing lichexanthone will emit a greenish ] after adding a drop of concentrated ].<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> The presence of the compound in lichens causes them to fluoresce yellow under long wavelength ], a property that is used as a tool in lichen species identification.<ref name="Hale 1975"/> Lichexanthone is a member of the class of chemical compounds called ]s. Specifically, it is a 9''H''-xanthen-9-one substituted by a ] at position 1, a ] at position 8 and ]s at positions 3 and 6. Its ] is 1-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxy-8-methyl-9''H''-xanthen-9-one. Lichexanthone's ] is C<sub>16</sub>H<sub>14</sub>O<sub>5</sub>; it has a ] of 286.27&nbsp;].<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> In its purified ]line form, it exists as long yellow prisms<ref name="Roberts 1961"/> with a ] of {{convert|189|–|190|C|F}}. Its ] is part of the ], in the ] called ].<ref name="Buitrago Díaz et al. 2010"/> An ]ic solution of lichexanthone reacts with ] to produce a purple colour; an ] solution containing lichexanthone will emit a greenish ] after adding a drop of concentrated ].<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> The presence of the compound in lichens causes them to fluoresce yellow under long-wavelength ], a property that is used as a tool in lichen species identification.<ref name="Hale 1975"/>


The ] of lichexanthone was reported in 1968.<ref name="Letcher 1968"/> The ] reduction of the compound was reported in 2009.<ref name="Carvalho et al. 2009"/> The complete ] and ] spectral assignments for lichexanthone were reported in 2010. Its structure is in the ], ] P2<sub>1</sub>/''c'' (N°&nbsp;14).<ref name="Buitrago Díaz et al. 2010"/> The ] of lichexanthone was reported in 1968. It features a strong parent peak at m/z (]) of 286, and weaker-intensity rearrangement peaks at 257, 243, and 200.<ref name="Letcher 1968"/> A 2009 study on the ] reduction of the compound used techniques such as ] with ] and ], and ] to characterise the ] mechanism of lichexanthone, and to better understand the nature of its ].<ref name="Carvalho et al. 2009"/> The complete ] (<sup>1</sup>H&nbsp;NMR) and ] (<sup>13</sup>C&nbsp;NMR) spectral assignments for lichexanthone were reported in 2010, as well as its crystal structure determined using ].<ref name="Buitrago Díaz et al. 2010"/>


===Biological activities=== ===Biological activities===
The ] activity of '']'' is largely attributed to the presence of lichexanthone in the lichen.<ref name="Manojlovic et al. 2010"/> Chemically unmodified lichexanthone has weak antimycobacterial activity against '']''<ref name="Honda et al. 2010"/> and '']''.<ref name="Ingólfsdóttir et al. 1998"/> However, a ] derivative of lichexanthone had antimycobacterial activity that was comparable to that of drugs commonly used to treat ].<ref name="Micheletti et al. 2013"/> Lichexanthone has a strong ] effect towards '']'', and also inhibits the growth of ].<ref name="Wang et al. 2012"/> In contrast, no anti-parasitic activity was detected against either '']'' or '']''.<ref name="Gachet et al. 2011"/> Nor did it have any ] activity against a variety of cancer ]s.<ref name="Brandão et al. 2013"/> Various ] of lichexanthone, studied using '']'' experiments, have been recorded in the scientific literature. The ] activity of the bark-dwelling lichen '']'' is largely attributed to the presence of lichexanthone.<ref name="Manojlovic et al. 2010"/><ref name="Ranković 2019"/> Chemically unmodified lichexanthone has weak ] activity against '']''<ref name="Honda et al. 2010"/> and '']''.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012" /><ref name="Ingólfsdóttir et al. 1998"/> However, a ] derivative of lichexanthone had antimycobacterial activity similar to that of ] commonly used to treat ].<ref name="Micheletti et al. 2013"/><ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> Lichexanthone has a strong ] effect towards '']'', and also inhibits the growth of ].<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016" /><ref name="Wang et al. 2012"/> In contrast, no ] activity was detected against either '']'' or ''],''<ref name="Gachet et al. 2011" /> nor did it have any ] activity against a variety of cancer ]s.<ref name="Brandão et al. 2013"/>


In laboratory tests, the presence of lichexanthone enhances the ] of ]. This bioactivity is relevant to the field of ], as there are only a few compounds known to have this effect. The chemical also has ] activity against second-instar ] of the mosquito '']'', a ] of the ].<ref name="Kathirgamanatharet al. 2006"/> In laboratory tests, the presence of lichexanthone enhances the ] of ]; there are only a few compounds known to have this effect. The chemical also has ] activity against second-instar ] of the mosquito '']'', a ] of the ].<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016" /><ref name="Kathirgamanatharet al. 2006"/>


==Biosynthesis== ==Biosynthesis==
] ]
In lichens, biosynthesis of lichexanthone occurs through the acetate-malonate ], which uses ] as a precursor material. In this pathway, polyketides are created by the sequential reactions of a variety of ]s. These enzymes control a number of enzymatic reactions through several coordinated ]s on a large multienzyme ].<ref name="Elix & Stocker-Wörgötter 2008"/> The structure of lichen xanthones is derived by linear ] of seven ] and ] units with one ]-type cyclisation. The two rings are joined by a ] carbon and by an ]-oxygen arising from cyclodehydration (i.e., a ] leading to the formation of a ]).<ref name="Ranković 2019"/> The exact mechanism is not known, but this ring closure might proceed through a ] ] that could dehydrate to yield the central ] core of lichexanthone.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/><ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> In lichens, biosynthesis of lichexanthone occurs through the acetate-malonate ], which uses ] as a ]. In this pathway, ]s are created by the sequential reactions of a variety of ]s. These ]s control a number of enzymatic reactions through several coordinated ]s on a large multienzyme ].<ref name="Elix & Stocker-Wörgötter 2008"/> The structure of lichen xanthones is derived by linear ] of seven ] and ] units with one ]-type cyclisation. The two rings are joined by a ] carbon and by an ]-oxygen arising from cyclodehydration (i.e., a ] leading to the formation of a ]).<ref name="Ranković 2019"/> The exact mechanism is not known, but this ring closure might proceed through a ] ] that could dehydrate to yield the central ] core of lichexanthone.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/><ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/>


In 1993 a standardized ] (HPLC) assay was described to identify many lichen-derived substances, including 55 xanthones; the work showed that many xanthone ]s had different ]s and that this technique could be used to identify complex mixtures of structurally similar derivatives.<ref name="Feige et al. 1993"/> The technique was later refined to couple the HPLC output with a ] to screen for xanthones based on their specific ]. In this way, lichexanthone can be detected by comparing its relative retention time, retention time, and checking for the presence of three peaks representing wavelengths of maximum absorption (λ<sub>max</sub>) at 208, 242, and 310&nbsp;].<ref name="Yoshimura et al. 1994"/> A standardized ] (HPLC) assay has been described to identify many lichen-derived substances, including lichexanthone and many other xanthones; because many xanthone ]s have different ]s, this technique can be used to identify complex mixtures of structurally similar derivatives.<ref name="Feige et al. 1993"/> The technique was later refined to couple the HPLC output with a ] to screen for xanthones based on their specific ]. In this way, lichexanthone is detected by monitoring its retention time, and verifying the presence of three peaks representing wavelengths of maximum absorption (λ<sub>max</sub>) at 208, 242, and 310&nbsp;].<ref name="Yoshimura et al. 1994"/>


==Occurrence== ==Occurrence==
]'' is one of the first lichens from which lichexanthone was isolated.]] ]'' is one of the first lichens from which lichexanthone was isolated.]]
Although first isolated from foliose (leafy) ''Parmelia'' species, lichexanthone has since been found in a wide variety of lichens. For example, in the foliose genus '']'', it is found in about a dozen species; when present, it usually completely replaces other cortical substances common in that genus, like ] and ].<ref name="Hale 1975"/> The presence or absence of lichexanthone is a ] used in classifying species of the predominantly tropical genus '']''; of about 70 species in the genus, 20 contain lichexanthone. This represents the largest group of foliose lichens with the compound, as it is generally restricted to some groups of tropical ]s, chiefly pyrenocarps and ].<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2014"/> The large genus '']'' relies heavily on thallus chemistry to distinguish and classify species, some of which differ only in the presence or absence of a single secondary chemical. Lichexanthone, norlichexanthone, and their chlorinated derivatives are common in this genus.<ref name="Archer 1997"/> Although first isolated from foliose (leafy) '']'' species, lichexanthone has since been found in a wide variety of lichens. For example, in the foliose genus '']'', it is found in about a dozen species; when present, it usually completely replaces other cortical substances common in that genus, like ] and ].<ref name="Hale 1975"/> The presence or absence of lichexanthone is a ] used in classifying species of the predominantly tropical genus '']''; of about 70 species in the genus, 20 contain lichexanthone. This represents the largest group of foliose lichens with the compound, as it is generally restricted to some groups of tropical ]s, chiefly pyrenocarps and ].<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2014"/> The large genus '']'' relies heavily on thallus chemistry to distinguish and classify species, some of which differ only in the presence or absence of a single secondary chemical. Lichexanthone, norlichexanthone, and their chlorinated derivatives are common in this genus.<ref name="Archer 1997"/>


Although normally considered a secondary metabolite of lichens, lichexanthone has also been isolated from several plants, listed here organized by ]: Although normally considered a secondary metabolite of lichens, lichexanthone has also been isolated from several plants, listed here organized by ]:
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Lichexanthone has also been reported to occur in the bark of '']'', although in that case it was suspected to have originated from a lichen growing on the bark.<ref name="Ferrari et al. 1985"/> Additionally, two non-lichenised fungus species, '']''<ref name="Wang et al. 2004"/> and '']'',<ref name="Frisvad et al. 2004"/> can synthesize lichexanthone. Lichexanthone has also been reported to occur in the bark of '']'', although in that case it was suspected to have originated from a lichen growing on the bark.<ref name="Ferrari et al. 1985"/> Additionally, two non-lichenised fungus species, '']''<ref name="Wang et al. 2004"/> and '']'',<ref name="Frisvad et al. 2004"/> can synthesize lichexanthone.


Xanthones are known to have strong UV-absorbing properties.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> In experiments using laboratory-grown ]s from the lichen '']'', the synthesis of lichexanthone was induced when young ] was exposed to long wavelength UV light (365&nbsp;nm) for three to four hours every week over a time span of three to four months. In the natural lichen, the compound is present in both the outer ] layer of ] and in the exciple (rim) of the ]. It has been suggested that lichexanthone may function as a light filter to protect the UV-sensitive algal layer in lichens from high intensity ].<ref name="Stocker-Wörgötter et al. 2009"/> The presence of the ] chemical in the cortex may allow them to survive in otherwise inhospitable habitats, like on exposed trees in tropical areas or high mountains.<ref name="Galloway 1993"/> It has been pointed out, however, that lichexanthone is also found in lichens living in less stressed environments, and from species that are in families where cortical substances are rare. In some instances, similar or related species exist that lack cortical substances entirely, suggesting that the actual ecological function of lichexanthone is not fully understood.<ref name="Aptroot & Souza 2021"/> Xanthones are known to have strong UV-absorbing properties.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> In experiments using laboratory-grown ]s from the lichen '']'', the synthesis of lichexanthone was induced when young ] were exposed to long-wavelength UV light (365&nbsp;nm) for three to four hours every week over a time span of three to four months. In the natural lichen, the compound is present in both the outer ] layer of the ] and in the exciple (rim) of the ]. Lichexanthone may function as a light filter to protect the UV-sensitive algal layer in lichens from high-intensity ].<ref name="Stocker-Wörgötter et al. 2009"/> The presence of the ] chemical in the cortex may allow them to survive in otherwise inhospitable habitats, like on exposed trees in tropical areas or high mountains.<ref name="Galloway 1993"/> It has been pointed out, however, that lichexanthone is also found in lichens living in less stressed environments, and from species that are in families where cortical substances are rare. In some instances, similar or related species exist that lack cortical substances entirely, suggesting that the actual ecological function of lichexanthone is not fully understood.<ref name="Aptroot & Souza 2021"/>


==Related compounds== ==Related compounds==
]

] (1,3,6-trihydroxy-8-methylxanthone) differs from lichexanthone in having hydroxy rather than methoxy groups at positions 3 and 6.<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> In {{nowrap|]}} (1,6-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-8-methylxanthen-9-one), the methoxy at position 6 of lichexanthone is replaced with a hydroxy.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> Dozens of ] lichexanthone ] have been reported, some isolated from a variety of lichen species, and some produced synthetically. These derivatives are variously mono-, bi-, or trichlorinated with the chlorines at positions 2, 4, 5, and 7.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> As of 2016, 62 molecules with the lichexanthone scaffold had been described, and another eight additional lichexanthone derivatives were considered "putative"–thought to exist in nature, but not yet discovered in lichens.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> ] (1,3,6-trihydroxy-8-methylxanthone) differs from lichexanthone in having hydroxy rather than methoxy groups at positions 3 and 6.<ref name="Huneck 1996"/> In {{nowrap|]}} (1,6-dihydroxy-3-methoxy-8-methylxanthen-9-one), the methoxy at position 6 of lichexanthone is replaced with a hydroxy.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/> Dozens of ] lichexanthone ] have been reported, some isolated from a variety of lichen species, and some produced synthetically. These derivatives are variously mono-, bi-, or trichlorinated with the chlorines at positions 2, 4, 5, and 7.<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012"/> As of 2016, 62 molecules with the lichexanthone scaffold had been described, and another eight additional lichexanthone derivatives were considered "putative"–thought to exist in nature, but not yet discovered in lichens.<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016"/>


The effects of chlorine substituents on some structural and electronic properties of lichexanthones have been studied with ], to better understand things such as ] interactions, ] of the three rings, interactions between ] and ]s, and ] of ] formed between lichexanthone, ] ion (Mg<sup>+2</sup>) and ].<ref name="Mostafavi & Ebrahimi 2018"/> A series of lichexanthone derivatives were synthesized and assessed for antimycobacterial activity against '']''. These derivatives consisted of ω-bromo and ω-aminoalkoxylxanthones; lichexanthone and several derivatives were found to have weak antimycobacterial activity. This ] approach was useful to correlate structural and chemical features with antimycobacterial activity among the group of ω-aminoalkoxylxanthones.<ref name="Micheletti et al. 2013"/> The effects of chlorine ]s on some structural and electronic properties of lichexanthones have been studied with ], to better understand things such as ] interactions, ] of the three rings, interactions between ] and ]s, and ] of ] formed between lichexanthone, ] ion (Mg<sup>+2</sup>) and ].<ref name="Mostafavi & Ebrahimi 2018"/> A series of lichexanthone derivatives were synthesized and assessed for antimycobacterial activity against '']''. These derivatives consisted of ω-] and ω-aminoalkoxylxanthones; lichexanthone and several derivatives were found to have weak antimycobacterial activity. According to the authors, this ] approach was useful to correlate structural and chemical features with ''in vitro'' antimycobacterial activity among the group of ω-aminoalkoxylxanthones.<ref name="Micheletti et al. 2013"/>


==Eponyms== ==Eponyms==
Some authors have explicitly named lichexanthone in the ] of their published lichen species, thereby acknowledging the presence of this compound as an important ] characteristic. These ]s are listed here, followed by their ] and year of publication: Some authors have explicitly named lichexanthone in the ] of their published lichen species, thereby acknowledging the presence of this compound as an important ] characteristic. These ]s are listed here, followed by their ] and year of publication. All of these species occur in Brazil:


*'']'' {{small|Eliasaro & Adler (1997)}}<ref name="Eliasaro & Adler 1997"/> *'']'' {{small|Eliasaro & Adler (1997)}}<ref name="Eliasaro & Adler 1997"/>
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*'']'' {{small|Aptroot & Cáceres (2018)}}<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/> *'']'' {{small|Aptroot & Cáceres (2018)}}<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot & Cáceres (2018)}}<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/> *'']'' {{small|Aptroot & Cáceres (2018)}}<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2020)}}<ref name="Aptroot & Feuerstein 2020"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot & M.F.Souza (2021)}}<ref name="Wijayawardene et al. 2021"/> *'']'' {{small|Aptroot & M.F.Souza (2021)}}<ref name="Wijayawardene et al. 2021"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot & M.F.Souza (2021)}}<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2021 "/> *'']'' {{small|Aptroot & M.F.Souza (2021)}}<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2021 "/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2021)}} – named for both lichexanthone and ]<ref name="Aptroot & Spielmann & Gumboski 2021"/> *'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2021)}} – named for both lichexanthone and ]<ref name="Aptroot & Spielmann & Gumboski 2021"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2022)}}<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2022"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2023)}}<ref name="Aptroot 2023"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2023)}}<ref name="Aptroot 2023"/>
*'']'' {{small|Aptroot (2023)}}<ref name="Aptroot 2023"/>


In the case of '']'',<ref name="Menezes et al. 2013"/> '']'',<ref name="da Silva et al. 2017"/> '']'',<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/> and '']'',<ref name="Wijayawardene et al. 2021"/> the species listed above are the only members of those genera that contain lichexanthone. In the case of '']'',<ref name="Menezes et al. 2013"/> '']'',<ref name="da Silva et al. 2017"/> '']'',<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018"/> and '']'',<ref name="Wijayawardene et al. 2021"/> the listed species are the only members of those ] that contain lichexanthone.


==References== ==References==
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<ref name="Anyanwu et al. 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Anyanwu |first1=Gabriel O. |last2=Onyeneke |first2=Chukwu E. |last3=Rauf |first3=Khalid |title=Medicinal plants of the genus ''Anthocleista''—A review of their ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=175 |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.032 |pmid=26432351 |pages=648–667}}</ref> <ref name="Anyanwu et al. 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Anyanwu |first1=Gabriel O. |last2=Onyeneke |first2=Chukwu E. |last3=Rauf |first3=Khalid |title=Medicinal plants of the genus ''Anthocleista''—A review of their ethnobotany, phytochemistry and pharmacology |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=175 |year=2015 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2015.09.032 |pmid=26432351 |pages=648–667}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Jungbluth |first2=Patrícia |last3=Cáceres |first3=Marcela E.S. |title=A world key to the species of ''Pyxine'' with lichexanthone, with a new species from Brazil |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=46 |issue=5 |year=2014 |doi=10.1017/s0024282914000231 |pages=669–672 |s2cid=85901115}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot et al. 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Jungbluth |first2=Patrícia |last3=Cáceres |first3=Marcela E.S. |title=A world key to the species of ''Pyxine'' with lichexanthone, with a new species from Brazil |journal=The Lichenologist |volume=46 |issue=5 |year=2014 |doi=10.1017/s0024282914000231 |pages=669–672}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Feuerstein |first2=Shirley Cunha |last3=Cunha-Dias |first3=Iane Paula Rego |last4=de Lucena Nunes |first4=Álvaro Rogerio |last5=Honorato |first5=Maykon Evangelista |last6=da Silva Cáceres |first6=Marcela Eugenia |title=New lichen species and lichen reports from Amazon forest remnants and Cerrado vegetation in the Tocantina Region, northern Brazil |journal=The Bryologist |volume=120 |issue=3 |year=2017 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-120.3.320 |pages=320–328 |s2cid=89873704}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Feuerstein |first2=Shirley Cunha |last3=Cunha-Dias |first3=Iane Paula Rego |last4=de Lucena Nunes |first4=Álvaro Rogerio |last5=Honorato |first5=Maykon Evangelista |last6=da Silva Cáceres |first6=Marcela Eugenia |title=New lichen species and lichen reports from Amazon forest remnants and Cerrado vegetation in the Tocantina Region, northern Brazil |journal=The Bryologist |volume=120 |issue=3 |year=2017 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-120.3.320 |pages=320–328}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=da Silva Cáceres |first2=Marcela Eugenia |title=New lichen species from Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil |journal=The Bryologist |volume=121 |issue=1 |year=2018 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-121.1.067 |pages=67–79 |s2cid=90659999}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot & da Silva Cáceres 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=da Silva Cáceres |first2=Marcela Eugenia |title=New lichen species from Chapada Diamantina, Bahia, Brazil |journal=The Bryologist |volume=121 |issue=1 |year=2018 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-121.1.067 |pages=67–79}}</ref>

<ref name="Aptroot & Feuerstein 2020">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Feuerstein |first2=Shirley |year=2020 |title=New Graphidaceae from South and Central Brazil |journal=Archive for Lichenology |volume=16 |pages=1–10 |url=http://www.fschumm.de/Archive/Vol16_Aptroot_&_Feuerstein_Graphidaceae_S_Brazil.pdf}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot & Spielmann & Gumboski 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=A. |last2=Spielmann |first2=A.A. |last3=Gumboski |first3=E.L.|year=2021 |title=New lichen species and records from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil |journal=Archive for Lichenology |volume=23 |pages=1–18 |url=http://www.fschumm.de/Archive/Vol%2023_Aptroot_%20Santa%20Catarina.pdf}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot & Spielmann & Gumboski 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=A. |last2=Spielmann |first2=A.A. |last3=Gumboski |first3=E.L.|year=2021 |title=New lichen species and records from Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil |journal=Archive for Lichenology |volume=23 |pages=1–18 |url=http://www.fschumm.de/Archive/Vol%2023_Aptroot_%20Santa%20Catarina.pdf}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot & Souza 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Souza |first2=Maria Fernanda |title=New crustose lichens from a tropical coastal area in Paraná (Brazil) |journal=Cryptogamie, Mycologie |volume=42 |issue=12 |year=2021 |doi=10.5252/cryptogamie-mycologie2021v42a12 |pages=191–197 |s2cid=244271661}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot & Souza 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Souza |first2=Maria Fernanda |title=New crustose lichens from a tropical coastal area in Paraná (Brazil) |journal=Cryptogamie, Mycologie |volume=42 |issue=12 |year=2021 |doi=10.5252/cryptogamie-mycologie2021v42a12 |pages=191–197 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/7815207 }}</ref>

<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2021 ">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Souza |first2=Maria Fernanda |last3=Spielmann |first3=Adriano Afonso |title=Two new crustose ''Cladonia'' species with strepsilin and other new lichens from the Serra de Maracaju, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil |journal=Cryptogamie, Mycologie |volume=42 |issue=8 |year=2021 |doi=10.5252/cryptogamie-mycologie2021v42a8 |pages=137–148}}</ref>

<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2022">{{cite journal |first1=André |last1=Aptroot |first2=Maria |last2=Fernanda de Souza |first3=Lidiane |last3=Alves dos Santos |first4=Isaias |last4=Oliveira Junior |first5=Bruno Micael |last5=Cardoso Barbosa |first6=Marcela Eugenia |last6=Cáceres da Silva |title=New species of lichenized fungi from Brazil, with a record report of 492 species in a small area of the Amazon Forest |journal=The Bryologist |volume=125 |issue=3 |pages=435–467 |year=2022 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-125.3.433}}</ref>


<ref name="Aptroot et al. 2021 ">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |last2=Souza |first2=Maria Fernanda |last3=Spielmann |first3=Adriano Afonso |title=Two new crustose ''Cladonia'' species with strepsilin and other new lichens from the Serra de Maracaju, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil |journal=Cryptogamie, Mycologie |volume=42 |issue=8 |year=2021 |doi=10.5252/cryptogamie-mycologie2021v42a8 |pages=137–148 |s2cid=235769759}}</ref> <ref name="Aptroot 2023">{{cite journal |last1=Aptroot |first1=André |title=Lichens from the Roosevelt River Area in the Brazilian Amazon |journal=Microbiology Research |volume=14 |issue=2 |year=2023 |doi=10.3390/microbiolres14020054 |pages=755–786 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


<ref name="Archer 1997">{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Alan |year=1997 |title=The Lichen Genus ''Pertusaria'' in Australia |series=Bibliotheca Lichenologica |publisher=J. Cramer |location=Berlin/Stuttgart |volume=69 |isbn=978-3-443-58048-3}}</ref> <ref name="Archer 1997">{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Alan |year=1997 |title=The Lichen Genus ''Pertusaria'' in Australia |series=Bibliotheca Lichenologica |publisher=J. Cramer |location=Berlin/Stuttgart |volume=69 |isbn=978-3-443-58048-3}}</ref>


<ref name="Arriaga et al. 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Arriaga |first1=Ângela M.C. |last2=Feitosa |first2=Edinilza M.A. |last3=Lemos |first3=Telma L.G. |last4=Santiago |first4=Gilvandete M.P. |last5=Lima |first5=Jefferson Q. |last6=De Oliveira |first6=Maria C.F. |last7=Vasconcelos |first7=Jackson N. e |last8=Rodrigues |first8=Francisco E.A. |last9=Gomes |first9=Tathilene B.M. |last10=Braz-Filho |first10=Raimundo |title=Chemical constituents and insecticidal activity of ''Rollinia leptopetala'' (Annonaceae) |journal=Natural Product Communications |volume=3 |issue=10 |year=2008 |doi=10.1177/1934578x0800301021 |page=1687–1688 |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Arriaga et al. 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Arriaga |first1=Ângela M.C. |last2=Feitosa |first2=Edinilza M.A. |last3=Lemos |first3=Telma L.G. |last4=Santiago |first4=Gilvandete M.P. |last5=Lima |first5=Jefferson Q. |last6=De Oliveira |first6=Maria C.F. |last7=Vasconcelos |first7=Jackson N. e |last8=Rodrigues |first8=Francisco E.A. |last9=Gomes |first9=Tathilene B.M. |last10=Braz-Filho |first10=Raimundo |title=Chemical constituents and insecticidal activity of ''Rollinia leptopetala'' (Annonaceae) |journal=Natural Product Communications |volume=3 |issue=10 |year=2008 |doi=10.1177/1934578x0800301021 |pages=1687–1688 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


<ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942">{{cite journal |last1=Asahina |first1=Yasuhiko |last2=Nogami |first2=Hisasi |year=1942 |title=Untersuchungen über Flechtenstoffe, XCVIII. Mitteil.: Über Lichexanthon, ein neues Stoffwechselprodukt der Flechte |journal=Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=202–207 |doi=10.1246/bcsj.17.202 |language=de |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Asahina & Nogami 1942">{{cite journal |last1=Asahina |first1=Yasuhiko |last2=Nogami |first2=Hisasi |year=1942 |title=Untersuchungen über Flechtenstoffe, XCVIII. Mitteil.: Über Lichexanthon, ein neues Stoffwechselprodukt der Flechte |journal=Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=202–207 |doi=10.1246/bcsj.17.202 |language=de |doi-access=free |quote="Da dasselbe ein in der Flechte zum ersten mal entdeckte Xanthone-Derivat ist, so nennen wir es 'Lichexanthone'." }}</ref>


<ref name="Brandão et al. 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Brandão |first1=Luiz Fabrício Gardini |last2=Alcantara |first2=Glaucia Braz |last3=Matos |first3=Maria de Fátima Cepa |last4=Bogo |first4=Danielle |last5=Freitas |first5=Deisy dos Santos |last6=Oyama |first6=Nathália Mitsuko |last7=Honda |first7=Neli Kika |title=Cytotoxic evaluation of phenolic compounds from lichens against melanoma cells |journal=Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin |volume=61 |issue=2 |year=2013 |doi=10.1248/cpb.c12-00739 |pages=176–183 |pmid=23207680 |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Brandão et al. 2013">{{cite journal |last1=Brandão |first1=Luiz Fabrício Gardini |last2=Alcantara |first2=Glaucia Braz |last3=Matos |first3=Maria de Fátima Cepa |last4=Bogo |first4=Danielle |last5=Freitas |first5=Deisy dos Santos |last6=Oyama |first6=Nathália Mitsuko |last7=Honda |first7=Neli Kika |title=Cytotoxic evaluation of phenolic compounds from lichens against melanoma cells |journal=Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin |volume=61 |issue=2 |year=2013 |doi=10.1248/cpb.c12-00739 |pages=176–183 |pmid=23207680 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
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<ref name="Buitrago Díaz et al. 2010">{{cite journal |first1=Alexis |last1=Buitrago Díaz |first2=Janne |last2=Rojas Vera |first3=Valentina |last3=Cote |first4=Julia |last4=Bruno-Colmenárez |first5=Graciela |last5=Díaz de Delgado |year=2010 |title=NMR elucidation and crystal structure analysis of 1-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxy-8-methyl-9''h''-xanthen-9-one (lichexanthone) isolated from ''Vismia baccifera'' (Guttiferae) |journal=Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=470–474 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/856/85615688007.pdf}}</ref> <ref name="Buitrago Díaz et al. 2010">{{cite journal |first1=Alexis |last1=Buitrago Díaz |first2=Janne |last2=Rojas Vera |first3=Valentina |last3=Cote |first4=Julia |last4=Bruno-Colmenárez |first5=Graciela |last5=Díaz de Delgado |year=2010 |title=NMR elucidation and crystal structure analysis of 1-hydroxy-3,6-dimethoxy-8-methyl-9''h''-xanthen-9-one (lichexanthone) isolated from ''Vismia baccifera'' (Guttiferae) |journal=Boletín Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Plantas Medicinales y Aromáticas |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=470–474 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/856/85615688007.pdf}}</ref>


<ref name="da Silva et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=da Silva Cáceres |first1=Marcela Eugenia |last2=Aptroot |first2=André |title=Lichens from the Brazilian Amazon, with special reference to the genus ''Astrothelium'' |journal=The Bryologist |volume=120 |issue=2 |year=2017 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-120.2.166 |pages=166–182 |s2cid=89775760}}</ref> <ref name="da Silva et al. 2017">{{cite journal |last1=da Silva Cáceres |first1=Marcela Eugenia |last2=Aptroot |first2=André |title=Lichens from the Brazilian Amazon, with special reference to the genus ''Astrothelium'' |journal=The Bryologist |volume=120 |issue=2 |year=2017 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745-120.2.166 |pages=166–182}}</ref>


<ref name="Calderón et al. 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Calderón |first1=Angela I. |last2=Terreaux |first2=Christian |last3=Schenk |first3=Kurt |last4=Pattison |first4=Phil |last5=Burdette |first5=Joanna E. |last6=Pezzuto |first6=John M. |last7=Gupta |first7=Mahabir P. |last8=Hostettmann |first8=K. |title=Isolation and structure elucidation of an isoflavone and a sesterterpenoic acid from ''Henriettella fascicularis'' |journal=Journal of Natural Products |volume=65 |issue=12 |year=2002 |doi=10.1021/np0201164 |pmid=12502307 |pages=1749–1753}}</ref> <ref name="Calderón et al. 2002">{{cite journal |last1=Calderón |first1=Angela I. |last2=Terreaux |first2=Christian |last3=Schenk |first3=Kurt |last4=Pattison |first4=Phil |last5=Burdette |first5=Joanna E. |last6=Pezzuto |first6=John M. |last7=Gupta |first7=Mahabir P. |last8=Hostettmann |first8=K. |title=Isolation and structure elucidation of an isoflavone and a sesterterpenoic acid from ''Henriettella fascicularis'' |journal=Journal of Natural Products |volume=65 |issue=12 |year=2002 |doi=10.1021/np0201164 |pmid=12502307 |pages=1749–1753}}</ref>
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<ref name="Carvalho et al. 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Adriana E. |last2=Alcantara |first2=Glaucia B. |last3=Oliveira |first3=Sebastião M. |last4=Micheletti |first4=Ana C. |last5=Honda |first5=Neli K. |last6=Maia |first6=Gilberto |title=Electroreduction of lichexanthone |journal=Electrochimica Acta |volume=54 |issue=8 |year=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2008.10.035 |pages=2290–2297}}</ref> <ref name="Carvalho et al. 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Carvalho |first1=Adriana E. |last2=Alcantara |first2=Glaucia B. |last3=Oliveira |first3=Sebastião M. |last4=Micheletti |first4=Ana C. |last5=Honda |first5=Neli K. |last6=Maia |first6=Gilberto |title=Electroreduction of lichexanthone |journal=Electrochimica Acta |volume=54 |issue=8 |year=2009 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2008.10.035 |pages=2290–2297}}</ref>


<ref name="Costa et al. 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=Emmanoel V. |last2=Marques |first2=Francisco de Assis |last3=Pinheiro |first3=Maria Lúcia B. |last4=Braga |first4=Raquel M. |last5=Delarmelina |first5=Camila |last6=Duarte |first6=Marta Cristina T. |last7=Ruiz |first7=Ana Lúcia T.G. |last8=Carvalho |first8=João Ernesto de |last9=Maia | first9=Beatriz H.L.N.S. |title=Chemical constituents isolated from the bark of ''Guatteria blepharophylla'' (Annonaceae) and their antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities |journal=Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society |volume=22 |issue=6 |year=2011 |doi=10.1590/s0103-50532011000600016 |pages=1111–1117 |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/jbchs/a/gXZryxLvwrKQCnf3RzCVchj/?format=pdf&lang=en}}</ref> <ref name="Costa et al. 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Costa |first1=Emmanoel V. |last2=Marques |first2=Francisco de Assis |last3=Pinheiro |first3=Maria Lúcia B. |last4=Braga |first4=Raquel M. |last5=Delarmelina |first5=Camila |last6=Duarte |first6=Marta Cristina T. |last7=Ruiz |first7=Ana Lúcia T.G. |last8=Carvalho |first8=João Ernesto de |last9=Maia | first9=Beatriz H.L.N.S. |title=Chemical constituents isolated from the bark of ''Guatteria blepharophylla'' (Annonaceae) and their antiproliferative and antimicrobial activities |journal=Journal of the Brazilian Chemical Society |volume=22 |issue=6 |year=2011 |doi=10.1590/s0103-50532011000600016 |pages=1111–1117 |url=https://www.scielo.br/j/jbchs/a/gXZryxLvwrKQCnf3RzCVchj/?format=pdf&lang=en|doi-access=free }}</ref>


<ref name="El-Seedi et al. 1994">{{cite journal |last1=El-Seedi |first1=Hesham R. |last2=Hazell |first2=Alan C. |last3=Torssell |first3=Kurt B.G. |title=Triterpenes, lichexanthone and an acetylenic acid from ''Minquartia guianensis'' |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=35 |issue=5 |year=1994 |doi=10.1016/s0031-9422(00)94841-6 |pages=1297–1299}}</ref> <ref name="El-Seedi et al. 1994">{{cite journal |last1=El-Seedi |first1=Hesham R. |last2=Hazell |first2=Alan C. |last3=Torssell |first3=Kurt B.G. |title=Triterpenes, lichexanthone and an acetylenic acid from ''Minquartia guianensis'' |journal=Phytochemistry |volume=35 |issue=5 |year=1994 |doi=10.1016/s0031-9422(00)94841-6 |pages=1297–1299}}</ref>
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<ref name="Eliasaro & Adler 1997">{{cite journal |last1=Eliasaro |first1=Sionara |last2=Adler |first2=Monica T. |year=1997 |title=Two new species and new reports in the Parmeliaceae ''sensu stricto'' (lichenized Ascomycotina) from Brazil |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=63 |pages=49–56 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0063/0049.htm}}</ref> <ref name="Eliasaro & Adler 1997">{{cite journal |last1=Eliasaro |first1=Sionara |last2=Adler |first2=Monica T. |year=1997 |title=Two new species and new reports in the Parmeliaceae ''sensu stricto'' (lichenized Ascomycotina) from Brazil |journal=Mycotaxon |volume=63 |pages=49–56 |url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/cyberliber/59575/0063/0049.htm}}</ref>


<ref name="Elix & Stocker-Wörgötter 2008">{{cite book |last1=Elix |first1=John A. |title=Lichen Biology |last2=Stocker-Wörgötter |first2=Elfie |year=2008 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-69216-8 |editor-link1=Thomas Hawkes Nash III |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=Thomas H. |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=118–119 |chapter=Chapter 7: Biochemistry and secondary metabolites |author-link=John Alan Elix}}</ref> <ref name="Elix & Stocker-Wörgötter 2008">{{cite book |last1=Elix |first1=John A. |title=Lichen Biology |last2=Stocker-Wörgötter |first2=Elfie |year=2008 |publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-69216-8 |editor-link1=Thomas Hawkes Nash III |editor-last=Nash III |editor-first=Thomas H. |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=118–119 |chapter=Biochemistry and secondary metabolites |author-link=John Alan Elix |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511790478.008}}</ref>


<ref name="Feige et al. 1993">{{cite journal |last1=Feige |first1=G.B. |last2=Lumbsch |first2=H.T. |last3=Huneck |first3=S. |last4=Elix |first4=J.A. |title=Identification of lichen substances by a standardized high-performance liquid chromatographic method |journal=Journal of Chromatography A |volume=646 |issue=2 |year=1993 |doi=10.1016/0021-9673(93)83356-w |pages=417–427}}</ref> <ref name="Feige et al. 1993">{{cite journal |last1=Feige |first1=G.B. |last2=Lumbsch |first2=H.T. |last3=Huneck |first3=S. |last4=Elix |first4=J.A. |title=Identification of lichen substances by a standardized high-performance liquid chromatographic method |journal=Journal of Chromatography A |volume=646 |issue=2 |year=1993 |doi=10.1016/0021-9673(93)83356-w |pages=417–427}}</ref>
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<ref name="Guderley et al. 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Guderley |first1=Roland |last2=Lumbsch |first2=H. Thorsten |last3=Elix |first3=John A. |title=Four new species of ''Lecanora'' sensu stricto (Lecanorales, Ascomycotina) from tropical South America |journal=The Bryologist |volume=103 |issue=1 |year=2000 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745(2000)1032.0.CO;2 |jstor=3244290 |pages=139–144}}</ref> <ref name="Guderley et al. 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Guderley |first1=Roland |last2=Lumbsch |first2=H. Thorsten |last3=Elix |first3=John A. |title=Four new species of ''Lecanora'' sensu stricto (Lecanorales, Ascomycotina) from tropical South America |journal=The Bryologist |volume=103 |issue=1 |year=2000 |doi=10.1639/0007-2745(2000)1032.0.CO;2 |jstor=3244290 |pages=139–144}}</ref>


<ref name="Hale 1975">{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=Mason E. |year=1975 |title=A Revision of the Lichen Genus ''Hypotrachyna'' (Parmeliaceae) in Tropical America |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Botany |series=Smithonian Contributions to Botany |issue=25 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington |page=10 |doi=10.5479/si.0081024X.25}}</ref> <ref name="Hale 1975">{{cite journal |last1=Hale |first1=Mason E. |year=1975 |title=A Revision of the Lichen Genus ''Hypotrachyna'' (Parmeliaceae) in Tropical America |journal=Smithsonian Contributions to Botany |issue=25 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press |location=Washington |page=10 |doi=10.5479/si.0081024X.25}}</ref>


<ref name="Harris & Hay 1977">{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Thomas M. |last2=Hay |first2=James V. |title=Biogenetically modeled syntheses of heptaacetate metabolites. Alternariol and lichexanthone |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=99 |issue=5 |year=1977 |doi=10.1021/ja00447a058 |pages=1631–1637}}</ref> <ref name="Harris & Hay 1977">{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Thomas M. |last2=Hay |first2=James V. |title=Biogenetically modeled syntheses of heptaacetate metabolites. Alternariol and lichexanthone |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=99 |issue=5 |year=1977 |doi=10.1021/ja00447a058 |pages=1631–1637}}</ref>
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<ref name="Huneck 1996">{{cite book |last=Huneck |first=Siegfried |title=Identification of Lichen Substances |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |publication-place=Berlin, Heidelberg |year=1996 |isbn=978-3-642-85245-9 |oclc=851387266 |pages=209–212}}</ref> <ref name="Huneck 1996">{{cite book |last=Huneck |first=Siegfried |title=Identification of Lichen Substances |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |publication-place=Berlin, Heidelberg |year=1996 |isbn=978-3-642-85245-9 |oclc=851387266 |pages=209–212}}</ref>

<ref name="IF: Hypotrachyna formosana">{{cite web |title=Record Details: ''Parmelia formosana'' Zahlbr., Feddes Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni veg. 33: 57 (1933) |url=http://www.indexfungorum.org/names/NamesRecord.asp?RecordID=368604 |publisher=] |access-date=4 February 2022}}</ref>


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<ref name="Khan & Ather 2006">{{cite book |editor-last1=Khan |editor-first1=M.T.H. |editor-last2=Ather |editor-first2=A. |title=Lead Molecules from Natural Products: Discovery and New Trends |chapter=Xanthones as therapeutic agents: chemistry and pharmacology |last1=Diderot |first1=Noungoue Tchamo |last2=Silvere |first2=Ngouela |last3=Etienne |first3=Tsamo |publisher=Elsevier Science |series=Advances in Phytomedicine |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-08-045933-2 |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=CvfvjJ9TZs0C&pg=PA285 |pages=284–285}}</ref> <ref name="Khan & Ather 2006">{{cite book |editor-last1=Khan |editor-first1=M.T.H. |editor-last2=Ather |editor-first2=A. |title=Lead Molecules from Natural Products: Discovery and New Trends |chapter=Xanthones as therapeutic agents: chemistry and pharmacology |last1=Diderot |first1=Noungoue Tchamo |last2=Silvere |first2=Ngouela |last3=Etienne |first3=Tsamo |publisher=Elsevier Science |series=Advances in Phytomedicine |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-08-045933-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CvfvjJ9TZs0C&pg=PA285 |pages=284–285}}</ref>


<ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Le Pogam |first1=Pierre |last2=Boustie |first2=Joël |title=Xanthones of lichen source: a 2016 update |journal=Molecules |volume=21 |issue=3 |year=2016 |doi=10.3390/molecules21030294 |page=294 |pmid=26950106 |pmc=6273661 |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Le Pogam & Boustie 2016">{{cite journal |last1=Le Pogam |first1=Pierre |last2=Boustie |first2=Joël |title=Xanthones of lichen source: a 2016 update |journal=Molecules |volume=21 |issue=3 |year=2016 |doi=10.3390/molecules21030294 |page=294 |pmid=26950106 |pmc=6273661 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
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<ref name="Letcher 1968">{{cite journal |last=Letcher |first=R.M. |title=Chemistry of lichen constituents—VI: Mass spectra of usnic acid, lichexanthone and their derivatives |journal=Organic Mass Spectrometry |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=1968 |doi=10.1002/oms.1210010409 |pages=551–561}}</ref> <ref name="Letcher 1968">{{cite journal |last=Letcher |first=R.M. |title=Chemistry of lichen constituents—VI: Mass spectra of usnic acid, lichexanthone and their derivatives |journal=Organic Mass Spectrometry |volume=1 |issue=4 |year=1968 |doi=10.1002/oms.1210010409 |pages=551–561}}</ref>


<ref name="Lim et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Lim |first1=Pei Cee |last2=Ramli |first2=Hanizah |last3=Kassim | first3=Nur Kartinee |last4=Ali |first4=Zulfiqar |last5=Khan |first5=Ikhlas A. |last6=Shaari | first6=Khozirah |last7=Ismail |first7=Amin |title=Chemical constituents from the stem bark of ''Clausena excavata'' Burm. f |journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |volume=82 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.bse.2018.12.010 |pages=52–55 |s2cid=91875468}}</ref> <ref name="Lim et al. 2019">{{cite journal |last1=Lim |first1=Pei Cee |last2=Ramli |first2=Hanizah |last3=Kassim | first3=Nur Kartinee |last4=Ali |first4=Zulfiqar |last5=Khan |first5=Ikhlas A. |last6=Shaari | first6=Khozirah |last7=Ismail |first7=Amin |title=Chemical constituents from the stem bark of ''Clausena excavata'' Burm. f |journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology |volume=82 |year=2019 |doi=10.1016/j.bse.2018.12.010 |pages=52–55}}</ref>


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<ref name="Manojlovic et al. 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Manojlovic |first1=Nedeljko T. |last2=Vasiljevic |first2=Perica J. |last3=Marković |first3=Zoran S. |year=2010 |title=Antimicrobial activity of extracts and various fractions of chloroform extract from the lichen ''Laurera benguelensis'' |journal=Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki |volume=13 |pages=27–34 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230745104}}</ref> <ref name="Manojlovic et al. 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Manojlovic |first1=Nedeljko T. |last2=Vasiljevic |first2=Perica J. |last3=Marković |first3=Zoran S. |year=2010 |title=Antimicrobial activity of extracts and various fractions of chloroform extract from the lichen ''Laurera benguelensis'' |journal=Journal of Biological Research-Thessaloniki |volume=13 |pages=27–34 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230745104}}</ref>
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<ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Masters |first1=Kye-Simeon |last2=Bräse |first2=Stefan |title=Xanthones from fungi, lichens, and bacteria: the natural products and their synthesis |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=112 |issue=7 |year=2012 |doi=10.1021/cr100446h |pmid=22617028 |pages=3717–3776}}</ref> <ref name="Masters & Bräse 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Masters |first1=Kye-Simeon |last2=Bräse |first2=Stefan |title=Xanthones from fungi, lichens, and bacteria: the natural products and their synthesis |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=112 |issue=7 |year=2012 |doi=10.1021/cr100446h |pmid=22617028 |pages=3717–3776}}</ref>


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<ref name="Mostafavi & Ebrahimi 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Mostafavi |first1=Najmeh |last2=Ebrahimi | first2=Ali |title=The role of chlorine substituents in lichexanthones properties: the ionic and halogen bond interactions |journal=Theoretical Chemistry Accounts |volume=137 |issue=8 |year=2018 |doi=10.1007/s00214-018-2294-0 |page= |s2cid=105739356}}</ref> <ref name="Mostafavi & Ebrahimi 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Mostafavi |first1=Najmeh |last2=Ebrahimi | first2=Ali |title=The role of chlorine substituents in lichexanthones properties: the ionic and halogen bond interactions |journal=Theoretical Chemistry Accounts |volume=137 |issue=8 |year=2018 |doi=10.1007/s00214-018-2294-0 |page= }}</ref>


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<ref name="Tsamo et al. 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Tsamo |first1=Armelle Tontsa |last2=Melong |first2=Raduis |last3=Mkounga |first3=Pierre |last4=Nkengfack |first4=Augustin Ephrem |title=Rubescins I and J, further limonoid derivatives from the stem bark of ''Trichilia rubescens'' (Meliaceae) |journal=Natural Product Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |year=2018 |doi=10.1080/14786419.2018.1443087 |pmid=29502449 |pages=196–203 |s2cid=3705058}}</ref> <ref name="Tsamo et al. 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Tsamo |first1=Armelle Tontsa |last2=Melong |first2=Raduis |last3=Mkounga |first3=Pierre |last4=Nkengfack |first4=Augustin Ephrem |title=Rubescins I and J, further limonoid derivatives from the stem bark of ''Trichilia rubescens'' (Meliaceae) |journal=Natural Product Research |volume=33 |issue=2 |year=2018 |doi=10.1080/14786419.2018.1443087 |pmid=29502449 |pages=196–203}}</ref>


<ref name="Wairata et al. 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Wairata |first1=Johanis |last2=Sukandar |first2=Edwin Risky |last3=Fadlan |first3=Arif |last4=Purnomo |first4=Adi Setyo |last5=Taher |first5=Muhammad |last6=Ersam |first6=Taslim |title=Evaluation of the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antiplasmodial activities of xanthones isolated from ''Garcinia forbesii'' and their ''in silico'' studies |journal=Biomedicines |volume=9 |issue=10 |year=2021 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9101380 |pmid=34680496 |pmc=8533219 |page=1380 |doi-access=free}}</ref> <ref name="Wairata et al. 2021">{{cite journal |last1=Wairata |first1=Johanis |last2=Sukandar |first2=Edwin Risky |last3=Fadlan |first3=Arif |last4=Purnomo |first4=Adi Setyo |last5=Taher |first5=Muhammad |last6=Ersam |first6=Taslim |title=Evaluation of the antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antiplasmodial activities of xanthones isolated from ''Garcinia forbesii'' and their ''in silico'' studies |journal=Biomedicines |volume=9 |issue=10 |year=2021 |doi=10.3390/biomedicines9101380 |pmid=34680496 |pmc=8533219 |page=1380 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


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