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	{{About|the history of the ] with ] in focus prior to the ] in 1947|the modern Republic of India|History of the Republic of India|] and ] in focus|History of Pakistan|and|History of Bangladesh}}		{{about|the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|the post-1947 history of India|History of India (1947–present)|the post-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent|South Asia#Contemporary era}}
			{{Redirect2|Ancient India|Indian history|outline|Outline of South Asian history}}
	{{redirects here|Indian history|history of Native Americans|History of Native Americans in the United States}}{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
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	{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
			{{Use Indian English|date=August 2016}}
			{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2022}}
	{{Part of History of India}}		{{Part of History of India}}
	{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}		{{HistoryOfSouthAsia}}
			]
	HAi guys iam afnan afsal muvattupuzha nirmala 9 d student
			] first arrived on the ] between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Michael D. Petraglia|author2=Bridget Allchin|author-link2=Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA10|publisher=]|page=6|date=22 May 2007|isbn=978-1-4020-5562-1}} Quote: "Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka."</ref> The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. ] began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread,{{sfn|Wright|2010|pp=44, 51}} and gradually evolved into the ], one of three early ] in the ],{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=1}}<ref name="auto">{{cite book|last=McIntosh|first=Jane|author-link=Jane McIntosh|title=The Ancient Indus Valley: New Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1AJO2A-CbccC|publisher=]|year=2008|isbn=978-1-57607-907-2|page=387}}</ref> which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, ] caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. ] moved into the ] from ] in several ]. The ] of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (]). The social structure was loosely stratified via the ], incorporated into the highly evolved present-day ] system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the ]. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (]s) were consolidated into larger states (]). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ] movements and religious concepts,<ref name="Flood 273-274">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–274</ref> including the rise of ] and ]. The latter ] with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to ].
	The '''history of India''' includes the prehistoric settlements and societies in the ]; the advancement of civilisation from the ] to the eventual blending of the ] culture to form the ];<ref name="White 2003 28">{{cite book|last=White|first=David Gordon|title=Kiss of the Yogini|year=2003|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-89483-5|page=28}}</ref> the rise of ], ] and ];<ref>AL Basham (1951), ''History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas: A Vanished Indian Religion'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1204-8}}, pages 94–103</ref><ref name="Sanderson, Alexis 2009 pages 41-43">Sanderson, Alexis (2009), "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In: ''Genesis and Development of Tantrism'', edited by Shingo Einoo, Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series no. 23, pages 41–43.</ref> the onset of a succession of ] for more than three millennia throughout various geographic areas of the Indian subcontinent, including the growth of ] during the ] intertwined with Hindu powers;{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = }}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = }} the advent of ], resulting in the establishment of ]; and the subsequent ] that led to the ] and the creation of the ].<ref>''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan''
	by Yasmin Khan</ref>
			])]]
	Archaeological evidence of ] in the Indian subcontinent is estimated to be as old as 73,000–55,000 years<ref name="PetragliaAllchin">{{cite book|author=Michael D. Petraglia, Bridget Allchin|title=The Evolution and History of Human Populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC&pg=PA6&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=9781402055621|pages=6}}</ref> with some evidence of early hominids dating back to about 500,000 years ago.<ref name="Singh2001">{{cite book|author=Rama S. Singh|title=Thinking about Evolution: Historical, Philosophical, and Political Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HmVbYJ93d-AC&pg=PA158|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-62070-3|pages=158–}}</ref><ref name="Dalal2014">{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Puffin History of India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UNbEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT24|date=15 February 2014|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-93-5118-614-4|pages=24–}}</ref> Considered a ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://history-world.org/indus_valley.htm |title=Indus River Valley Civilizations |publisher=History-world.org |accessdate=4 January 2016}}</ref> the Indus Valley Civilisation, which spread and flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1300&nbsp;BCE, was the first major civilisation in South Asia.<ref>], ''A History of India'' (New York: Penguin Books, 1966) p. 23.</ref> A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture developed in the ] period, from 2600 to 1900&nbsp;BCE.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India'', p. 24.</ref> This civilisation collapsed at the start of the second millennium BCE and was later followed by the ] ]. The era saw the composition of the ], the seminal texts of Hinduism, coalesce into ], and social stratification based on ]. The Later Vedic Civilisation extended over the ] and much of the Indian subcontinent, as well as witnessed the rise of major polities known as the ]. In one of these kingdoms, ], ] and ] propagated their '']'' philosophies during the fifth and sixth centuries BCE.
			]
			] overthrew the ] and established the first great empire in ancient India, the ]. India's Mauryan king ] is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of ] and his attempts to spread ] and ] across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor ] by his general ]. Shunga would form the ] in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the ] would claim the north-west and found the ]. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the ], in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a ] religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the ] or ]. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming ].<ref>''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800'', Band 1 by ], p. 281</ref><ref name="Flood 273-274" /> The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the ] centred on ]. ] saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The ] conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, ], including ], influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the ], including the creation of the ].<ref>''Essays on Ancient India'' by Raj Kumar p. 199</ref>
			] made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and ] as early as the 8th century,<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 p. 141 ''"Conquest of ]"''</ref> followed by the invasions of ].{{sfn|Meri|2005|p=146}}
	Most of the Indian subcontinent was conquered by the ] during the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE. From the 3rd century BCE onwards ] and ] literature in the north and the ] ] in southern India started to flourish.<ref>''Researches Into the History and Civilization of the Kirātas'' by G. P. Singh p. 33</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">''A Social History of Early India'' by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 259</ref> ] originated in south India in the 3rd century BCE and was exported to foreign countries.<ref name="Menon R.V.G p.15">''Technology and Society'' by Menon, R. V. G. p. 15</ref><ref>''The Political Economy of Craft Production: Crafting Empire in South India'', by Carla M. Sinopoli, p. 201</ref><ref>''Science in India'' by B. V. Subbarayappa</ref> During the ], various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties for the next 1,500 years, among which the ] stands out. This period, witnessing a ] religious and intellectual resurgence, is known as the classical or "]". During this period, aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion (] and ]) spread to much of Asia, while kingdoms in southern India had maritime business links with the Middle East and the ]. Indian cultural influence spread over many parts of ], which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in Southeast Asia (]).<ref>''The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia: From Early Times to c. 1800'', Band 1 by ], p. 281</ref><ref name="Flood, Gavin 2003. pg. 273-4">Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pp. 273–4.</ref>
			The ], established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the ] ].<ref name="auto3">{{cite book|quote=The khalji revolt is essentially a revolt of the Indian Muslims against the Turkish hegemony, of those who looked to Delhi, against those who sought inspiration from Ghaur and Ghazna.|title=History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290-1320|author=Dr. K. S. Lal|date=1967|page=14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w14dAAAAMAAJ&q=khalji+indian+muslim+revolution}}</ref><ref name="auto2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8XnaL7zPXPUC&q=history+of+medieval+india+chaurasia|quote=In spite of all this, capturing the throne for Khilji was a revolution, as instead of Turks, Indian Muslims gained power|title=History of Medieval India:From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D.|author=Radhey Shyam Chaurasia|date=2002|publisher=Atlantic|page=30|isbn=978-81-269-0123-4}}</ref> The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of ]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Kumar|first=Sunil|editor-last=Bowering|editor-first=Gerhard|editor-link=Gerhard Böwering|encyclopedia=The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought|title=Delhi Sultanate (1206-1526)|url=https://archive.org/details/princetonencyclo0000unse|year=2013|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-13484-0|pages=127–128}}</ref> and saw the advent of the ], ], and ] sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five ]. The wealthy ] also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries.<ref>{{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Eaton|title=The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gKhChF3yAOUC&pg=PA64|date=31 July 1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-520-20507-9|pages=64–}}</ref> During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the ] and ], emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.
			The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the ] conquered most of the Indian subcontinent,<ref name="exeter" /> signaling the ], becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power.<ref>{{cite book|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=]|date=11 August 2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|pages=39–45|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1_YEcvo-jqcC&pg=PA38}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|author-link=Angus Maddison|title=Development Centre Studies The World Economy Historical Statistics: Historical Statistics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHJGz3HiJbcC&pg=PA259|date=25 September 2003|publisher=]|isbn=9264104143|pages=259–261}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Developing cultures: case studies|last1=Harrison|first1=Lawrence E.|author-link1=Lawrence Harrison (academic)|last2=Berger|first2=Peter L.|author-link2=Peter L. Berger|publisher=]|year=2006|page=158|url=https://archive.org/details/developingcultur0000unse|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-415-95279-8}}</ref> The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the ], who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=MacDonald |first=Myra |url=https://www.google.ca/books/edition/Defeat_is_an_Orphan/LxgxDgAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War |date=2017-01-01 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-1-84904-858-3 |language=en|page=85}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|page=161|display-authors=3|publisher=]|year=2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Michaud|first=Joseph|year=1926|title=History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan|page=143}}</ref> The ], acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the ], gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of ] led to the ]. India was afterwards ruled directly by the ], in the ]. After ], a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the ], led by ]. Later, the ] would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority ]. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the ] and ], each gaining its independence.
	The most significant event between the 7th and 11th century was the ] centred on ] that lasted for more than two centuries between the ], ], and ]. ] saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century, most notable being the ], ], ], ], ], and ] Empires. The ] conquered southern India and successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia, ], ] and ]<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 281</ref> in the 11th century.<ref>Societies, Networks, and Transitions, Volume B: From 600 to 1750 by Craig Lockard p.333</ref><ref>Power and Plenty: Trade, War, and the World Economy in the Second Millennium by Ronald Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke p.67</ref> The early medieval period ] influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the ] and the ] were introduced.<ref>Essays on Ancient India by Raj Kumar p.199</ref>
	Muslim rule started in parts of north India in the 13th century when the ] was founded in 1206&nbsp;CE by Central Asian ];<ref>The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought: page 340</ref> though earlier Muslim conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Pakistan as early as the 8th century.<ref>Al Baldiah wal nahaiyah vol: 7 page 141 ''"Conquest of ]"''</ref> The Delhi Sultanate ruled the major part of northern India in the early 14th century, but declined in the late 14th century. This period also saw the emergence of several powerful Hindu states, notably ], ], ], as well as ], such as ]. The 15th century saw the advent of ]. The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the ] conquered most of the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="exeter"/> The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, which provided opportunities for the ], ] and ] to exercise control over large areas of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of State and Religion in India|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3= Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|page=161|display-authors=3|publisher=Routledge|year=2012}}</ref><ref>History of Mysore Under Hyder Ali and Tippoo Sultan by Joseph Michaud p. 143</ref>
	From the late 18th century to the mid-19th century, large areas of India were annexed by the ] of the ]. Dissatisfaction with Company rule led to the ], after which the ] of India were directly administered by the ] and witnessed a period of rapid development of infrastructure, economic decline and ].{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp=151–152}}<ref>Metcalf, B.; Metcalf, T. R. (9 October 2006), A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), pp. 94–99.</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOQkpcVcd9AC&pg=PT139|title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia: An Encyclopedia|page=139|first=James|last=Minahan|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9781598846607|year=2012}}</ref><ref name="yourarticlelibrary">{{cite web|url=http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/economics/indian-economy-during-british-rule/39741/|publisher=yourarticlelibrary.com|title=Indian Economy During British Rule|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="historydiscussion">{{cite web|url=http://www.historydiscussion.net/british-india/economic-impact-of-the-british-rule-in-india-indian-history/6317|publisher=historydiscussion.net|title=Economic Impact of the British Rule in India &#124; Indian History|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref> During the first half of the 20th century, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched with the leading party involved being the ] which was later joined by other organisations. The Indian subcontinent gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, after the British provinces were partitioned into the dominions of India and Pakistan and the ]s all ] to one of the new states.
	{{TOC limit}}		{{TOC limit}}
			== {{anchor|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE) ==
	==Chronology of Indian history==
			{{Over-quotation|section=section|date=July 2021}}{{multiple image
	{{see also|Outline of South Asian history}}
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	{| class="wikitable collapsible" style="width:100%; text-align:center;"
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			| caption_align = center
	! colspan=4 class="navbox-title" | Chronology of India
			| image1 = Rock Shelter 15, Bhimbetka 02.jpg
	|-
			| caption1 = ] rock art at the ], ], showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated,<ref>{{cite book|last=Taçon|first=Paul S.C.|author-link=Paul Taçon|editor-last1=David|editor1-first=Bruno|editor-last2=McNiven|editor-first2=Ian J.|title=The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Rock Art|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tXFyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA181|date=17 October 2018|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-084495-0|pages=181–|chapter=The Rock Art of South and East Asia}}</ref> it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mithen|first=Steven J.|author-link=Steven Mithen|title=After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000–5000 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NVygmardAA4C&pg=PA411|year=2006|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-674-01999-7|pages=411–}}</ref> and some slightly earlier.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dubey-Pathak|first=Meenakshi|year=2014|title=The Rock Art of the Bhimbetka Area in India|url=https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Adoranten|pages=16, 19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913162516/https://www.rockartscandinavia.com/images/articles/a14pathak.pdf|archive-date=13 September 2021|archive-format=PDF}}</ref>
	|colspan=4|] (1774–1836), in his '']'' (1817),{{efn|Khanna 2007, p.xvii}} distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations.{{efn|Khanna 2007, p.xvii}}{{efn|Misra 2004, p.194}} This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to.{{efn|Kulke 2004, p.7}} Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods".{{efn|Flood 1996, p.21}}
			| image2 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG
			| caption2 = A ] erected by Neolithic people in ], ].
			| image3 = EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg
			| caption3 = ] (6,000&nbsp;BCE) carvings of ] in Kerala, India.
			}}
			=== Paleolithic ===
	|-
			{{Main|South Asian Stone Age}}] expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the ] approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|p=147}}{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}} This dating is based on the known presence of '']'' in ] by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at ] in ].{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}<ref>{{cite book|last=Mishra|first=Sheila|editor-last=Murray|editor-first=Tim|editor-link=Tim Murray (archaeologist)|year=1999|chapter=Developing an Indian stone age chronology|title=Time and Archaeology|url=https://archive.org/details/timearchaeology00murr|url-access=registration|publisher=]|page=84|isbn=978-0-415-11762-3}}</ref> Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of ], have not been independently verified.{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}
	! World History{{efn|Bentley|1996}}
	! James Mill's Periodisation{{efn|Khanna 2007, p.xvii}}
	! ACMM{{efn|Flood 1996, p.21}}{{efn|Stein|2010}}
	! Chronology of Indian History{{efn|Smart 2003, p. 52–53}}{{efn|Michaels 2004}}{{efn|Muesse 2011}}{{efn|Flood 1996, p. 21–22}}
			The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of ''Homo erectus'' or '']'', from the ] in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=5}}{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}} Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.{{sfn|Chauhan|2010|pp=147–160}}{{sfn|Petraglia|2010|pp=167–170}}
	|-
	| (Bentley) style="text-align:center;"| Early Complex Societes<br />(3500–2000&nbsp;BCE)
	| (Mill) style="text-align:center;"| ?
	| (ACMM) rowspan="6" style="text-align:center;" | Ancient India
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;"| ]<br />]
			According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:<blockquote>Modern human beings—''Homo sapiens''—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were ''Homo sapiens'' in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=1}}</blockquote>
	|-
	| (Bentley) rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Ancient Civilisations<br />(2000–500&nbsp;BCE)
	| (Mill) rowspan="7" style="text-align:center;" | Hindu civilisations
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | Early Vedic Period<br />(c. 1750 – 1200&nbsp;BCE)
			According to Michael D. Petraglia and ]: <blockquote>Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.{{sfn|Petraglia|Allchin|2007|p=6}}</blockquote>
	|-
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | Middle Vedic Period<br />(from 1200&nbsp;BCE)
			Historian of South Asia, ], states: <blockquote>Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=23}}</blockquote>
	|-
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | Late Vedic period<br />(from 850&nbsp;BCE)
			Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of ] in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite book|author-last1=Tuniz|author-first1=Claudio|author-last2=Gillespie|author-first2=Richard|author-last3=Jones|author-first3=Cheryl|title=The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|date=16 June 2016|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-315-41888-9|pages=163–}}</ref> although this interpretation is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal|first1=Michael D.|last1=Petraglia|first2=Michael|last2=Haslam|first3=Dorian Q.|last3=Fuller|first4=Nicole|last4=Boivin|first5=Chris|last5=Clarkson|s2cid=6421383|date=25 March 2010|title=Out of Africa: new hypotheses and evidence for the dispersal of Homo sapiens along the Indian Ocean rim|journal=]|volume=37|issue=3|pages=288–311|doi=10.3109/03014461003639249|pmid=20334598|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205007/HCA15UQ205007.pdf|issn=0301-4460}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|first1=Paul|last1=Mellars|first2=Kevin C.|last2=Gori|first3=Martin|last3=Carr|first4=Pedro A.|last4=Soares|first5=Martin B.|last5=Richards|date=25 June 2013|title=Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=110|issue=26|pages=10699–10704|bibcode=2013PNAS..11010699M|doi=10.1073/pnas.1306043110|pmid=23754394|pmc=3696785|doi-access=free}}</ref> The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=28}}
	|-
	| (Bentley) rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Classical Civilisations<br />(500&nbsp;BCE-500&nbsp;CE)
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | Second urbanisation<br />]{{efn|Thapar|1977}}<br />(c. 600–200&nbsp;BCE){{efn|Thapar|1977}}
			According to Tim Dyson: <blockquote>Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=28}}</blockquote>
	|-
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | Disintegration{{efn|Thapar|1977}} and regional states<br />(c. 200&nbsp;BCE–300&nbsp;CE){{efn|Michaels 2004, p.39}}
			=== Neolithic ===
	|-
			] site in ], ]]]
	| (ACMM) style="text-align:center;"| Classical India
			] emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the ] alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the ] of the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Wright|2010|pp=44, 51}}{{sfn|Dyson|2018|p=4-5}} According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=33}} <blockquote>The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.{{sfn|Fisher|2018|p=33}}</blockquote>
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | "Golden Age" (])<br />(c. 320–650&nbsp;CE){{efn|Michaels 2004, p.40}}
			== Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE) ==
	|-
	| (Bentley) style="text-align:center;"| Post-classical age<br />(500–1000&nbsp;CE)
	| (ACMM) rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Medieval India
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;" | ] and Beginning of Islamic raids<br />(c. 650–1100&nbsp;CE){{efn|Michaels 2004, p.41}}
			=== Indus Valley Civilisation ===
	|-
			{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}
	| (Bentley) style="text-align:center;"| Transregional nomadic empires<br />(1000–1500&nbsp;CE)
			{{See also|List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites}}
	| (Mill) rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | Muslim civilisations
			]
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;"| ] (north India)<br />(1206–1526&nbsp;CE)<br />] (south India)<br />(1336–1646&nbsp;CE)
			The ] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE.{{citation needed|date=November 2023}} The Indus Valley region was one of three early ] in the ]; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive,{{sfn|Wright|2010|p=1}} and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.<ref name="auto" />
	|-
	| (Bentley) rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Modern age<br />(1500–present)
	| (ACMM) rowspan="3" style="text-align:center;" | Modern India
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;"| ]<br />(1526–1707)
			The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the ] basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900&nbsp;BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as ], ], and ] in modern-day Pakistan, and ], ], ], and ] in modern-day India.
	|-
	| (Mill) style="text-align:center;"| British civilisations
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;"| ]<br />British rule<br />(c. 1750&nbsp;CE–1947)
			] (one of the largest Indus cities). View of the site's ], showing the surrounding urban layout.]]
	|-
			], a city of the Indus Valley civilisation, with ] steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Shuichi Takezawa|journal=Journal of Architecture and Building Science|volume=117|issue=1492|date=August 2002|page=24|url=http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/s1/jabs0208-019.pdf|title=Stepwells – Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture As Seen in Adalaj|access-date=18 November 2009}}</ref>]]
	| (Mill) style="text-align:center;"| –
			] ]]
	| (Details) style="text-align:center;"| Independent India
			Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.<ref>Kenoyer, J. M., Miller, H. M.-L. ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World,'' MASCA research papers in science and archaeology. 1999, Vol 16, pp 107-151; ref : 7 p.1/4. ISSN 1048-5325</ref> The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an ], the earliest of the ], which is presently undeciphered.<ref>''Early India: A Concise History'', D.N. Jha, 2004, p. 31</ref> This is the reason why ] is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Menon|first1=Sunil|last2=Mishra|first2=Siddhartha|date=13 August 2018|title=We Are All Harappans|url=https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|magazine=Outlook|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803073245/https://www.outlookindia.com/magazine/story/we-are-all-harappans/300463|archive-date=2018-08-03}}</ref>
	|-
	| colspan=4 |
	{| class="collapsible collapsed"
	|-
	! Notes and references for table
	|-
	|
	'''Notes'''
	Different periods are designated as "classical Hinduism":
	* Smart calls the period between 1000&nbsp;BCE and 100&nbsp;CE "pre-classical". It's the formative period for the Upanishads and Brahmanism (Smart distinguishes "Brahmanism" from the Vedic religion, connecting "Brahmanism" with the Upanishads.{{efn|Smart 2003, p. 52, 83–86}}), Jainism and Buddhism. For Smart, the "classical period" lasts from 100 to 1000&nbsp;CE, and coincides with the flowering of "classical Hinduism" and the flowering and deterioration of Mahayana-buddhism in India.{{efn|Smart 2003, p.52}}
	* For Michaels, the period between 500&nbsp;BCE and 200&nbsp;BCE is a time of "Ascetic reformism",{{efn|Michaels 2004, p.36}} whereas the period between 200&nbsp;BCE and 1100&nbsp;CE is the time of "classical Hinduism", since there is "a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions".{{efn|Michaels 2004, p.38}}
	* Muesse discerns a longer period of change, namely between 800&nbsp;BCE and 200&nbsp;BCE, which he calls the "Classical Period". According to Muesse, some of the fundamental concepts of Hinduism, namely karma, reincarnation and "personal enlightenment and transformation", which did not exist in the Vedic religion, developed in this time.{{efn|Muesse 2003, p.14}}
	'''References'''
	{{notelist|30em}}
	'''Sources'''
	* {{Citation | last =Bentley | first =Jerry H. |date=June 1996 | title =Cross-Cultural Interaction and Periodization in World History | journal =The American Historical Review |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=749–770 | doi=10.2307/2169422| jstor =2169422 }}
	* {{Citation | last =Flood | first =Gavin D. | year =1996 | title =An Introduction to Hinduism | publisher =Cambridge University Press}}
	* {{Citation | last =Khanna | first =Meenakshi | year =2007 | title =Cultural History Of Medieval India | publisher =Berghahn Books}}
	* {{Citation | last1 =Kulke | first1 =Hermann | last2 =Rothermund | first2 =Dietmar | year =2004 | title =A History of India | publisher =Routledge}}
	* {{Citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, New Jersey | publisher =Princeton University Press}}
	* {{Citation | last =Misra | first =Amalendu | year =2004 | title =Identity and Religion: Foundations of Anti-Islamism in India | publisher =SAGE}}
	* {{Citation | last =Muesse | first =Mark William | year =2003 | title =Great World Religions: Hinduism | url =http://www.docshut.com/rquv/lectures-on-great-world-religions-hinduism.html}}
	* {{Citation | last =Muesse | first =Mark W. | year =2011 | title =The Hindu Traditions: A Concise Introduction | publisher =Fortress Press}}
	* {{Citation | last =Smart | first =Ninian | year =2003 | title =Godsdiensten van de wereld (The World's religions) | place =Kampen | publisher =Uitgeverij Kok}}
	* {{Citation | last =Thapar | first =Romila | year =1977 | title =A History of India. Volume One | publisher =Penguin Books}}
	|}
	|}
	] (1773–1836), in his ] (1817), distinguished three phases in the history of India, namely Hindu, Muslim and British civilisations. This periodisation has been influential, but has also been criticised for the misconceptions it gave rise to. Another influential periodisation is the division into "ancient, classical, medieval and modern periods", although this periodisation has also been criticised.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19–20}}
			]s and their impressions showing Indus script characters alongside animals: '''unicorn''' (left), '''bull''' (centre), and '''elephant''' (right); at ] ]]
	Romila Thapar notes that the division into Hindu-Muslim-British periods of Indian history gives too much weight to "ruling dynasties and foreign invasions",{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} neglecting the social-economic history which often showed a strong continuity.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} The division into Ancient-Medieval-Modern periods overlooks the fact that the Muslim conquests occurred gradually during which time many things came and went off, while the south was never completely conquered.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=19}} According to Thapar, a periodisation could also be based on "significant social and economic changes", which are not strictly related to the change of ruling powers.{{sfn|Thapar|1978|p=20}}{{refn|group=note|See also Tanvir Anjum, ''''.}}
			After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sarkar|first1=Anindya|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Arati Deshpande|last3=Bera|first3=M. K.|last4=Das|first4=B.|last5=Juyal|first5=Navin|last6=Morthekai|first6=P.|last7=Deshpande|first7=R. D.|last8=Shinde|first8=V. S.|last9=Rao|first9=L. S.|title=Oxygen isotope in archaeological bioapatites from India: Implications to climate change and decline of Bronze Age Harappan civilization|journal=Scientific Reports|date=May 2016|volume=6|issue=1|pages=26555|doi=10.1038/srep26555|pmid=27222033|pmc=4879637|bibcode=2016NatSR...626555S|doi-access=free}}</ref>
			=== Ochre Coloured Pottery culture ===
	=={{anchor|Prehistory}} Prehistoric era (until c. 3300 BCE)==
			] chariot''', photograph of the ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Vijay|title=A note on Chariot Burials found at Sinauli district Baghpat U.P|journal=Indian Journal of Archaeology|url=http://ijarch.org/Admin/Articles/9-Note%20on%20Chariots.pdf}}</ref>]]
			During the 2nd millennium&nbsp;BCE, ] was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA220|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|first=Upinder|last=Singh|author-link=Upinder Singh|year=2008|publisher=]|pages=216–219|isbn=9788131711200|access-date=8 September 2018}}</ref>
	===Stone Age===
	{{Main|South Asian Stone Age}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
	| image1 = Rock Shelter 8, Bhimbetka 02.jpg|caption1=], ], India (c.&nbsp;30,000 years old).
	| image2 = MarayoorDolmen.JPG|caption2=A ] erected by Neolithic people in ], ].
	| image3 = EdakkalCaveCarving.jpg|caption3=] (6,000&nbsp;BCE) writings of ] in Kerala, India.
	}}
	Archaeological evidence of ] in the Indian subcontinent is claimed to be as old as 78,000–74,000 years.<ref name="TunizGillespie2016">{{cite book|author1=Claudio Tuniz|author2=Richard Gillespie|author3=Cheryl Jones|title=The Bone Readers: Science and Politics in Human Origins Research|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrJmDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA163|date=16 June 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-315-41888-9|pages=163–}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Though this claim is disputed.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Michael D.|last1=Petraglia|first2=Michael|last2=Haslam|first3=Dorian Q.|last3=Fuller|first4=Nicole|last4=Boivin|first5=Chris|last5=Clarkson |date=25 March 2010 |title=Out of Africa: new hypotheses and evidence for the dispersal of Homo sapiens along the Indian Ocean rim |journal=Annals of Human Biology |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=288–311 |doi=10.3109/03014461003639249|pmid=20334598|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:205007/HCA15UQ205007.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first1=Paul |last1=Mellars |first2=Kevin C. |last2=Gori |first3=Martin |last3=Carr |first4=Pedro A. |last4=Soares |first5=Martin B. |last5=Richards|date=25 June 2013 |title=Genetic and archaeological perspectives on the initial modern human colonization of southern Asia |url=http://www.pnas.org/content/110/26/10699 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=110 |issue=26 |pages=10699–10704 |bibcode=2013PNAS..11010699M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1306043110 |pmid=23754394|pmc=3696785 }}</ref>|group=note}} Earlier hominids include '']'' from about 500,000 years ago.<ref name="Singh2001"/><ref name="Dalal2014"/> Isolated remains of '']'' in Hathnora in the ] in central India indicate that India might have been inhabited since at least the ] era, somewhere between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news |first=G.S |last= Mudur |title=Still a mystery |url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050321/asp/knowhow/story_4481256.asp |work=KnowHow|publisher=] |date=21 March 2005 |accessdate=7 May 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm |title=The Hathnora Skull Fossil from Madhya Pradesh, India |accessdate=7 May 2007 |date=20 September 2005 |work= Multi Disciplinary Geoscientific Studies|publisher=] |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070619031729/http://www.gsi.gov.in/homonag.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archivedate = 19 June 2007}}</ref> Tools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="shef">{{cite web |url=http://www.shef.ac.uk/archaeology/research/pakistan | title = Palaeolithic and Pleistocene of Pakistan| publisher=Department of Archaeology, University of Sheffield| accessdate = 1 December 2007 }}</ref><ref name="murray">{{cite book |last=Murray |first=Tim |authorlink=Tim Murray (archaeologist) |title=Time and Archaeology |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |location=London | page=84 |isbn=978-0-415-11762-3}}</ref> The ancient history of the region includes some of South Asia's oldest settlements<ref name="coppa">{{cite journal |last1=Coppa |first1=A. |last2=Bondioli |first2=L. |last3=Cucina |first3=A. |last4=Frayer |first4=D. W. |last5=Jarrige |first5=C. |last6=Jarrige |first6=J. F. |last7=Quivron |first7=G. |last8=Rossi |first8=M. |last9=Vidale |first9=M. |last10=Macchiarelli |first10=R. |display-authors=5 |date=6 April 2006 |title=Palaeontology: Early Neolithic tradition of dentistry |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v440/n7085/pdf/440755a.pdf |format=PDF |journal=Nature |volume=440 |issue=7085 |pages=755–756 |doi=10.1038/440755a |pmid=16598247 |accessdate=22 November 2007|bibcode = 2006Natur.440..755C }}</ref> and some of its major civilisations.<ref name="possehl">{{cite journal |last=Possehl |first=G. L. |authorlink=Gregory Possehl |date=October 1990 |title=Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanisation |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=261–282 |doi=10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.001401}}</ref><ref name="asaw">{{cite book|last1=Kenoyer |first1=Jonathan Mark |authorlink1=Jonathan Mark Kenoyer |last2=Heuston |first2=Kimberley |date=May 2005 |title=The Ancient South Asian World |url=http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ== |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517422-9 |oclc=56413341 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120093649/http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryWorld/Ancient/Other/~~/dmlldz11c2EmY2k9OTc4MDE5NTE3NDIyOQ%3D%3D |archivedate=20 November 2012 |df= }}</ref>
			== Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE) ==
	The earliest archaeological site in the Indian subcontinent is the Palaeolithic ] site in the ].<ref name="ppisv">{{cite book| last1=Rendell| first1=H. R. |last2=Dennell |first2=R. W. |last3=Halim |first3=M. |date=1989 |title=Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan |series=British Archaeological Reports International Series |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=364 |isbn=978-0-86054-691-7 |oclc=29222688}}</ref><ref name="MacCurdyPhiladelphia1969">{{cite book|author=Hellmut De Terra|editor=George Grant MacCurdy|title=Early man: as depicted by leading authorities at the International symposium, the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, March 1937|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8yCCB8BHFcC&pg=PA267|accessdate=16 October 2011|year=1969|isbn=978-0-8369-1184-8|pages=267–}}</ref><ref name="Oakley2007">{{cite book|author=Kenneth Oakley|title=Frameworks for Dating Fossil Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qrmOwp2swlgC&pg=PA224|accessdate=16 October 2011|date=30 April 2007|origyear=1964|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-30960-6|pages=224–}}</ref> Soanian sites are found in the ] across what are now India, Pakistan, and Nepal.<ref>Parth R. Chauhan. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104171240/http://www.assemblage.group.shef.ac.uk/issue7/chauhan.html |date=4 January 2012 }}. ''An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian & Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian&nbsp;– A Theoretical Perspective''.</ref><ref name="sciencedirect">{{cite journal|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440306002378|title=Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment|doi=10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001|volume=34|issue=9|journal=Journal of Archaeological Science|pages=1434–1440|year=2007|last1=Lycett|first1=Stephen J}}</ref><ref name="shef2">{{cite web|url=http://www.assemblage.group.shef.ac.uk/issue7/chauhan.html#distribution|publisher=assemblage.group.shef.ac.uk|title=An Overview of the Siwalik Acheulian &amp; Reconsidering Its Chronological Relationship with the Soanian &#124; Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region|accessdate=6 January 2017|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120104171240/http://www.assemblage.group.shef.ac.uk/issue7/chauhan.html#distribution|archivedate=4 January 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ] period in the Indian subcontinent was followed by the ] period, when more extensive settlement of the Indian subcontinent occurred after the end of the last ] approximately 12,000 years ago. The first confirmed semi-permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago in the ] in modern ], India. The ] are pictorial writings believed to date to at least 6,000&nbsp;BCE,<ref name="globalvisiontours">{{cite web|url=http://globalvisiontours.com/kerala/wayanad/edakkal-caves.aspx|publisher=globalvisiontours.com|title=Edakkal Caves&#124;Places Around in Wayanad|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref></ref> from the ] man, indicating the presence of a prehistoric civilisation or settlement in ].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/10/28/stories/2007102851830300.htm | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu | title=Archaeologists rock solid behind Edakkal Cave | date=28 October 2007}}</ref> The ] carvings of Edakkal are rare and are the only known examples from ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wayanad.nic.in/edakkalcave.htm |title=Edakkal Caves |publisher=Wayanad.nic |accessdate=7 April 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060529222201/http://wayanad.nic.in/edakkalcave.htm |archivedate=29 May 2006 }}</ref>
			{{See also|Iron Age in India}}
			=== Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE) ===
	Traces of a Neolithic culture have been alleged to be submerged in the ] in India, ] to 7500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gaur |first1=A. S. |last2=Vora |first2=K. H. |date=10 July 1999 |title=Ancient shorelines of Gujarat, India, during the Indus civilisation (Late Mid-Holocene): A study based on archaeological evidences |url=http://www.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/jul10/articles29.htm |journal=Current India Science |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=180–185 |issn=0011-3891 |accessdate=26 May 2015}}</ref> Neolithic agricultural cultures sprang up in the Indus Valley region around 5000&nbsp;BCE, in the lower Gangetic valley around 3000&nbsp;BCE, represented by the ] findings (7570–6200&nbsp;BCE) in ], ] findings (7000 BCE) in ],<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA250|page=250|author1=Peter Bellwood|author2=Immanuel Ness|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration|isbn=978-1-118-97059-1|date=2014}}</ref> and ] findings (7000–5000&nbsp;BCE) in ];<ref name=coppa/><ref name="mfr">{{cite book |last1=Jarrige |first1=C. |last2=Jarrige |first2=J.-F. |last3=Meadow |first3=R. H. |last4=Quivron |first4=G. |date=1995 |title=Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 – from the Neolithic to the Indus Civilisation |publisher=Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh, and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, France}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Khandekar |first=Nivedita |date=4 November 2012 |title=Indus Valley 2,000 years older than thought |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/NewDelhi/Indus-Valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/Article1-954601.aspx |newspaper=Hindustan Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024171541/http://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/newdelhi/indus-valley-2-000-years-older-than-thought/article1-954601.aspx |archive-date=24 October 2014 |accessdate=12 July 2013}}</ref> and later in Southern India, spreading southwards and also northwards into ] around 1800&nbsp;BCE. The first urban civilisation of the region began with the ].{{sfn|Kenoyer|1998}}
			{{Main|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion|Vedas}}
			{{See also|Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan migrations}}
			Starting {{circa|1900&nbsp;BCE}}, ] moved into the ] from ] in several ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stein|first=Burton|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=David|year=2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=]|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}</ref>{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=31}} The ] is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the ] to the ] in this period.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}}
	=="First urbanisation" (c. 3300 – c. 1500 BCE)==
	===Indus Valley Civilisation===
	{{Main|Indus Valley Civilisation}}
	{{see also|List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"|Indus Valley Civilisation
	|-
	|
	<gallery mode="packed" heights="100">
	File:Shiva Pashupati.jpg|The '']'', showing a seated and possibly ] figure, surrounded by animals.
	File:DHOLAVIRA SITE (24).jpg|], one of the largest cities of Indus Valley Civilisation, with ] steps to reach the water level in artificially constructed reservoirs.<ref name=news>{{Cite web|first=Suichi|last=Takezawa|journal=The Diverse Architectural World of The Indian Sub-Continent|volume=III|url=http://news-sv.aij.or.jp/jabs/s1/jabs0208-019.pdf|format=pdf|title=Stepwells -Cosmology of Subterranean Architecture as seen in Adalaj|accessdate=2009-11-18}}</ref>
	</gallery><gallery mode="packed" heights="100">
	File:IndusValleySeals swastikas.JPG|] seals of Indus Valley Civilisation.
	Image:The drainage system at Lothal 2.JPG|Archaeological remains of washroom drainage system at ].
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
			The Vedic culture is described in the texts of ], still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in ]. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=51}} The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last=MacKenzie|first=Lynn|date=1995|title=Non-Western Art: A Brief Guide|url=https://archive.org/details/nonwesternartbri00mack|url-access=registration|publisher=Prentice Hall|page=|isbn=978-0-13-104894-2}}</ref><ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India: Part 1'', pp. 29–30.</ref> contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.
	The ] in the ] began around 3300&nbsp;BCE with the early Indus Valley Civilisation. It was centred on the ] and its tributaries which extended into the ] valley,<ref name=possehl/> the ],<ref>''Indian Archaeology, A Review''. 1958–1959. Excavations at Alamgirpur. Delhi: Archaeol. Surv. India, pp. 51–52.</ref> ],<ref name="Leshnik">{{cite journal| last = Leshnik | first = Lawrence S. |date=October 1968 | title = The Harappan 'Port' at Lothal: Another View | journal = American Anthropologist |series=New Series | volume = 70 | issue = 5| pages = 911–922 | doi = 10.1525/aa.1968.70.5.02a00070| jstor = 669756 }}</ref> and south-eastern Afghanistan.{{sfn|Kenoyer|1998|p=96}} The Indus civilisation is one of three in the 'Ancient East' that, along with ] and ], was a ] in the Old World. It is also the most expansive in area and population.<ref name="feuerstein">{{cite book|last=Feuerstein|first=Georg|author2=Subhash Kak |author3=David Frawley |title=In search of the cradle of civilization: new light on ancient India|publisher=Quest Books|location=Wheaton, Illinois|year=1995|page=147|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbx7q0gxyTcC|isbn=978-0-8356-0720-9}}</ref><ref name="google">{{cite book|title=Killing Civilization: A Reassessment of Early Urbanism and Its Consequences|author=Jennings, J.|date=2016|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|isbn=978-0-8263-5661-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3aOCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172|page=172}}</ref>
			==== Vedic society ====
	The civilisation was primarily located in modern-day India (], ], ], ], ], ] states)<ref name="Singh2008"/> and Pakistan (], ], and ] provinces).<ref name="Singh2008"/> Historically part of ], it is one of the world's earliest urban civilisations, along with ] and ].<ref name="Singh2008"/> Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving), and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin.
			] script of the ], originally transmitted orally<ref>{{cite book|last=Staal|first=Frits|author-link=Frits Staal|year=1986|title=The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science|publisher=]}}</ref>]]
			Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the ], and the upper ].{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=255}} The ] tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the ].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Singhal|first1=K. C.|last2=Gupta|first2=Roshan|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoXqCmo-Xs8C|title=The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation|date=2003|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-269-0286-8|location=New Delhi|oclc=53360586|pages=150–151}}</ref> Many of the concepts of ] espoused later, like ], trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<ref>{{cite book|last=Day|first=Terence P.|date=1982|title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fjo2gk2tBK8C|location=Ontario|publisher=]|pages=42–45|isbn=978-0-919812-15-4}}</ref>
	The Mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900&nbsp;BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. The civilisation included urban centres such as ], ], ], ], and ] in modern-day India, as well as ], ], and ] in modern-day Pakistan. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation.<ref>Early India: A Concise History, D.N.Jha, 2004, p.31</ref> Total of 1,022 cities and settlements had been found,<ref name="Singh2008"/> mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers, and their tributaries; of which 406 sites are in Pakistan and 616 sites in India,<ref name="Singh2008"/> of these 96 have been excavated.<ref name="Singh2008">{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=A History of Ancient and Early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788131711200|page=137|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC}}</ref>
			Early Vedic society is described in the ], the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Duiker|first1=William J.|author1-link=William J. Duiker|last2=Spielvogel|first2=Jackson J.|author2-link=Jackson J. Spielvogel|year=2018|orig-year=First published 1994|title=World History|publisher=Cengage|edition=9th|pages=44, 59|isbn=978-1-337-40104-3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nelson|first=James Melvin|title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality|year=2009|url=https://archive.org/details/psychologyreligi00nels|url-access=limited|page=|publisher=Springer}}</ref> in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA37|date=13 July 1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=37}}</ref> At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46837/The-appearance-of-Indo-Aryan-speakers|title=India: The Late 2nd Millennium and the Reemergence of Urbanism|encyclopedia=]|access-date=12 May 2007}}</ref> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the ] in archaeological contexts.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}}<ref name="Witzel1989">] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. ], Paris, 97–265.</ref>
	During the ] of this civilisation, signs of a ] began to emerge, and by around 1700&nbsp;BCE, most of the cities were abandoned. However, the Indus Valley Civilisation did not disappear suddenly, and some elements of the Indus Civilisation may have survived, especially in the smaller villages and isolated farms. According to historian ] "the general picture presented by the late Harappan phase is one of a breakdown of urban networks and an expansion of rural ones".<ref>{{cite book|author=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA211|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|page=211}}</ref> The Indian ] is attributed to this time, associated in the Doab region with the ].
			At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western ] plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four '']'', or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48–51, 61–93}} but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=41–43}} During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into ]s (monarchical, state-level polities).{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=200}}
	===Dravidian origins===
	{{Main|Proto-Dravidian|Dravidian people|Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia}}
			==== Sanskrit epics ====
	Linguists hypothesized that Dravidian-speaking people were spread throughout the ] before a series of Indo-Aryan migrations. In this view, the early ] is often identified as having been Dravidian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |title=Stone celts in Harappa |last=Mahadevan |first=Iravatham |date=6 May 2006 |website=Harappa |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |archivedate=4 September 2006 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Cultural and linguistic similarities have been cited by researchers ], ], ] and ] as being strong evidence for a proto-Dravidian origin of the ancient Indus Valley civilisation.<ref>{{cite web | last = Rahman | first = Tariq | title = Peoples and languages in pre-islamic Indus valley | url=http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html
			{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}}
	|quote=most scholars have taken the 'Dravidian hypothesis' seriously | accessdate = 20 November 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509053921/http://asnic.utexas.edu/asnic/subject/peoplesandlanguages.html |archivedate=9 May 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
			{{see also|List of historic Indian texts|List of Hindu texts}}
	|last=Cole
			].]]
	|first=Jennifer
	|title=The Sindhi language
	|url=http://www.linguistics.uiuc.edu/jscole/Sindhi_Elsevier_encyl.pdf
	|quote=Harappan language...prevailing theory indicates Dravidian origins
	|accessdate=20 November 2008
	|deadurl=bot: unknown
	|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070106015921/http://www.linguistics.uiuc.edu/jscole/Sindhi_Elsevier_encyl.pdf
	|archivedate=6 January 2007
	|df=dmy-all
	}}</ref> Linguist Asko Parpola writes that the Indus script and Harappan language "most likely to have belonged to the Dravidian family".<ref>{{cite book|title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate|page=183|author=Edwin Bryant|publisher=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-516947-8}}</ref> Parpola led a Finnish team in investigating the inscriptions using computer analysis. Based on a proto-Dravidian assumption, they proposed readings of many signs, some agreeing with the suggested readings of Heras and Knorozov (such as equating the "fish" sign with the Dravidian word for fish "min") but disagreeing on several other readings. A comprehensive description of Parpola's work until 1994 is given in his book ''Deciphering the Indus Script''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Parpola|first=Asko|title=Deciphering the Indus Script|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-521-430-791}}</ref> The discovery in Tamil Nadu of a late Neolithic (early 2nd millennium BCE, i.e. post-dating Harappan decline) stone ] allegedly marked with Indus signs has been considered by some to be significant for the Dravidian identification.<ref>Subramanium 2006; see also {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060904034700/http://www.harappa.com/arrow/stone_celt_indus_signs.html |date=4 September 2006 }} by I. Mahadevan (2006)</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Subramanian |first=T.S. |date=1 May 2006 |title=Significance of Mayiladuthurai find |url=http://www.hinduonnet.com/2006/05/01/stories/2006050101992000.htm |newspaper=The Hindu}}</ref> While, ] surmised that the symbols represent a ] script and suggested, based on computer analysis, an underlying agglutinative ] language as the most likely candidate for the underlying language.<ref>{{cite book |last=Knorozov |first=Yuri V. |author-link=Yuri Knorosov |date=1965 |chapter=Характеристика протоиндийского языка |trans-chapter=Characteristics of Proto-Indian language |title=Predvaritel’noe soobshchenie ob issledovanii protoindiyskikh textov |script-title=Предварительное сообщение об исследовании протоиндийских текстов |trans-title=A Preliminary Report on the Study of Proto Texts |language=ru |location=Moscow |publisher=Institute of Ethnography of the USSR |page=117}}</ref> Knorozov's suggestion was preceded by the work of Henry Heras, who suggested several readings of signs based on a proto-Dravidian assumption.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heras |first=Henry |author-link=Henry Heras |date=1953 |title=Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean Culture |location=Bombay |publisher=Indian Historical Research Institute |oclc=2799353 |page=138}}</ref> While some scholars like J. Bloch and ] believe that the Indo-Aryans moved into an already Dravidian speaking area after the oldest parts of the ] were already composed.<ref>{{cite book |first=Edwin |last=Bryant |authorlink=Edwin Bryant (author) |year=2001 |chapter=Linguistic Substrata in Sanskrit Texts |chapterurl=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkJAmVuBCcIC&pg=PA76 |pages=76–107 |title=The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-513777-4}}</ref> The ] population of ] has been taken by some as the linguistic equivalent of a ] population, perhaps indicating that Dravidian languages were formerly much more widespread and were supplanted by the incoming Indo-Aryan languages.<ref>{{cite book |last=Mallory |first=J. P. |authorlink=J. P. Mallory |year=1989 |title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth |publisher=Thames and Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-05052-1 |page=44|quote=There are still remnant northern Dravidian languages including Brahui ... The most obvious explanation of this situation is that the Dravidian languages once occupied nearly all of the Indian subcontinent and it is the intrusion of Indo-Aryans that engulfed them in northern India leaving but a few isolated enclaves. This is further supported by the fact that Dravidian loan words begin to appear in Sanskrit literature from its very beginning.}}</ref>
			The Sanskrit epics ''Ramayana'' and ''Mahabharata'' were composed during this period.<ref>{{cite book|author=Valmiki|author-link=Valmiki|url=https://archive.org/details/ramayanaofva01valm/page/23|title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda|date=10 April 1990|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-691-01485-2|editor-last1=Goldman|editor-first1=Robert P.|editor-link1=Robert P. Goldman|location=Princeton, New Jersey|page=|editor-last2=Pollock|editor-first2=Sheldon|editor-link2=Sheldon Pollock}}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' remains the longest single poem in the world.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India Part 1'', p. 31.</ref> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}} The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between {{circa}} 400&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brockington|first=J. L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26|title=The Sanskrit epics, Part 2|publisher=Brill|year=1998|isbn=978-90-04-10260-6|volume=12|page=21}}</ref>
	==Vedic period (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)==
	{{Main|Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan migration theory|Indigenous Aryans|Vedic period|Historical Vedic religion}}
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	] 3500–2000&nbsp;BC.]]
	] from ca. 4000 to 1000&nbsp;BCE according to the ]. The magenta area corresponds to the assumed '']'' (], ]). The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to ca. 2500&nbsp;BCE; the orange area to 1000&nbsp;BCE. (Christopher I. Beckwith (2009), ''Empires of the Silk Road'', Oxford University Press, p.30)]]
	] culture is shown in darker red. The location of the earliest ]-wheeled ] finds is indicated in purple. Adjacent and overlapping cultures (], ], ]) are shown in green.]]
	]s (after ]). The ], ] and ] cultures have often been associated with Indo-Iranian migrations. The ], ], ] and ] cultures are candidates for cultures associated with Indo-Aryan movements.]]
	]
	|}
	The ] is named after the ] culture of north-west India, although other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity during this period. The Vedic culture is described in the texts of ], still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed in ]. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India.{{sfn|Bongard-Levin|1979|p=51}} The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book |last=MacKenzie |first=Lynn |date=1995 |title=Non-Western Art: A Brief Guide |publisher=Prentice Hall |page=151}}</ref><ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India: Part 1'', pp. 29–30.</ref> contributed the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent. In terms of culture, many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the ] to the ] in this period.<ref name="Singh255">{{citation|last=Singh|first=U.|author-link=Upinder Singh|title=A History of Ancient and Mediaeval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|year=2009|publisher=]|page=255|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1677-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC}}</ref>
	===Vedic society===		==== Janapadas ====
			{{Main|Janapada}}
	{{see also|List of Rigvedic tribes}}
			{{See also|Battle of the Ten Kings|List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
			] with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India – ], ], ], ] ]]
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"|Vedic society
	|-
	|
	<gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
	Image:Rigveda MS2097.jpg|A manuscript of '']'' (]), the world's oldest ] in continued use.<ref>{{cite book |author=] |title=Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J-1QJMu80UIC&pg=PA6 |year=1984 |publisher=] |isbn=978-0-88920-158-3 |page=6 }}</ref>
	Image:NavdatoliGoblet1300BCE.jpg|Ceramic goblet from Navdatoli, ], 1300 BCE.
	</gallery><gallery mode="packed" heights="140">
	File:An attempt to depict the creative activities of Prajapati.jpg|A steel engraving from the 1850s, which depicts the creative activities of ], a Vedic deity who presides over procreation and protection of life.
	Image:MET 2001 433 53 O.jpeg|] sword, 1500 BCE.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the ] and the upper ].<ref name="Singh255"/> Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of ] into the Indian subcontinent from the north-west.<ref>{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=47|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last1=Kulke|first1=H.|last2=Rothermund|first2=D.|author1-link=Hermann Kulke|date=1 August 2004|title=A History of India|series=4th|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-415-32920-0|page=31|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V73N8js5ZgAC}}</ref> The ] tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the ].<ref>Singhal, K. C; Gupta, Roshan. The Ancient History of India, Vedic Period: A New Interpretation. Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. {{ISBN|81-269-0286-8}}. P. 150–151.</ref> Many of the concepts of ] espoused later, like ], trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.<ref>{{cite book |last=Day |first=Terence P. |date=1982 |title=The Conception of Punishment in Early Indian Literature |location=Ontario |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |pages=42–45 |isbn=0-919812-15-5}}</ref>
			The ] in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200&nbsp;BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are ], ] and ]—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of ], ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite book|title=A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes|last=Lanman|first=Charles Rockwell|author-link=Charles Rockwell Lanman|year=1912|orig-year=First published 1884|publisher=]|location=Boston|url=https://archive.org/stream/sanskritreaderwi00lanmiala#page/158/mode/1up|oclc=633836|quote="''... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...''"}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Pedigree: The Origins of Words from Nature|last1=Potter|first1=Stephen|author-link1=Stephen Potter|last2=Sargent|first2=Laurens Christopher|year=1974|publisher=Taplinger Publishing Company|isbn=978-0-8008-6248-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SNDAAAAIAAJ|quote=''... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...''}}</ref>
	Early Vedic society is described in the ], the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during 2nd millennium BCE,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Duiker |first1=William |last2=Spielvogel |first2=Jackson |date=2012 |title=World History |publisher=Cengage learning |page=90}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Nelson |first1=James M. |title=Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality |page=77 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{citation |last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA37|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=37}}</ref> At this time, Aryan society consisted of largely tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46837/The-appearance-of-Indo-Aryan-speakers |title=India: The Late 2nd Millennium and the Reemergence of Urbanism |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=12 May 2007}}</ref> The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the ] in archaeological contexts.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}}<ref name=Witzel1989>] (1989), ''Tracing the Vedic dialects'' in ''Dialectes dans les litteratures Indo-Aryennes'' ed. ], Paris, 97–265.</ref>
			The ] ({{circa}} 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata|last=Basu|first=Abhijit|publisher=Leadstart publishing|year=2013|page=153|isbn=978-93-84027-47-6}}</ref> as well as with the composition of the ].<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{cite journal|last=Witzel|first=Michael|author-link=Michael Witzel|year=1995|title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State|url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies|volume=1|issue=4|pages=1–26|doi=10.11588/ejvs.1995.4.823|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407172825/https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the ] ritual to uphold the social order.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> Two key figures of the Kuru state were king ] and his successor ], who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom.<ref name="Witzel 1995" /> The archaeological ] (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's ] and western ] regions from about 1100 to 600&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}} is believed to correspond to the ] and ] kingdoms.<ref name="Witzel 1995" />{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=45–51}}
	At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society began to expand from the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, into the western ] plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four '']'', or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48–51, 61–93}} but also eventually by the excluding of some indigenous peoples by labeling their occupations impure.<ref>Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 41–43.</ref> During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into ].{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=200}}
			During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of ] emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and ] state);<ref name="Witzel1989" /> reaching its prominence under the king ], whose court provided patronage for ] sages and ] such as ], ], and ].<ref>H.C. Raychaudhuri (1950), ''Political History of Ancient India and Nepal'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 58</ref> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called '']'', across Northern India.
	In the 14th century BCE,<ref>Witzel, Michael (2000). "The Languages of Harappa". In Kenoyer, J.. ''Proceedings of the conference on the Indus civilization''.</ref> the ], between the ] ] tribal kingdoms of the ], allied with other tribes of the Northwest ], guided by the royal sage ], and the ] (]) king ], who defeats other Vedic tribes—leading to the emergence of the ], first state level society during the Vedic period.<ref name="schmidt1980">Schmidt, H.P. ''Notes on Rgveda 7.18.5–10''. Indica. Organ of the Heras Institute, Bombay. Vol.17, 1980, 41–47.</ref>
			=== Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)<!--Linked from 'Mahajanapadas'--> ===
	===Sanskritisation===
	{{Main|Sanskritisation}}
	Since Vedic times,<ref name="EBHinbduism6" />{{refn|group=note|See also Michael Witzel, ''''.}} "people from many strata of society throughout the Indian subcontinent tended to adapt their religious and social life to Brahmanic norms", a process sometimes called ].<ref name="EBHinbduism6">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/8975/Other-sources-the-process-of-Sanskritization |title=Hinduism: Other sources: the process of 'Sanskritization' |date=2015 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> It is reflected in the tendency to identify local deities with the gods of the Sanskrit texts.<ref name="EBHinbduism6" />
			]
	===Janapadas===
			The period between 800 and 200&nbsp;BCE saw the formation of the '']'' movement, from which ] and ] originated. The first ] were written during this period. After 500&nbsp;BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation"{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the ] of the ] and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.<ref>{{cite book|last=Heitzman|first=James|date=31 March 2008|title=The City in South Asia|publisher=]|isbn=978-1-134-28963-9|url=https://archive.org/details/cityinsouthasia0000heit|url-access=registration|pages=–13}}</ref>
	{{Main|Janapada}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
	| align = left
	| title = Janapadas
	| image1 = Late Vedic Culture (1100-500 BCE).png|caption1=Late Vedic era map showing the boundaries of ] with Janapadas in northern India, beginning of Iron Age kingdoms in India — ], ], ], ].
	| image2 = Ahichchhatra_Fort_Temple_Bareilly.jpg|caption2=Ahichchhatra (or Ahi-Kshetra) was the ancient capital of Northern ]. The remains of this city has been discovered in ].
	| image3 = Coin of the Kuru Kingdom.jpg|caption3=A ] ], one of the earliest example of ] (c. 6th century BCE).<ref name="Goyala1994">{{cite book|author=Śrīrāma Goyala|title=The Coinage of Ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T5caAAAAYAAJ|year=1994|publisher=Kusumanjali Prakashan}}</ref>
	}}
	The ] in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200&nbsp;BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of ]s, which are ], ] and ] — notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of ], ], ], ].<ref name="lanman1912">{{Citation |title=A Sanskrit reader: with vocabulary and notes|author=] |year=1912 |publisher=] |location=] |url=https://archive.org/stream/sanskritreaderwi00lanmiala#page/158/mode/1up |quote="''... jána, m. creature; man; person; in plural, and collectively in singular, folks; a people or race or tribe ... cf. γένος, Lat. genus, Eng. kin, 'race' ...''"}}</ref><ref name="potter1974">{{Citation |title=Pedigree: the origins of words from nature |author=Stephen Potter, Laurens Christopher Sargent |year=1974 |publisher=Taplinger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8SNDAAAAIAAJ |quote=''... *gen-, found in Skt. jana, 'a man', and Gk. genos and L. genus, 'a race' ...''}}</ref>
			The Central Ganges Plain, where ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} with new states arising after 500&nbsp;BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce|title=The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE|year=2015|encyclopedia=]}}</ref>{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=42–48}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|pp=48–51}} "It was the area of the earliest known ] and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}
	The ] was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in northwestern India, around 1200 – 800&nbsp;BCE,<ref>{{cite book|title=Marvels and Mysteries of the Mahabharata|author=Abhijit Basu|publisher=Leadstart Publishing Pvt Ltd|year=2013|page=153}}</ref> as well as with the composition of the ] (the first Indian text to mention iron, as {{IAST|śyāma ayas}}, literally "black metal").<ref name="Witzel 1995">{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |author-link=Michael Witzel |date=1995 |title=Early Sanskritization. Origins and Development of the Kuru State |url=https://crossasia-journals.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/index.php/ejvs/article/view/823/913 |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.11588/ejvs.1995.4.823}}</ref> The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections, and developed the orthodox ] ritual to uphold the social order.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/> Two key figures of the Kuru state were king ] and his successor ], transforming this realm into the dominant political and cultural power of northern Iron Age India.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/> When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the ] kingdom.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/> The archaeological ], which flourished in the ] and western ] regions of northern India from about 1100 to 600&nbsp;BCE,{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A11}} is believed to correspond to the ] and Panchala kingdoms.<ref name="Witzel 1995"/>{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=45–51}}
			==== Buddhism and Jainism ====
	During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of ] emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and ] state in India);<ref name=Witzel1989/> reaching its prominence under the king ], whose court provided patronage for ] sages and ] such as ], ], and ].<ref>H. C. Raychaudhuri (1950), ''Political History of Ancient India and Nepal'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, pp.58</ref> The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called '']'', all across Northern India.
	===Sanskrit Epics===
	{{Main|Mahabharata|Ramayana}}
	].]]
	In addition to the Vedas, the principal texts of Hinduism, the core themes of the Sanskrit epics '']'' and '']'' are said to have their ultimate origins during this period.<ref>{{cite book| author=Valmiki | editor=Goldman, Robert P | title=The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Volume 1: Balakanda | series=Ramayana of Valmiki |date=March 1990 | publisher=] | location=Princeton, New Jersey | isbn=0-691-01485-X | page=23 }}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' remains, today, the longest single poem in the world.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India Part 1'', p. 31.</ref> Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts (which are both familiar with each other) went through multiple stages of development over centuries. For instance, the ''Mahabharata'' may have been based on a small-scale conflict (possibly about 1000&nbsp;BCE) which was eventually "transformed into a gigantic epic war by bards and poets". There is no conclusive proof from archaeology as to whether the specific events of the Mahabharata have any historical basis.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=18–21}} The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;CE.{{sfn|Singh|2009|p=18–21}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HR-_LK5kl18C&pg=PA26 |title= The Sanskrit epics, Part 2| volume = Volume 12|first= J. L. |last= Brockington|page = 21|publisher = BRILL| year=1998|isbn=90-04-10260-4}}</ref> Some even attempted to date the events using methods of ] which have produced, depending on which passages are chosen and how they are interpreted, estimated dates ranging up to mid 2nd millennium BCE.<ref>{{harvnb|Gupta|Ramachandran|1976|p=246}}, who summarize as follows: "Astronomical calculations favor 15th century BCE as the date of the war while the Puranic data place it in the 10th/9th century BCE. " (p.254)</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=India's Culture: The State, the Arts, and Beyond|page=44|first=Balmiki Prasad |last=Singh |publisher=Oxford University}}</ref>
	=="Second urbanisation" (c. 600 – c. 200 BCE)==
	{{multiple image
	| align = right
	| image1 = Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.jpg
	| width1 = 200
	| caption1 = <center>Conjectural reconstruction of the main gate of Kusinagara circa 500 BCE adapted from a relief at Sanchi.</center>
	| image2 = City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.jpg
	| width2 = 210
	| caption2 = <center>City of Kushinagar in the 5th century BCE according to a 1st-century BCE frieze in Sanchi Stupa 1 Southern Gate.</center>
	}}
	During the time between 800 and 200&nbsp;BCE the '']'' movement formed, from which originated ] and ]. In the same period, the first ] were written. After 500&nbsp;BCE, the so-called "Second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain, especially the Central Ganges plain.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}} The foundations for the Second Urbanisation were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the ] culture of the ] and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterized as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades, albeit smaller and simpler than the elaborately fortified large cities which grew after 600 BCE in the ] culture.<ref>{{cite book|author=James Heitzman|title=The City in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdcnAgh_StUC|year=2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-28963-9|pages=12–13}}</ref> The Central Ganges Plain, where ] gained prominence, forming the base of the ], was a distinct cultural area,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48–51}} with new states arising after 500&nbsp;BCE<ref group=web name="EB-Beginning historical period">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46844/The-beginning-of-the-historical-period-c-500-150-bce |title=The beginning of the historical period, c. 500–150 BCE |date=2015 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> during the so-called "Second urbanisation".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=42–48}}{{refn|group=note|The "First urbanization" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}}} It was influenced by the Vedic culture,{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=61}} but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region.{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=48–51}} It "was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar".{{sfn|Samuel|2010|p=49}} In this region, the ] movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.{{sfn|Samuel|2010}}
	===Upanishads and Śramaṇa movements===
	{{Main|Upanishads|Śramaṇa}}		{{Main|Upanishads|Śramaṇa}}
	{{Further|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}}		{{Further|History of Hinduism|History of Buddhism|History of Jainism|Indian religions|Indian philosophy}}
Line 271:		Line 133:
	| image3 = Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar.jpg|caption3=]'s cremation stupa, ] (Kushinara).		| image3 = Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar.jpg|caption3=]'s cremation stupa, ] (Kushinara).
	}}		}}
	Around 800&nbsp;BCE to 400&nbsp;BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest ].<ref name="Mascaró1965">{{cite book|author=Juan Mascaró|title=The Upanishads|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CBcJDBTmd9kC&pg=PA7|year=1965|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-044163-5|pages=7–}}</ref><ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{citation |last=Flood|first=Gavin D.|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{citation|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|title= Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-954025-9|page=xxiv–xxix}}</ref> Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as ] (conclusion of the ]).<ref>{{citation|last1=Melton|first1=J. Gordon|last2=Baumann|first2=Martin|title=Religions of the World, Second Edition: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref> The older Upanishads launched attacks of increasing intensity on the ritual. Anyone who worships a divinity other than the Self is called a domestic animal of the gods in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Mundaka launches the most scathing attack on the ritual by comparing those who value sacrifice with an unsafe boat that is endlessly overtaken by old age and death.<ref>{{citation |title=History of Philosophy Eastern and Western|first=T. M. P|last=Mahadevan|editor=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan|year=1956|publisher=George Allen & Unwin Ltd|page=57}}</ref>
			The time between 800&nbsp;BCE and 400&nbsp;BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest ],<ref name="Flood 1996 82">{{cite book|last=Flood|first=Gavin Dennis|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C&pg=PA82|year=1996|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|page=82}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mascaró|first=Juan|author-link=Juan Mascaró|title=The Upanishads|url=https://archive.org/details/upanishads00masc|url-access=registration|year=1965|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-14-044163-5|pages=–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Olivelle|first=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|title=Upaniṣads|year=2008|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-19-954025-9|pages=|url=https://archive.org/details/upanisads00oliv/page/|url-access=registration}}</ref> which form the theoretical basis of ], and are also known as the '']'' (conclusion of the ]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Baumann|first1=Martin|editor-last1=Melton|editor-first1=J. Gordon|editor-link2=J. Gordon Melton|editor-last2=Baumann|editor-first2=Martin|encyclopedia=Religions of the World|title=Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2yiyLLOj88C&pg=PA1324|access-date=|edition=2nd|year=2010|publisher=]|volume=3|isbn=978-1-59884-204-3|page=1324}}</ref>
	Increasing urbanisation of India in 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or Śramaṇa movements which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82"/> Mahavira (c. 549–477&nbsp;BCE), proponent of ], and ] (c. 563–483&nbsp;BCE), founder of ] were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of ], and the concept of liberation.<ref>Flood, Gavin. Olivelle, Patrick. 2003. ''The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism''. Malden: Blackwell. pg. 273–4. "The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterize later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara&nbsp;– the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana&nbsp;– the goal of human existence....."</ref> Buddha found a ] that ameliorated the extreme ] found in the '']'' religions.<ref>Laumakis, Stephen. ''An Introduction to Buddhist philosophy''. 2008. p. 4</ref>
			The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals.<ref name="Flood 1996 82" /> ] ({{circa}} 599–527&nbsp;BCE), proponent of ], and ] ({{circa}} 563–483&nbsp;BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of ], and the concept of liberation.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olivelle|first1=Patrick|author-link=Patrick Olivelle|editor1-last=Flood|editor1-first=Gavin|editor1-link=Gavin Flood|chapter=The Renouncer Tradition|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|year=2003|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-0-631-21535-6|pages=273–274|quote=The second half of the first millennium BC was the period that created many of the ideological and institutional elements that characterise later Indian religions. The renouncer tradition played a central role during this formative period of Indian religious history.&nbsp;... Some of the fundamental values and beliefs that we generally associate with Indian religions in general and Hinduism, in particular, were in part the creation of the renouncer tradition. These include the two pillars of Indian theologies: samsara—the belief that life in this world is one of suffering and subject to repeated deaths and births (rebirth); moksa/nirvana—the goal of human existence ...}}</ref> Buddha found a ] that ameliorated the extreme ] found in the '']'' religions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Laumakis|first1=Stephen|title=An Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-511-38589-6|page=4}}</ref>
	Around the same time, ] (the 24th '']'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}} – '' Jainism's major teacher is the Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, and who died approximately 526 BC. Page 114 ''</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe ] (c. 872 – c. 772&nbsp;BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure. ] was the 1st ''Tirthankara''.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}} The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.<ref>Mary Pat Fisher (1997) In: Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths I.B.Tauris : London {{ISBN|1-86064-148-2}} '' "The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira." Page 115 ''</ref>
			Around the same time, ] (the 24th '']'' in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/121/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=121|quote=Jainism's major teacher for this age is Mahavira ... was a contemporary of the Buddha and died approximately 527 BCE.}}</ref> However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the ''Tirthankaras'' predates all known time and scholars believe ] (c. 872 – c. 772&nbsp;BCE), accorded status as the 23rd ''Tirthankara'', was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few ''Tirthankaras'' and an ascetic order similar to the ''Śramaṇa'' movement.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Mary Pat|author-link=Mary Pat Fisher|title=Living Religions: An Encyclopedia of the World's Faiths|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780205835874/page/122/mode/1up|url-access=registration|year=2011|orig-year=First published 1991|publisher=Prentice Hall|edition=8th|isbn=978-0-205-83585-0|page=122|quote=The extreme antiquity of Jainism as a non-Vedic, indigenous Indian religion is well documented. Ancient Hindu and Buddhist scriptures refer to Jainism as an existing tradition which began long before Mahavira.}}</ref>
	===Mahajanapadas===
			==== Mahajanapadas ====
	{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}		{{Main|Mahajanapadas}}
			] were sixteen powerful polities located mainly within the ] ]]
	{{multiple image|perrow=1/2|total_width=300|caption_align=center
			The period from {{circa|600&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} to {{circa|300&nbsp;BCE|lk=no}} featured the rise of the ], sixteen powerful ] and ] republics in a belt stretching from ] in the north-west to ] in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-] region.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|pp=260–261}} Ancient ], like the '']'',<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p. 213; IV. pp. 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (or Machcha), ], ], ], and ]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the ].{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}
	| title = Mahajanapadas
	| image1 = Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|caption1=The ] were the sixteen most powerful and vast kingdoms and republics of the era, located mainly across the fertile ], there were also a number of smaller kingdoms stretching the length and breadth of ].
	| image2 = Kosala Karshapana.jpg|caption2=Silver coins of ] Mahajanapada, c. 525 BCE.
	| image3 = I13 12karshapana Avanti 1ar (8481304617).jpg|caption3=Silver coin of ] Mahajanapada, c. 400 BCE.
	}}
	The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE witnessed the rise of the ]s, sixteen powerful and vast ] and ] ]s. These Mahajanapadas evolved and flourished in a belt stretching from ] in the northwest to ] in the eastern part of the ] and included parts of the trans-]n region.<ref name=singh>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Upinder|title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA260|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education|location=Delhi|isbn=978-81-317-1120-0|pages=260–4}}</ref> Ancient ], like the '']'',<ref>Anguttara Nikaya I. p 213; IV. pp 252, 256, 261.</ref> make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ] (or Machcha), ], ], ], and ]. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the ].{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}
			Early "republics" or ],<ref name="Thapar">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147|title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|author-link=Romila Thapar|year=2002|publisher=]|pages=146–150|access-date=28 October 2013|isbn=978-0-520-24225-8}}</ref> such as ]s, ]s, ]s, and ] had republican governments. {{transliteration|sa|Gaṇasaṅgha}}s,<ref name="Thapar" /> such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of ], and the ], centred in the city of ], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p. 107</ref> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Republics in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=93–|id=GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0}}</ref>
	]'' at ], which served as the ] of ], one of the world's earliest ]s (]).<ref name=Thapar/>]]
	Early "republics" or ],<ref name=Thapar>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147 |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|authorlink=Romila Thapar|year=2002|work=Google Books|publisher=University of California|pages=146–150|accessdate=28 October 2013}}</ref> such as ]s, ]s, ]s, and ]s had republican governments. Gaṇa sanghas,<ref name=Thapar>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-5irrXX0apQC&pg=PA147 |title=Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300|last=Thapar|first=Romila|authorlink=Romila Thapar|year=2002|work=Google Books|publisher=University of California|pages=146–150|accessdate=28 October 2013}}</ref> such as ], centered in the city of ], and the ], centered in the city of ], existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE.<ref>Raychaudhuri Hemchandra (1972), ''Political History of Ancient India'', Calcutta: University of Calcutta, p.107</ref> The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the ]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=Republics in ancient India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcoUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=93–|id=GGKEY:HYY6LT5CFT0}}</ref>
	This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the ] culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterized by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialized craft industries (e.g., ivory and carnelian carving), a system of weights, ], and the introduction of writing in the form of ] and ] scripts.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In ''Historical Roots" in the Making of ‘the Aryan’'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref><ref>Shaffer, Jim. 1993, "Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond". In ''Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times'', ed. H. Spodek and D.M. Srinivasan.</ref> The language of the gentry at that time was ], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as ]s.		This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the ] culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, ], and the introduction of writing in the form of ] and ] scripts.<ref>J.M. Kenoyer (2006), "Cultures and Societies of the Indus Tradition. In ''Historical Roots" in the Making of 'the Aryan'', R. Thapar (ed.), pp. 21–49. New Delhi, National Book Trust.</ref><ref>{{cite conference|title=Reurbanization: The eastern Punjab and beyond|first=Jim|last=Shaffer|author-link=Jim G. Shaffer|year=1993|conference=|volume=31|book-title=Urban Form and Meaning in South Asia: The Shaping of Cities from Prehistoric to Precolonial Times|series=Symposium Papers XV|publisher=National Gallery of Art|pages=53–67|jstor=42620472}}</ref> The language of the gentry at that time was ], while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as ]s.
	Many of the sixteen kingdoms had coalesced into four major ones by 500/400&nbsp;BCE, by the time of ]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha. The life of Gautama Buddha was mainly associated with these four kingdoms.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}		Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of ]. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.{{sfn|Reddy|2003|p=A107}}
	] defending the city of ], as depicted at ]. Malla was an ] (]) that constituted one of the ''solasa'' (sixteen) ] (great realms) of ] as mentioned in the '']''.<ref>Asiatic Mythology by J. Hackin </ref></center>]]
	===Magadha dynasties===		==== Early Magadha dynasties ====
	{{Main|Magadha}}		{{Main|Magadha|Greater Magadha}}
	{{See also|Haryanka dynasty|Shishunaga dynasty}}		{{See also|Magadha period|Pradyota dynasty|Haryanka dynasty|Shaishunaga dynasty}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=1|total_width=300|caption_align=center		{{multiple image
			| perrow = 2
			| total_width = 400
			| caption_align = center
	| title = Magadha dynasties		| title = Magadha dynasties
	| image1 = Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png|caption1=The Magadha state c. 600&nbsp;BCE, before it expanded from its capital ] — under the ] and the successor ].		| image1 = Magadha Expansion (6th-4th centuries BCE).png
			| caption1 = Magadha state c. 600&nbsp;BCE, which is later expanded from its capital ] – under the ] and the later ].
			| image2 = Xerxes Hidush warrior 480 BCE.jpg
	| image2 = Bamboo garden (Venuvana) at Rajagriha, the visit of Bimbisara.jpg|caption2=King ] of Magadha visits the Bamboo Garden (Venuvana) in Rajagriha; artwork from ].
			| caption2 = Indian warrior of the ], circa 480 BCE, on the ].
	}}		}}
	Magadha formed one of the sixteen ] (]: "Great Realms") or ]. The core of the kingdom was the area of ] south of the ]; its first capital was ] (modern Rajgir) then ] (modern ]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and ] with the conquest of ] and ] respectively,<ref name="Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977)">{{cite book | title=Ancient India | publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers | author=Ramesh Chandra Majumdar | year=1977 | isbn=81-208-0436-8}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in ] and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the ], ] and ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Magadha Empire|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the ] where they are found listed along with the ]s, ], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of ] and Buddhism, and two of India's greatest empires, the ] and ], originated from Magadha. These empires saw advancements in ancient India's science, mathematics, ], religion, and philosophy and were considered the Indian "]". The Magadha kingdom included republican communities such as the community of Rajakumara. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
			Magadha formed one of the sixteen ] (]: "Great Realms") or ]. The core of the kingdom was the area of ] south of the ]; its first capital was ] (modern Rajgir) then ] (modern ]). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of ] and ] respectively,<ref>{{cite book|title=Ancient India|publisher=]|last=Majumdar|first=Ramesh Chandra|author-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1977|isbn=978-81-208-0436-4|edition=8th}}</ref> followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the ], ] and ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iloveindia.com/history/ancient-india/magadha-empire.html|title=Magadha Empire – Magadha Empire in India, History of Magadh Empire|website=iloveindia.com}}</ref> The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the ] where they are found listed along with the ]s, ], and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of ] and ]. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.
	]
	The Hindu epic ''Mahabharata'' calls ] the first ruler of Magadha. Early sources, from the Buddhist ], the ] and the Hindu ], mentions Magadha being ruled by the ] for some 200 years, c. 600&nbsp;BCE – 413&nbsp;BCE. King ] of the ] led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and ]. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince ], who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, ], the founder of ], lived much of his life in Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in ], gave his first sermon in ] and the ] was held in ].<ref name="lumbinitrust">{{cite web|url=http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214 |publisher=lumbinitrust.org |title=Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden |accessdate=6 January 2017 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214 |archivedate=6 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the ]. The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by ] in 345&nbsp;BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas, which were Mahapadma and his eight sons. The ] extended across much of northern India.
			Early sources, from the Buddhist ], the ] and the Hindu ], mention Magadha being ruled by the ] and ] ({{circa}} 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, {{circa}} 600–413&nbsp;BCE. King ] of the ] led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and ]. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince ], who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, ], the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in ], gave his first sermon in ] and the ] was held in Rajgriha.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|publisher=lumbinitrust.org|title=Lumbini Development Trust: Restoring the Lumbini Garden|access-date=6 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140306041858/http://www.lumbinitrust.org/articles/view/214|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the ] ({{circa}} 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by ] in 345&nbsp;BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).
	===Persians and Greeks in northwest South Asia===
	{{See also|Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great|Nanda Empire|Gangaridai}}
	In 530&nbsp;BCE ], King of the Persian ] crossed the Hindu-Kush mountains to seek tribute from the tribes of Kamboja, Gandhara and the trans-India region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan).<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 58">{{cite book | title=A History of India: Part 1 | author=Romila Thapar | page=58}}</ref> By 520&nbsp;BCE, during the reign of Darius I of Persia, much of the north-western Indian subcontinent (present-day eastern Afghanistan and Pakistan) came under the rule of the Persian Achaemenid Empire, as part of the far easternmost territories. The area remained under Persian control for two centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm |title=The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.) |accessdate=19 May 2007 |author=Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art |date=October 2004 |work=Timeline of Art History |publisher= New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref> During this time India supplied mercenaries to the Persian army for the ] (480-479 BCE).<ref name="Romila Thapar p. 58"/> Under Persian rule the famous ] became a centre where both Vedic and Achaemenid learning were mingled.<ref>Romila Thapar, ''A History of India'', p. 59.</ref> Persian ascendency in North-western South Asia ended with ]'s conquest of Persia in 327&nbsp;BCE.<ref>Carl Roebuck, ''The World of Ancient Times'' (Charles Scribner's Sons Publishing: New York, 1966) p. 357.</ref>
			==== Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign ====
	By 326&nbsp;BCE, Alexander the Great had conquered Asia Minor and the Achaemenid Empire and had reached the northwest frontiers of the Indian subcontinent. There he defeated ] in the ] (near modern-day ], Pakistan) and conquered much of the ].<ref>{{cite book |last=Fuller |first=J.F.C.|authorlink=J. F. C. Fuller |title= The Generalship of Alexander the Great|edition=Reprint|date=3 February 2004|publisher=Da Capo Press |location=New York|isbn=0-306-81330-0 |pages= 188–199|chapter=Alexander's Great Battles}}</ref> Alexander's march east put him in confrontation with the ] of ] and the ] of ]. His army, exhausted and frightened by the prospect of facing larger Indian armies at the Ganges River, mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern ]) and refused to march further East. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, ], and after learning about the might of the ], was convinced that it was better to return.
			{{main|Nanda Empire}}
			{{See also|Indian campaign of Alexander the Great}}
			The ] ({{circa}} 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the ] in the west and as far south as the ].{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|pp=28–33}} The ] built on the foundations laid by their ] and ] predecessors.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2008|p=273}} Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 ], 20,000 ], 2,000 war ]s and 3,000 ]s (at the lowest estimates).{{sfn|Mookerji|1988|p=34}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Raychaudhuri|first1=Hem Chandra|author1-link=Hem Chandra Raychaudhuri|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Bratindra Nath|author2-link=B. N. Mukherjee|year=1996|orig-year=First published 1923|title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty|url=https://archive.org/details/politicalhistory0000rayc|url-access=registration|edition=8th|publisher=]|pages=208–209|isbn=978-0-19-563789-2}}</ref>
			==== Maurya Empire ====
	The Persian and Greek invasions had repercussions in the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent. The region of Gandhara, or present-day eastern Afghanistan and north-west Pakistan, became a melting pot of Indian, Persian, Central Asian, and Greek cultures and gave rise to a hybrid culture, ], which lasted until the 5th century CE and influenced the artistic development of ].
	<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
	Indian warriors (Sattagydian, Gandharan, Hindush) circa 480 BCE in the Naqsh-e Roastam reliefs of Xerxes I.jpg|]n warriors (from left to right: ], ], ]) circa 480 BCE. ] reliefs of ].
	Darius I statue India.jpg|<center><big><big>𓉔𓈖𓂧𓍯𓇌</big></big><br><small>''H-n-d-w<small>]</small>-y''</small><br>"India" written in ] on the ], circa 500 BCE.<ref name=NMI>] ountries.jpg|notice]]</ref></center>
	Excavated Brick Structure - Khana-Mihir Mound - South-eastward View - Berachampa - North 24 Parganas 2015-04-11 7143.JPG|] in ] is believed to be the capital of ]. The Gangaridai army, with its 4,000 elephant force, may have lead to Alexander's retreat from India.{{sfn|A. B. Bosworth|1996|p=189}}
	Asia 323bc.jpg|Asia in 323&nbsp;BCE, the ] and the ] in relation to ]'s Empire and neighbours.
	</gallery>
	===Maurya Empire===
	{{Main|Maurya Empire}}		{{Main|Maurya Empire}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center		{{multiple image
			| perrow = 2
			| total_width = 400
			| caption_align = center
	| title = Maurya Empire		| title = Maurya Empire
	| image1 = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE 2.png|caption1=The ] under ].		| image1 = Maurya Empire, c.250 BCE.png
			| caption1 = ] at its peak under ].
	| image2 = Asokanpillar2.jpg|caption2=] at ], 3rd century BCE.		| image2 = Asokanpillar2.jpg
			| caption2 = ] at ], 3rd century BCE.
	}}		}}
	The Maurya Empire (322–185&nbsp;BCE) was the first empire to unify India into one state, and was the largest on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the ] and to the east into what is now ]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the ] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by ] assisted by Chanakya (]) in ] (in modern ]) when he overthrew the ].<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | page=70}}</ref> Chandragupta's son ] succeeded to the throne around 297&nbsp;BCE. By the time he died in c. 272&nbsp;BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of ] (around modern day ]) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with their trade with the south.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=178–180}}
			The Maurya Empire (322–185&nbsp;BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the ] ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D.|title=East–West Orientation of Historical Empires|journal=Journal of World-Systems Research|date=December 2006|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381|access-date=12 September 2016|issn=1076-156X}}</ref> At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the ] and to the east into what is now ]. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the ] mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by ] assisted by Chanakya (]) in ] (in modern ]) when he overthrew the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=70}}</ref>
	], one of the ], c. 250 BCE.]]
	Bindusara was succeeded by ], whose reign lasted for around 37 years until his death in about 232&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=204–206}} His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260&nbsp;BCE, though successful, lead to immense loss of life and misery. This filled Ashoka with remorse and led him to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=178–180}} The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, ], was assassinated by ] to establish the ].{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=204–206}}
			Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317&nbsp;BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated ], founder of the ], during the ], thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son ] succeeded to the throne around 297&nbsp;BCE. By the time he died in {{circa}} 272&nbsp;BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of ] (around modern day ]) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}}
	The '']'' and the ] are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls into the era of ] (NBPW). The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society. However, the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book | title=A History of India: Volume 1 | author=Romila Thapar | page=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.{{sfn|Bongard-Levin|1979|p=91}} During this period, a high quality steel called ] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref name="Menon R.V.G p.15"/>
			], one of the ], {{circa}} 250 BCE]]
	===Sangam Period===
			Bindusara was succeeded by ], whose reign lasted until his death in about 232&nbsp;BCE.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}} His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260&nbsp;BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism.{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=178–180}} The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, ], was assassinated by ] to establish the ].{{sfn|Thapar|2003|pp=204–206}}
	{{Main|Sangam Period|Sources of ancient Tamil history|Sangam literature|The Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature}}
	{{See also|Three Crowned Kings|Tamilakam}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
	| image1 = South India in Sangam Period.jpg|caption1=], located in the tip of ] during the Sangam Period, ruled by ], ] and the ].
	| image2 = Puhar-ILango.jpg|caption2=] is the author of '']'', one of the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review.|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|date=1975|pages=148–150|last=Rosen|first=Elizabeth S.|jstor=3250226|doi=10.2307/3250226}}</ref>
	}}
	During the Sangam period ] literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. During this period, three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the ] of ]: ], ] and the ] ruled parts of southern India.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=204–205}}
			Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the ], one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://roadsandkingdoms.com/2016/dinner-on-the-grand-trunk-road/|title=Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road|last=Bhandari|first=Shirin|date=5 January 2016|website=Roads & Kingdoms|language=en-US|access-date=19 July 2016}}</ref> After the ], the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of ] increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the ], into ], ], ], ], and ].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=67}}
	The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<ref>Essays on Indian Renaissance by Raj Kumar p.260</ref> The scholars of the Sangam period rose from among the common people who sought the patronage of the Tamil Kings, but who mainly wrote about the common people and their concerns.<ref name="The First Spring p.655">The First Spring: The Golden Age of India by Abraham Eraly p.655</ref> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins. They belonged to different faiths and professions like farmers, artisans, merchants, monks, priests and even princes and quite a few of them were even women.<ref name="The First Spring p.655"/>
			The '']'' written by ] and the ] are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of ]. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government.<ref>{{cite book|title=A History of India: Volume 1|author=Romila Thapar|page=78}}</ref> Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, ] was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof.{{sfn|Antonova|Bongard-Levin|Kotovsky|1979|p=91}} During this period, a high-quality steel called ] was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.<ref>''Technology and Society'' by Menon, R.V.G. p. 15</ref>
	Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE., ], an anthology of ten mid-length books collection, which is considered part of ], were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works ] as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works ]; while ], the earliest grammarian work in the ] was developed.<ref>* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. - Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tholkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</ref> Also, during Sangam period, two of ] were composed. ] composed '']'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around ], who having lost her husband to a miscarriage of justice at the court of the Pandyan dynasty, wreaks her revenge on his kingdom,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|title=Silappathikaram Tamil Literature|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=22 January 2013|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|archivedate=11 April 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> and '']'', composed by ], is a ] to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of ] and ], who became a ] Bikkuni.<ref name="Muk1">Mukherjee 1999, p. 277</ref>{{full citation needed|date=November 2018}}
			==== Sangam period ====
	==Classical to early medieval periods (c. 200 BCE – c. 1200 CE)==
			{{Main|Sangam period|Sources of ancient Tamil history|Sangam literature|Five Great Epics}}
	{{Main|Classical India|Medieval India}}
			{{See also|Three Crowned Kings|Tamilakam|List of Tamil monarchs}}
	{{multiple image		{{multiple image
	| align = left		| perrow = 2
			| total_width = 400
	| image1 = SungaEmpireMap.jpg
	| width1 = 200		| caption_align = center
			| image1 = South India in Sangam Period.jpg
	| caption1 = <center>] during the rise of the ] from the North, ] from the ], and ] and ] from the ].</center>
			| caption1 = ], located at the tip of ] during the Sangam period, ruled by ], ] and the ].
	| image2 = Karla caves Chaitya.jpg
			| image2 = Puhar-ILango.jpg
	| width2 = 160
			| caption2 = ], author of ], one of the ] of ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Prince ILango Adigal, Shilappadikaram (The anklet Bracelet), translated by Alain Damelou. Review.|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|year=1975|pages=148–150|last=Rosen|first=Elizabeth S.|jstor=3250226|doi=10.2307/3250226}}</ref>
	| caption2 = <center>The Great Chaitya in the ]. The shrines were developed over the period from 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.</center>
	}}		}}
	The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the ] in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.<ref name="stein">{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> It can be divided in various sub-periods, depending on the chosen periodisation. Classical period begins after the decline of the ], and the corresponding rise of the ] and ]. The ] (4th–6th century) is regarded as the "Golden Age" of Hinduism, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the ] flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.<ref name="ReferenceB"/> During this period, ] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<ref name="Maddisson World GDP">{{cite web|title=The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|accessdate=21 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by ]|isbn=978-92-64-02262-1|page=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en}}</ref>
			During the Sangam period ] literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the ] of ]: ], ], and the ] ruled parts of southern India.{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=204–205}}
	===Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – c. 320 CE)===
	====Shunga Empire====
	{{Main|Shunga Empire}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Shunga Empire
	|-
	|
	<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
	East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg|East Gateway and Railings, ] ], 2nd century BCE.
	Royal family Sunga West Bengal 1st century BCE.jpg|Shunga royal family, 1st century BCE.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	The Shungas originated from ], and controlled areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78&nbsp;BCE. The dynasty was established by ], who overthrew the last ]. Its capital was ], but later emperors, such as ], also held court at ], modern ] in Eastern ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stadtner |first=Donald |date=1975 |title=A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā |journal=Artibus Asiae |volume=37| issue =1/2 |pp=101–104 |issn=0004-3648 |jstor=3250214}}</ref>
			The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period.<ref>''Essays on Indian Renaissance'' by Raj Kumar p. 260</ref> Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.<ref>''The First Spring: The Golden Age of India'' by ] p. 655</ref>
	Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son ]. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;<ref>K.A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970), , p.108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'".</ref> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<ref>Bhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain" in ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p.96</ref> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought battles with the ] of ], ] of ], the ], and possibly the ]s and ].
			Around {{circa}} 300 BCE – {{circa}} 200 CE, ], an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of ], were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works ] as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works ]; while ], the earliest grammarian work in the ] was developed.<ref>* Zvelebil, Kamil. 1973. The smile of Murugan on Tamil literature of South India. Leiden: Brill. Zvelebil dates the ''Ur-Tholkappiyam'' to the 1st or 2nd century BCE</ref> Also, during Sangam period, two of ] were composed. ] composed '']'', which is a non-religious work, that revolves around ],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|title=Silappathikaram Tamil Literature|publisher=Tamilnadu.com|date=22 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130411214545/http://tamilnadu.com/arts/literature-silappathikaram.html|archive-date=11 April 2013}}</ref> and '']'', composed by ], is a sequel to ''Silappatikaram'', and tells the story of the daughter of ] and ], who became a ] ].<ref>{{harvnb|Mukherjee|1999|p=277}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/4_drav/tamil/pm/pm141__u.htm|title=Cittalaiccattanar (c. 500): Manimekalai|website=gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de}}</ref>
	Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including small terracotta images, larger stone sculptures, and architectural monuments such as the Stupa at ], and the renowned Great Stupa at ]. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of ] and was used to write the ]. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising ] at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place. This helped the empire flourish and gain power.
			== Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE) ==
	====Satavahana Empire====
	{{Main|Satavahana Empire}}		{{Main|Classical India}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
			|width=160 |File:SungaEmpireMap.jpg|] during the rise of the ] from the North, ] from the ], and ] and ] from the ].
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Satavahana Empire
			|File:Karla caves Chaitya.jpg|Great Chaitya in the ]. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
	|-
			|File:Udayagiri Caves - Rani Gumpha 01.jpg|] is home to the ], which was inscribed under ], then Emperor of ] of the ].
	|
			|File:Andhra pradesh, santuario a più piani, da ghantasala, 90-110 ca..JPG|Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, ] Stupa.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hardy|first1=Adam|title=Indian Temple Architecture: Form and Transformation : the Karṇāṭa Drāviḍa Tradition, 7th to 13th Centuries|date=1995|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-81-7017-312-0|page=39|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aU0hCAS2-08C&pg=PA41|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Le|first1=Huu Phuoc|title=Buddhist Architecture|date=2010|publisher=Grafikol|isbn=978-0-9844043-0-8|page=238|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jb364g4BvoC&pg=PA238|language=en}}</ref>
	<gallery mode="packed" heights="130px">
			}}
	Sanchi Stupa No.2 Front view1.jpg|], 1st century CE (]).
			The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the ] in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India.<ref name="stein">{{citation|last=Stein|first=B.|author-link=Burton Stein|editor-last=Arnold|editor-first=D.|date=27 April 2010|title=A History of India|edition=2nd|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|place=Oxford|isbn=978-1-4051-9509-6|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QY4zdTDwMAQC&pg=PA105}}</ref> The ] (4th–6th century) is regarded as the ], although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the ] flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.<ref>''A Social History of Early India'' by Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya p. 259</ref> During this period, ] is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Economy (GDP) : Historical Statistics by Professor Angus Maddison|url=http://www.theworldeconomy.org/MaddisonTables/MaddisontableB-18.pdf|publisher=World Economy|access-date=21 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Maddison|first=Angus|title=The World Economy – Volume 1: A Millennial Perspective and Volume 2: Historical Statistics|year=2006|publisher=OECD Publishing by ]|isbn=978-92-64-02262-1|page=656|url=http://www.oecdbookshop.org/oecd/display.asp?K=5L9ZBQKL5RLW&lang=EN&sort=sort_date%2Fd&stem=true&sf1=Title&st1=world+economy&sf3=SubjectCode&sp1=not&st4=E4+or+E5+or+P5&sf4=SubVersionCode&ds=world+economy%3B+All+Subjects%3B+&m=3&dc=26&plang=en}}</ref>
	Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg|Indian ship on lead coin of ], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	The Śātavāhanas were based from ] in ] as well as ] (]) and Prathisthan (]) in ]. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the ], but declared independence with its decline.
			=== Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE) ===
	The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from ] (a ]) to ]. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins struck with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the ] to the southern tip of India.
			==== Shunga Empire ====
	They had to compete with the ] and then the ] of ] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the ], ] and ]. In particular, their struggles with the ] went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty ] and ] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the ] and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE the empire was split into smaller states.
			{{Main|Shunga Empire}}
	====Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures====
	{{Main|Indo-Greeks|Indo-Scythians|Indo-Parthians|Indo-Sassanids}}
	{{See also|Greco-Buddhism}}
	{{multiple image		{{multiple image
	| align = left		| perrow = 3
			| total_width = 450
	| image1 = Heliodorus pillar inscription.jpg
	| width1 = 115		| caption_align = center
			| title = Shunga Empire
	| caption1 = <center>]</center>
			| image1 = East Gateway and Railings Bharhut Stupa.jpg
	| image2 = MathuraLionCapital.JPG
			| caption1 = East Gateway and Railings, ] ], 2nd century BCE.
	| width2 = 280
			| image2 = Royal family Sunga West Bengal 1st century BCE.jpg
	| caption2 = <center>]</center>
			| caption2 = Shunga art ], 1st century BCE.
	| footer = <center>'''Left''': The ], commissioned by Indo-Greek ambassador ], who was one of the earliest recorded Indo-Greek converts to ]; the pillar is the first known inscription related to ] in India.<ref name="Bopearachchi">], 2016, </ref><br>'''Right''': The ], 1st century CE. The capital describes, among other donations, the gift of a ] with a relic of the ], by Queen ], the "chief queen of the ] ruler of ], satrap ]".</center>
			| image3 = Plaque with a Royal Family 1st century B.C. India (West Bengal, Chandraketugarh).jpg
			| caption3 = Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.
	}}		}}
	The Northwestern kingdoms and hybrid cultures of the Indian subcontinent included the ''Indo-Greeks'', the ''Indo-Scythians'', the ''Indo-Parthians'', and the ''Indo-Sassinids''.
			The Shungas originated from ], and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78&nbsp;BCE. The dynasty was established by ], who overthrew the last ]. Its capital was ], but later emperors, such as ], also held court at ], modern ].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stadtner|first=Donald|year=1975|title=A Śuṅga Capital from Vidiśā|journal=Artibus Asiae|volume=37|issue=1/2|pages=101–104|issn=0004-3648|jstor=3250214|doi=10.2307/3250214}}</ref>
	*The ] were a hybrid culture straddled across multiple Indo-Greek kingdoms. Lasting for almost two centuries, the kingdoms were ruled by a succession of more than 30 Indo-Greek kings, who were often in conflict with each other. The Indo-Greeks reached their height under ] (reigned 155–130&nbsp;BCE), who drove the ] out of ] and beyond the ], becoming a king shortly after his victory. His territories covered ] and ] in modern Afghanistan and extended to the ] in the Indian subcontinent, with many tributaries to the south and east. Menander I embraced the ] faith, as described in the classical ] ]. After his conversion, he became noted for being a leading patron of ].<ref>Hinüber (2000), pp. 83-86, para. 173-179.</ref>
	*The ] were descended from the ] (Scythians) who migrated from southern ] to ] and ] to India from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara to ]. The power of the Saka rulers started to decline in the 2nd century CE after the Scythian ] were defeated by the south Indian Emperor ] of the ].<ref>World history from early times to AD 2000 by B .V. Rao: p.97</ref>{{sfn|Daniélou|2003|p=136}} Later the Saka kingdom was completely destroyed by ] of the ] from eastern India in the 4th century.<ref>Ancient India by Ramesh Chandra Majumdar p. 234</ref>
	*The ] were ruled by the Gondopharid dynasty, named after its eponymous first ruler ]. They ruled parts of present-day ], Pakistan, and northwestern India,<ref name="earrings">{{cite web |url=http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html |title=Parthian Pair of Earrings |publisher=Marymount School, New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071016170933/http://www.marymount.k12.ny.us/marynet/stwbwk05/05vm/earrings/html/emanalysis.html |archive-date=16 October 2007 |accessdate=22 November 2007}}</ref> during or slightly before the 1st century CE. For most of their history, the leading Gondopharid kings held ] (in the present ] province of Pakistan) as their residence and ruled from there, but during their last few years of existence the capital shifted between ] and ]. These kings have traditionally been referred to as Indo-Parthians, as their coinage was often inspired by the ] dynasty, but they probably belonged to a wider groups of ] tribes who lived east of ] proper, and there is no evidence that all the kings who assumed the title ''Gondophares'', which means "Holder of Glory", were even related. The Indo-Parthians are noted for the construction of the Buddhist monastery ].
	*The ] have their origin with the ] of Persia, who was contemporaneous with the Gupta Empire, expanded into the region of present-day ], where the mingling of ] and the ] gave birth to a hybrid culture under the Indo-Sassanids.
			Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son ]. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;<ref>K. A. Nilkantha Shastri (1970), , p. 108: "Soon after Agnimitra there was no 'Sunga empire'".</ref> inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.<ref>Bhandare, Shailendra. "Numismatics and History: The Maurya-Gupta Interlude in the Gangetic Plain" in ed. Patrick Olivelle (2006), p. 96</ref> The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the ] of ], ] of ], the ], and possibly the ]s and ].
	====Trade and travels to India====
	{{Further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Trade and Travels to India
	|-
	|
	<gallery>
	Silk route copy.jpg|] and ], ancient trade routes that linked India with the ]; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are red, and the water routes are blue.
	Statuetta indiana di Lakshmi, avorio, da pompei, 1-50 dc ca., 149425, 02.JPG|The ] ivory statuette was found in the ruin of ]. It is thought to have come from ] in the Satavahana realm in the first half of the 1st century CE. It testifies to ] beginning around the 1st century BCE.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	*The ] in ] attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. Early writings and Stone Age carvings of ] age obtained indicates that India's Southwest coastal port ], in Kerala, had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000&nbsp;BCE, according to ]. ] traders from ] arrived in ], ] as early as 562 BCE, and more Jewish traders came as exiles in 70 CE after the destruction of the ].<ref name="TheShengold">{{cite book |last=Schreiber |first=Mordecai |title=The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia |year=2003 |publisher=Schreiber Publishing |location=Rockville, MD |isbn=1887563776 |page=125}}</ref> Kerala was referred to as the land of spices or as the "Spice Garden of India". It was the place traders and exporters wanted to reach, including ], ], and others.<ref name=Donkin69>Donkin 2003: 69</ref>
	] granted to ] by South Indian ] ruler ] testify that merchant guilds and trade corporations played a very significant role in the economy and social life during the ] of ].]]
	*] sailed to India around the 1st century CE. He landed in Muziris in Kerala, India and established ''Yezh (Seven) ara (half) palligal (churches)'' or '']''.
	*] entered China through the ] in the 1st or 2nd century CE. The interaction of cultures resulted in several Chinese travellers and monks to enter India. Most notable were ], ], ] and ]. These travellers wrote detailed accounts of the Indian Subcontinent, which includes the political and social aspects of the region.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA506|title=The Medical Times and Gazette, Volume 1|year=1867|publisher=John Churchill|location=London|page=506}}(Original from the University of Michigan)</ref>
	*Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of Southeast Asia came to be associated with the economic activity and commerce as patrons entrust large funds which would later be used to benefit the local economy by estate management, craftsmanship, promotion of trading activities. Buddhism in particular, travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting coinage, art, and literacy.<ref name=Donkin67>Donkin 2003: 63</ref> Indian merchants involved in spice trade took ] to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and ] became popular with the native inhabitants.<ref name=Collingham245>Collingham245: 2006</ref>
	*The ] followed by trading along the ] and the ].<ref name="Fage 1975: 164">Fage 1975: 164</ref> During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at ] ports such as ] (called ] by the Greeks).<ref>, CSI, UNESCO.</ref> According to ], later reported in ]'s '']'',<ref>, LacusCurtius.</ref> the ] of the Indian Ocean was first sailed by Eudoxus of ] in 118 or 116&nbsp;BCE. Poseidonius said a shipwrecked sailor from India had been rescued in the Red Sea and taken to Ptolemy VIII in ]. Strabo, whose ''Geography'' is the main surviving source of the story, was skeptical about its truth. Modern scholarship tends to consider it relatively credible. Another Greek navigator, ], is sometimes credited with discovering the monsoon wind route to India. He is sometimes conjectured to have been part of Eudoxus's expeditions.<ref>For more on the establishment of direct sailing routes from Egypt to India, ancient knowledge of the monsoon winds, and details about Eudoxus and Hippalus, see: {{cite book|last1=Hourani|first1=George F.|last2=Carswell|first2=John|title=Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZDh2KKSlQg4C|year=1995|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-00032-8|pages=24–26}}</ref> During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and ]s that became the maritime trading power of the ].
			Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at ] and the renowned Great Stupa at ]. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of ] and was used to write the ]. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising ] at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.
	====Kushan Empire====
	{{Main|Kushan Empire}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Kushan Empire
	|-
	|
	<gallery>
	File:Kushanmap.jpg|Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription.
	File:Kanishka Buddha detail.jpg|Depiction of the ] in Kanishka's coinage, ], 2nd century CE.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	The ] expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly of ] ] tribe;<ref name="TCHAC">{{cite book |last1=Loewe |first1=Michael |last2=Shaughnessy |first2=Edward L. |authorlink1=Michael Loewe |authorlink2=Edward L. Shaughnessy |title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC |year=1999 |publisher=] |location= |isbn=0-5214-7030-7 |accessdate=2013-11-01 |pages=87–88}}</ref> one of five branches of the ] confederation.<ref>{{cite book | last=Runion | first=Meredith L. | title=The history of Afghanistan | year=2007 | publisher=Greenwood Press | location=Westport | isbn=978-0-313-33798-7 | page=46 | quote=The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.}}</ref><ref name=liu156>{{cite book | last=Liu | first=Xinrui | title=Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history | year=2001 | publisher=Temple University Press | location=Philadelphia | isbn=978-1-56639-832-9 | page=156 | editor=Adas, Michael}}</ref> By the time of his grandson, ], the empire spread to encompass much of ],<ref>http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm and Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and then the northern parts of the ] at least as far as ] and ] near ] (Banaras).<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>
			==== Satavahana Empire ====
	Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of ]; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new ] majority.<ref>{{cite book |author=Grégoire Frumkin |title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gdUUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 |year=1970 |publisher=Brill Archive |pages=51– |id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Rafi U. Samad |title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93 |year=2011 |publisher=Algora Publishing |isbn=978-0-87586-859-2 |pages=93–}}</ref> They played an important role in the establishment of Buddhism in India and its spread to Central Asia and China.
			{{Main|Satavahana Empire}}
			{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
			| title = Satavahana Empire
			| image1 = Sanchi Stupa No.2 Front view1.jpg
			| caption1=], 1st century CE (]).
			| image2 = Indian ship on lead coin of Vashishtiputra Shri Pulumavi.jpg
			|caption2=Indian ship on lead coin of ], testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.
			}}
			The Śātavāhanas were based from ] in ] as well as ] (]) and Prathisthan (]) in ]. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the ], but declared independence with its decline.
			The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from ] (a ]) to ]. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the ] to the southern tip of India.
	Historian ] said about Kanishka:
			They had to compete with the ] and then the ] of ] to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the ], ] and ]. In particular, their struggles with the ] went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty ] and ] were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the ] and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m1JYwP5tVQUC&pg=PA113|title=Studies in Indian Coins|isbn=9788120829732|last1=Sircar|first1=D. C.|year=2008|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers}}</ref>
	{{Quote|He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<ref name="ReferenceC">Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</ref>}}
			==== Trade and travels to India ====
	The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the ] through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and ]. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming ] and ], which reached its peak during Kushan rule.<ref name="ArtPal1986">{{cite book|author1=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|author2=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.-A.D. 700|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=clUmKaWRFTkC&pg=PA151|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=151–}}</ref>
			{{Further|Silk Road transmission of Buddhism}}
			] and ], ancient trade routes that linked India with the ]; carried goods and ideas between the ancient civilisations of the Old World and India. The land routes are marked as red, and the water routes are marked as blue.]]
			The ] in ] attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port ] had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000&nbsp;BCE, according to ]. ] traders arrived in ], ] as early as 562 BCE.<ref>{{cite book|last=Schreiber|first=Mordecai|title=The Shengold Jewish Encyclopedia|year=2003|publisher=Schreiber Publishing|location=Rockville, MD|isbn=978-1-887563-77-2|page=125}}</ref> The ] followed by trading along the ] and the ].{{sfn|Law|1978|p=164}} During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at ] ports such as ].<ref>, CSI, UNESCO.</ref> During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and ]s that became the maritime trading power of the ].
			Indian merchants involved in spice trade took ] to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and ] became popular with the native inhabitants.{{sfn|Collingham|2006|p=245}} Buddhism entered China through the ] in the 1st or 2nd century CE.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZLFXAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA506|title=The Medical Times and Gazette, Volume 1|year=1867|publisher=John Churchill|location=London|page=506}}</ref> Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.{{sfn|Donkin|2003|pp=67, 60–70}}
	H.G. Rowlinson commented:
			==== Kushan Empire ====
	{{Quote|The Kushan period is a fitting prelude to the Age of the Guptas.<ref>Ancient and Medieval History of India – H.G. Rowlinson</ref>}}
			{{Main|Kushan Empire}}
			{{multiple image
	By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was ].<ref name="kushan">{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|publisher=kushan.org|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-S?ng, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref>
			| perrow = 2
			| total_width = 300
			| caption_align = center
			| title = Kushan Empire
			| image1 = Map of the Kushan Empire.png
			| caption1 = Kushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscription
			| image2 = Kanishka Buddha detail.jpg
			| caption2 = Depiction of the ] in Kanishka's coinage, ], 2nd century CE
			}}
			The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, ], about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a ] tribe,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Loewe|first1=Michael|last2=Shaughnessy|first2=Edward L.|author-link1=Michael Loewe|author-link2=Edward L. Shaughnessy|title=The Cambridge History of Ancient China: From the Origins of Civilization to 221 BC|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cHA7Ey0-pbEC|year=1999|publisher=]|isbn=978-0-521-47030-8|access-date=1 November 2013|pages=87–88}}</ref> one of five branches of the ] confederation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Runion|first=Meredith L.|title=The history of Afghanistan|url=https://archive.org/details/historyafghanist00runi_653|url-access=limited|year=2007|publisher=Greenwood Press|location=Westport|isbn=978-0-313-33798-7|page=|quote=The Yuezhi people conquered Bactria in the second century BCE. and divided the country into five chiefdoms, one of which would become the Kushan Empire. Recognizing the importance of unification, these five tribes combined under the one dominate Kushan tribe, and the primary rulers descended from the Yuezhi.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Liu|first=Xinrui|title=Agricultural and pastoral societies in ancient and classical history|year=2001|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1-56639-832-9|page=156|editor=Adas, Michael}}</ref> By the time of his grandson, ], the empire spread to encompass much of ],<ref> Si-Yu-Ki, (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 318–350</ref> and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>which began about 127 CE. "Falk 2001, pp. 121–136", Falk (2001), pp. 121–136, Falk, Harry (2004), pp. 167–176 and Hill (2009), pp. 29, 33, 368–371.</ref>
	===Classical period (c. 320 – c. 650 CE)===
			Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new ] majority.<ref>{{cite book|author=Grégoire Frumkin|title=Archaeology in Soviet Central Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/archaeologyinsov0000frum|url-access=registration|year=1970|publisher=Brill Archive|pages=–|id=GGKEY:4NPLATFACBB}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rafi U. Samad|title=The Grandeur of Gandhara: The Ancient Buddhist Civilization of the Swat, Peshawar, Kabul and Indus Valleys|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNUwBYGYgxsC&pg=PA93|year=2011|publisher=Algora Publishing|isbn=978-0-87586-859-2|pages=93–}}</ref> Historian ] said about Kanishka:
	====Gupta Empire – Golden Age====
			{{Blockquote|He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.<ref>Oxford History of India – Vincent Smith</ref>}}
			The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the ] through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and ]. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming ] and ], which reached its peak during Kushan rule.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Los Angeles County Museum of Art|author2=Pratapaditya Pal|title=Indian Sculpture: Circa 500 B.C.–A.D. 700|url=https://archive.org/details/indiansculpturec00losa|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-05991-7|pages=–}}</ref> The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as '']''. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|publisher=kushan.org|title=The History of Pakistan: The Kushans|access-date=6 January 2017|archive-date=7 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707162312/http://www.kushan.org/general/other/part1.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>Si-Yu-Ki, ''Buddhist Records of the Western World'', (Tr. Samuel Beal: Travels of Fa-Hian, The Mission of Sung-Yun and Hwei-Sing, Books 1–5), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906</ref>
			=== Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE) ===
			==== Gupta Empire ====
	{{Main|Gupta Empire}}		{{Main|Gupta Empire}}
	{{Further|Meghadūta|Abhijñānaśākuntala|Kumārasambhava|Panchatantra|Aryabhatiya|Indian numerals|Kama Sutra}}		{{Further|Meghadūta|Abhijñānaśākuntala|Kumārasambhava|Panchatantra|Aryabhatiya|Indian numerals|Kama Sutra}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Gupta Empire – Golden Age
	|-
	|
	<gallery>
	Gupta_empire_map.png|] expansion from 320&nbsp;CE to 550&nbsp;CE.
	Mahabodhitemple.jpg|The current structure of the ] dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
			{{multiple image
	Classical India refers to the period when much of the Indian subcontinent was united under the Gupta Empire (c. 320–550&nbsp;CE).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Gupta Dynasty&nbsp;– MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5kwqOxl5F?url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761571624/gupta_dynasty.html |archivedate=1 November 2009 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://historymedren.about.com/library/text/bltxtindia7.htm |title=India&nbsp;– Historical Setting&nbsp;– The Classical Age&nbsp;– Gupta and Harsha |publisher=Historymedren.about.com |date=2 November 2009 |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> This period has been called the Golden Age of India;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html |title=Gupta Dynasty, Golden Age Of India |publisher=Nupam.com |accessdate=16 May 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802092924/http://www.nupam.com/Sgupta1.html |archivedate=2 August 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> and was marked by extensive achievements in ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], ], and ] that crystallised the elements of what is generally known as ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |title=The Age of the Guptas and After |date=6 June 1999 |publisher=Washington State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981206001744/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ANCINDIA/GUPTA.HTM |archivedate=6 December 1998 |accessdate=16 May 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The ], a ], originated in India and was later transmitted to the West through the Arabs. Early Hindu numerals had only nine symbols, until 600 to 800&nbsp;CE, when a symbol for zero was developed for the numeral system.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ore|first=Oystein |title=Number Theory and Its History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sl_6BPp7S0AC&pg=PA19|year=1988|publisher=Courier Dover Publications|isbn=978-0-486-65620-5|page=19}}</ref> The peace and prosperity created under leadership of Guptas enabled the pursuit of scientific and artistic endeavours in India.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/249590/Gupta-dynasty |title=Gupta dynasty (Indian dynasty) |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref>
			| perrow = 2
			| total_width = 350
			| caption_align = center
			| title = Gupta Empire
			| image1 = Map of the Gupta Empire.png
			| caption1 = ] around 420&nbsp;CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.
			| image2 = Mahabodhitemple.jpg
			| caption2 = Current structure of the ] built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.
			}}
	The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent architecture, sculpture, and painting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=16 May 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century |archivedate=30 March 2010 }}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as ], ], ], ], and ] who made great advancements in many academic fields. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, which continued to provide an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – ], ], and ] – brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html |title=The Story of India&nbsp;— Photo Gallery |publisher=PBS |accessdate=16 May 2010}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in Burma, Sri Lanka, ], and ].		The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|title=Gupta dynasty: empire in 4th century|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=16 May 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100330103811/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic-art/285248/1960/The-Gupta-empire-at-the-end-of-the-4th-century|archive-date=30 March 2010}}</ref> The Gupta period produced scholars such as ], ], ], ], and ]. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – ], ], and ] – brought much of India under their leadership.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/gallery/photos/8.html|title=The Story of India&nbsp;– Photo Gallery|publisher=PBS|access-date=16 May 2010}}</ref> Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.<ref>Coedes, G. (1968) ''The Indianized States of Southeast Asia'' Edited by Walter F. Vella. Translated by Susan Brown Cowing. Canberra: Australian National University Press. Introduction... ''The geographic area here called ''Farther India'' consists of Indonesia, or island Southeast Asia....''</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Philippe Groslier|title=The art of Indochina: including Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia|url=https://archive.org/details/artofindochinain00gros|url-access=registration|year=1962|publisher=Crown Publishers}}</ref> The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as '']''.
	The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the ], who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century, with their capital at ].<ref>Iaroslav Lebedynsky, "Les Nomades", p172.</ref> However, much of the ] and southern India were largely unaffected by these events in the north.<ref>Early History of India, p 339, Dr V. A. Smith; See also Early Empire of Central Asia (1939), W. M. McGovern.</ref><ref>Ancient India, 2003, p 650, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 50, Dr ], Dr A. D. Pusalkar.</ref>		The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the ], who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at ].<ref>Iaroslav Lebedynsky, ''Les Nomades'', p. 172.</ref> However, much of the southern India including ] were largely unaffected by these events.<ref>''Early History of India'', p. 339, Dr V.A. Smith; See also ''Early Empire of Central Asia'' (1939), W.M. McGovern.</ref><ref>''Ancient India'', 2003, p. 650, Dr V.D. Mahajan; ''History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj'', p. 50, Dr ], Dr A.D. Pusalkar.</ref>
	====Vakataka Empire====		==== Vakataka Empire ====
	{{Main|Vakataka Empire}}		{{Main|Vakataka Empire}}
	] are 30 ] Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.]]
	The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the ] in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of ] and ] in the north to the ] in the south as well as from the ] in the western to the edges of ] in the east. They were the most important successors of the ] in the ], contemporaneous with the ] in northern India and succeeded by the ].		The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the ] in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of ] and ] in the north to the ] in the south as well as from the ] in the western to the edges of ] in the east. They were the most important successors of the ] in the ], contemporaneous with the ] in northern India and succeeded by the ].
	The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. They led public works and their monuments are a visible legacy. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of ] (a ]) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, ].<ref name=Madan>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page=173|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref>The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.</ref>		The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of ] (a ]) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, ].<ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year=1990|page=|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref><ref>The precise number varies according to whether or not some barely started excavations, such as cave 15A, are counted. "In all, total 30 excavations were hewn out of rock which also include an unfinished one", UNESCO and Spink "about 30". The controversies over the end date of excavation is covered below.</ref>
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=180|File:AJANTA CAVES - C.SHELARE (2).jpg|], 30 ] Buddhist cave monument built under the ].
			|File:Ajanta Cave 26 Dagoba with praying monks.jpg|Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
			|File:Cave 26, Ajanta.jpg|Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
			|File:Ajanta Cave 17 frescoe.jpg|Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.
			}}
	====Kamarupa Kingdom====		==== Kamarupa Kingdom ====
	{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}		{{Main|Kamarupa Kingdom}}
	] ruins.]]		] ruins.|alt=]]
			]'s 4th-century ] mentions Kamarupa (])<ref>Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", p. 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and ] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", p. 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present ] and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, ], parts of ] and, at times ] and parts of ].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in ]) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref>
			Ruled by three dynasties ] (c. 350–650&nbsp;CE), ] (c. 655–900&nbsp;CE) and ] (c. 900–1100&nbsp;CE), from their capitals in present-day ] (]), Tezpur (]) and ] (]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from ].{{citation needed|date=April 2017}} In the reign of the Varman king, ] (c. 600–650&nbsp;CE), the Chinese traveller ] visited the ] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255&nbsp;CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185&nbsp;CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255&nbsp;CE) dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|date=1990|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|edition=1st|location=Guwahati, India|publisher=Assam Publication Board|oclc=499315420}}</ref> The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the ] under ] of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the ].<ref>Sarkar, J.N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H.K., ''The Comprehensive History of Assam'', 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48</ref>
	]'s 4th-century ] mentions Kamarupa (])<ref>Tej Ram Sharma, 1978, "Personal and geographical names in the Gupta inscriptions. (1.publ.)", Page 254, Kamarupa consisted of the Western districts of the Brahmaputra valley which being the most powerful state.</ref> and ] (Central Assam)<ref>Suresh Kant Sharma, Usha Sharma – 2005, "Discovery of North-East India: Geography, History, Culture, ... – Volume 3", Page 248, Davaka (Nowgong) and Kamarupa as separate and submissive friendly kingdoms.</ref> as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present ] and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, ], parts of ] and, at times ] and parts of ].<ref>The eastern border of Kamarupa is given by the temple of the goddess Tamreshvari (Pūrvāte Kāmarūpasya devī Dikkaravasini in ]) near present-day Sadiya. "...the temple of the goddess Tameshwari (Dikkaravasini) is now located at modern Sadiya about 100 miles to the northeast of Sibsagar" {{harv|Sircar|1990|pp=63–68}}.</ref>
			==== Pallava Empire ====
	Ruled by three dynasties ] (c. 350–650&nbsp;CE), ] (c. 655–900&nbsp;CE) and ] (c. 900–1100&nbsp;CE), from their capitals in present-day ] (]), Tezpur (]) and ] (]) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from ], an immigrant from ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Swami|first=Parmeshwaranand|title=Encyclopaedic Dictionary of the Puranas|year=2001|publisher=Sarup and Sons|location=New Delhi|isbn=8176252263|page=941}}</ref> In the reign of the Varman king, ] (c. 600–650&nbsp;CE), the Chinese traveller ] visited the ] and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended till c. 1255&nbsp;CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120 – 1185&nbsp;CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155 – 1255&nbsp;CE) dynasties.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Barpujari |editor-first = H. K. |date=1990 |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam |edition=1st |location=Guwahati, India |publisher=Assam Publication Board |oclc=499315420}}</ref> The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the ] under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the ].<ref>Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H. K., The Comprehensive History of Assam, 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48</ref>
			{{Main|Pallava Empire}}] (]) at ] built by ].|alt=]]The ]s, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the ]s of the ], great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the ] of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyknowledge.com/pallava.htm|title=Pallava script|date=30 December 2010|publisher=SkyKnowledge.com}}</ref> Early Pallavas had different connexions to ]n countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in ], ] and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic ] and sculpture style of ].<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, pp. 412–413</ref>
			Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of ] (571–630 CE) and ] (630–668 CE) and dominated the ] and northern parts of the ] region until the end of the 9th century.<ref>{{cite book|title=History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day|publisher=World Publications Group|others=John Grayson Kirk|year=2005|isbn=978-1-57215-421-6|editor1-last=Hall|editor1-first=John Whitney|location=North Dighton, MA|page=246|chapter=India|orig-year=1988}}</ref>
	====Pallava Empire====
	{{Main|Pallava Empire}}
	] (a ]) at ] built by ].]]
			==== Kadamba Empire ====
	The ]s, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the ]s of the ], great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the ] of the ]. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skyknowledge.com/pallava.htm |title=Pallava script |publisher=SkyKnowledge.com |date=30 December 2010}}</ref> Early Pallavas had different connexions to ]n countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in ], ] and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic ] and sculpture style of ].<ref>Nilakanta Sastri, pp412–413</ref>
	Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of ] (571 – 630 CE) and ] (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the ] and northern parts of the ] region for about six hundred years until the end of the 9th century.<ref name="histoworldwhitney">{{cite book |editor1-first=John Whitney |editor1-last=Hall |others=John Grayson Kirk
	|title=History of the World: Earliest Times to the Present Day
	|year=2005 |origyear=1988 |publisher=World Publications Group
	|location=455 Somerset Avenue, North Dighton, MA 02764, USA
	|isbn=1-57215-421-7 |page=246 |chapter=India
	}}</ref>
	====Kadamba Empire====
	{{Main|Kadamba Empire}}		{{Main|Kadamba Empire}}
	].]]		].|alt=]]
	Kadambas originated from ], was founded by ] in 345&nbsp;CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions, an indication to which is provided by the titles and epithets assumed by its rulers. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of ] possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of ], a notable ruler with whom even the kings of ] of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the ] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the ] and the ] empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties known as the ], ] and ].
			Kadambas originated from ], was founded by ] in 345&nbsp;CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of ] possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of ], a notable ruler with whom the kings of ] of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the ] and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the ] and the ] empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (], ] and ]).
	====Alchon Huns====
	{{Main|Alchon Huns}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Alchon Huns
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	<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
	File:The defeat of the Ephalites, or White Huns A.D. 528.jpg|The defeat of the Alchon Huns under ] by King ] at ] in 528 CE.
	File:VishnuGandhara.JPG|] representing ] with a worshipper (probably ]), 4th–6th century CE. The inscription in cursive ] reads: "], ] and ]". ].
	</gallery>
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	The Indo-Hephthalites (or Alchon Huns) were a nomadic confederation in Central Asia during the late antiquity period. The ] established themselves in modern-day Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century. Led by the Hun military leader ], they overran Northern regions of the Indian subcontinent. Toramana's son ], a ] Hindu, moved up to near ] to the east and ] to central India. ] narrates Mihirakula's merciless persecution of Buddhists and destruction of monasteries, though the description is disputed as far as the authenticity is concerned.<ref>Hiuen Tsiang, Si-Yu-Ki, Buddhist Records of the Western World, (Tr. Samuel Beal), Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co. Ltd. London. 1906, pp. 167–168.</ref> The Huns were defeated by alliance of Indian rulers, ] (Great King) ] of Malwa and Gupta Emperor ] in the 6th century. Some of them were driven out of India and others were assimilated in the Indian society.<ref>History of India by N. Jayapalan p.134</ref>
	====Empire of Harsha====		==== Empire of Harsha ====
	{{Main|Harsha|Vardhana dynasty}}		{{Main|Harsha|Pushyabhuti dynasty}}
	] ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of ] and the younger brother of ], who were members of the ] and ruled ], in present-day ].		] ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of ] and the younger brother of ], who were members of the ] and ruled ], in present-day ].
	], circa 606–647 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261204|title=CNG: eAuction 329. INDIA, Post-Gupta (Ganges Valley). Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. Harshavardhana. Circa AD 606-647. AR Drachm (13mm, 2.28 g, 1h).|website=www.cngcoins.com}}</ref>]]		], c. 606–647 CE.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=261204|title=CNG: eAuction 329. India, Post-Gupta (Ganges Valley). Vardhanas of Thanesar and Kanauj. Harshavardhana. Circa AD 606–647. AR Drachm (13&nbsp;mm, 2.28 g, 1h).|website=cngcoins.com}}</ref>|alt=]]
	After the downfall of the prior ] in the middle of the 6th century, ] reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor at an assembly in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja when he was merely 16 years old.<ref name=" RN Kundra & SS Bawa ">RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Medieval India</ref> At the height of his power, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East till ], and South until ]; and eventually made ] (in present ] state) his capital, and ruled till 647 CE.<ref name="Historic Places p.507">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p.507</ref>		After the downfall of the prior ] in the middle of the 6th century, ] reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.<ref>RN Kundra & SS Bawa, History of Ancient and Medieval India</ref> At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until ], and South until ]; and eventually made ] (in present ]) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.<ref name="Historic Places p.507">International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania by Trudy Ring, Robert M. Salkin, Sharon La Boda p. 507</ref>
	The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors from far and wide.<ref name="Historic Places p.507"/> During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from ] worship.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha |title=Harsha |date=2015 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Chinese traveller ] visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<ref name="Historic Places p.507"/> His biography '']'' ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet ], describes his association with Thanesar, besides mentioning the defence wall, a moat and the palace with a two-storied ''Dhavalagriha'' (White Mansion).<ref name=encystan>{{cite web | title = Sthanvishvara (historical region, India) |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica | url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/566090/Sthanvishvara | accessdate = 2014-08-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title = Harsha (Indian emperor)|publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica|url = http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha | accessdate = 2014-08-09 }}</ref>		The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from ] worship.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|title=Harsha|year=2015|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref> The Chinese traveller ] visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity.<ref name="Historic Places p.507" /> His biography '']'' ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet ], describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied ''Dhavalagriha'' (White Mansion).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Sthanvishvara (historical region, India)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/566090/Sthanvishvara|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Harsha (Indian emperor)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/256065/Harsha|access-date=9 August 2014}}</ref>
	===Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200 CE)===		== Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200) ==
	{{Main|Medieval India|Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|Tripartite struggle}}		{{Main|Medieval India|Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent|Tripartite Struggle}}
			Early ] began after the end of the ] in the 6th century&nbsp;CE.<ref name="stein" /> This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the ] in the 7th century,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the ] in Northern India;{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} the beginning of Imperial ], leading to the ]; and the end of the ] with the death of ] in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the ] in the south around the 17th century.
	{{multiple image|perrow=1/1/1|total_width=300|caption_align=center
	| title = ] ]s of Early ]
	| image1 = Martand Sun Temple Central shrine (6133772365).jpg|caption1=] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity ]. The temple complex was built by the third ruler of the ], Emperor ], in the 8th century CE. It is one of the largest temple complexes on the Indian subcontinent.
	| image2 = Sun Temple Panorama.jpg|caption2=], with ] surrounding the Kunda (tank), was built by ] of ] in 1026 CE. It is one of the finest examples of ].
	| image3 = Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|caption3=] at ], ], built by Emperor ] (1238–1264 CE) of the ], it is now a ].
	}}
	Early ] began after the end of the ] in the 6th century CE.<ref name="stein"/> This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism,{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} which began after the end of the ],{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} and the collapse of the ] in the 7th century CE;{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=41}} the beginning of Imperial ], leading to the ]; and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the ] in Northern India{{sfn|Michaels|2004|p=43}} and the end of the ] with the death of ] in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the ] in the south around the 17th century.
	From the fifth century to the thirteenth, ] sacrifices declined, and initiatory traditions of ], ] or more commonly ], ] and ] expanded in royal courts.<ref name="Sanderson, Alexis 2009 pages 41-43"/> This period produced some of India's finest art, considered the epitome of classical development, and the development of the main spiritual and philosophical systems which continued to be in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.		From the fifth century to the thirteenth, ] sacrifices declined, and support for ], ] and ] expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanderson|first=Alexis|year=2009|chapter=The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period|editor-last=Einoo|editor-first=Shingo|title=Genesis and Development of Tantrism|location=Tokyo|publisher=Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo|series=Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series|volume=23|pages=41–43|isbn=978-4-7963-0188-6}}</ref> Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical ] formed in the ], and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.<ref>Sarao, ''Decline of Buddhism in India''</ref>
			In the 7th century, ] formulated his school of ] philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.<ref>Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', ed. Ian McGready, New York: HarperCollins, 1995, pp. 198–201. {{ISBN|0-06-270085-5}}.</ref>
	North-Western Indian Buddhism weakened in the 6th century after the ] invasion, who followed their own religions at the beginning such as ], but later ]. ]'s invasion of ] (modern Pakistan) in 711&nbsp;CE witnessed further decline of Buddhism. The ] records many instances of conversion of stupas to mosques such as at ].<ref>Schimmel, Annemarie Schimmel, Religionen&nbsp;– Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic Publishers, 1 January 1980, {{ISBN|978-90-04-06117-0}}, pg. 4</ref>
			From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the ]s of Malwa, the ] of Bengal, and the ] of the Deccan. The ] would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the ], the ], the ], the ] of ], and the ], these states were some of the earliest ];<ref>{{cite book|title=India: The Ancient Past. A History of the Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200|first=Burjor|last=Avari|author-link=Burjor Avari|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|year=2007|isbn=978-0-203-08850-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmB_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT204|pages=204–205|quote=Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs}}</ref> while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the ].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=93}} During this period, the ] emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the ], ], ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Vinod Chandra Srivastava|year=2008|title=History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D.|publisher=Concept|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FvjZVwYVmNcC&pg=PA857|page=857|isbn=978-81-8069-521-6}}</ref> in the style of ], and their capital Anhilwara (modern ]) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in {{circa}} 1000.
	In the 7th century CE, ] formulated his school of ] philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals against Buddhist attacks. Scholars note Bhaṭṭa's contribution to the ].<ref>Sheridan, Daniel P. "Kumarila Bhatta", in ''Great Thinkers of the Eastern World'', ed. Ian McGready, New York: Harper Collins, 1995, pp. 198–201. {{ISBN|0-06-270085-5}}.</ref> His dialectical success against the Buddhists is confirmed by Buddhist historian ], who reports that Kumārila defeated disciples of Buddhapalkita, Bhavya, Dharmadasa, Dignaga and others.<ref>Arnold, Daniel Anderson. Buddhists, Brahmins, and Belief: Epistemology in South Asian Philosophy of religion, p. 4. Columbia University Press, 2005. {{ISBN|978-0-231-13281-7}}.</ref>
			The ] emerged as a major power during the reign of ] and ] who successfully ] and ] in the 11th century.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129">''The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India'' by Balaji Sadasivan p. 129</ref> ] (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri ], which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by ]. ] in his ] credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pollock|first=Sheldon|year=2006|title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India|publisher=University of California Press|pages=241–242|isbn=978-0-520-93202-9}}</ref><ref>Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). </ref><ref>R. C. Mazumdar, ''Ancient India'', p. 383</ref>
	In the 8th century, ] travelled across the Indian subcontinent to propagate and spread the doctrine of ], which he consolidated; and is credited with unifying the main characteristics of the current thoughts in Hinduism.<ref>Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, {{ISBN|978-1-4724-1913-2}}, page 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers."</ref><ref>''Shankara'', Student's Encyclopædia Britannica – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica (UK) Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-85229-760-5}}, page 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.";<br />David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, page 1353, Quote: " is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought."</ref><ref>Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-10335-0}}, page 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara".</ref> He was a critic of both Buddhism and Minamsa school of Hinduism;<ref name=SKChattopadhyaya>, Sarup & Sons, New Delhi {{ISBN|81-7625-222-0}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7625-222-5}}</ref><ref name=eroer1>Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=3}} to ''Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad'' at pages 3–4; Quote – "(...) Lokayatikas and Bauddhas who assert that the soul does not exist. There are four sects among the followers of Buddha: 1. Madhyamicas who maintain all is void; 2. Yogacharas, who assert except sensation and intelligence all else is void; 3. Sautranticas, who affirm actual existence of external objects no less than of internal sensations; 4. Vaibhashikas, who agree with later (Sautranticas) except that they contend for immediate apprehension of exterior objects through images or forms represented to the intellect."</ref><ref name=eroer2>Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=3}} to ''Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad'' at page 3, {{oclc|19373677}}</ref><ref>KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0619-1}}, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;<br />Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7914-2217-5}}, page 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ] is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";<br />Edward Roer (Translator), {{Google books|3uwDAAAAMAAJ|Shankara's Introduction|page=2}}, pages 2–4<br />Katie Javanaud (2013), , Philosophy Now;<br />John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-0158-5}}, page 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".</ref> and founded ] (monasteries), in the four corners of the Indian subcontinent for the spread and development of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name="DeepakChopraBookLink">, Deepak Chopra, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, {{ISBN|81-265-0696-2}}, {{ISBN|978-81-265-0696-5}}</ref>
			The ] dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the ] rose to power; noted for the advancement of ], most notable being ] and ], as well as being patrons of art and literature.
	Ronald Inden writes that by the 8th century CE symbols of Hindu gods "replaced the Buddha at the imperial centre and pinnacle of the cosmo-political system, the image or symbol of the Hindu god comes to be housed in a monumental temple and given increasingly elaborate imperial-style puja worship".<ref>Inden, Ronald. "Ritual, Authority, And Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship". In JF Richards, ed., ''Kingship and Authority in South Asia''. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1998, p.67, 55</ref> Although Buddhism did not disappear from India for several centuries after the eighth, royal proclivities for the cults of Vishnu and Shiva weakened Buddhism's position within the sociopolitical context and helped make possible its decline.<ref>Holt, John. ''The Buddhist Visnu''. Columbia University Press, 2004, p.12,15</ref>
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=180|File:Martand Sun Temple Central shrine (6133772365).jpg|] Central shrine, dedicated to the deity ], and built by the third ruler of the ], ], in the 8th century
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
			|File:Konark Temple Panorama2.jpg|] at ], ], built by ] (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
	| align = left
			|File:Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg|] in the ] was built by the ]s
	| image1 = Indian Kanauj triangle map.svg|caption1=] was the focal point of empires&nbsp;— the ]s of ], the ]s of Malwa, and the ] of Bengal&nbsp;— resulting in the ].
			|File:PURI JAGANATHA TEMPLE, PURI, ORISSA, INDIA, ASIA.jpg|] at ], built by ] of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
	| image2 = Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg|caption2=Sculptures near ], ].
	}}		}}
	Emperor Harsha of ] succeeded in reuniting northern India during his reign in the 7th century, after the collapse of the Gupta dynasty. His empire collapsed after his death. From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the ]s of Malwa, the ] of Bengal, and the ] of the Deccan. The ] would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the ]s of Malwa, the ]s of ], the ] of ], the ] of ], and the ] of ], these states were some of the earliest ];<ref name="Avari">{{cite book|title=India: The Ancient Past. A History of the Indian-Subcontinent from 7000 BC to AD 1200|first=Burjor |last=Avari |authorlink=Burjor Avari |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-203-08850-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmB_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT204 |pp=204–205|quote=Madhyadesha became the ambition of two particular clans among a tribal people in Rajasthan, known as Gurjara and Pratihara. They were both parts of a larger federation of tribes, some of which later came to be known as the Rajputs}}</ref> while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the ].<ref name="yadgir">Kamath (2001), pp100–103</ref>
			===Later Gupta dynasty===
	The ] emerged as a major power during the reign of ] and ] who successfully ] and ] in the 11th century.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p.129">The Dancing Girl: A History of Early India by Balaji Sadasivan p.129</ref> ] (r. 724&nbsp;CE–760&nbsp;CE) was an emperor of the Kashmiri ], which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625&nbsp;CE until 1003, and was followed by ]. ] in his ] credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Pollock |first=Sheldon |date=2006 |title=The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India |publisher=University of California Press |pages=241–242 |isbn=978-0-520-93202-9}}</ref><ref>Sunil Fotedar (June 1984). </ref><ref>R.C. Mazumdar, Ancient India, Page 383</ref>
			{{Main|Later Gupta dynasty}}
			]
			The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the ] region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the ] as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|publisher=Routledge|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317476818|page=26}}</ref> The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA246|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|publisher=New Age|year=1999|isbn=9788122411980|page=246}}</ref>
			=== Chalukya Empire ===
	] at ], built by ] of the ].]]
			{{Main|Chalukya dynasty}}
	The ] dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in ], the ] rose to power; noted for the advancement of ], most notable being ] and ], as well as being patrons of art and literature.
			The ] ruled large parts of southern and ] between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern ]) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the ] kingdom of ] and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of ]. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of ]. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the ] and the ]s. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from ] between 970 and 1190.
			{{Gallery|align=center
	====Chalukya Empire====
			|width=180|File:Galaganatha Temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka.jpg|Galaganatha Temple at ] (]) is an example of ]
	{{Main|Chalukya Empire}}
			|File:View of Bhutanatha temple in Badami during monsoon.jpg|] at ], next to a ], during the monsoon.
	] image inside the ]. The complex is an example of ], especially ], which dates from the 6th century CE.]]
			|File:Vishnu image inside cave number 3 in Badami.jpg|] image inside the ]. Example of ]
			|File:Aihole Temple Karnataka.JPG|8th century Durga temple exterior view at ]. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments
			}}
			=== Rashtrakuta Empire ===
	The ] ruled large parts of ] and ] between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern ]) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the ] kingdom of ] and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of ]. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of ] and a golden age in the history of ]. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the ] and the ] rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The ] ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from ] between 970 and 1190.
	The ] of Gujarat were a branch of the Chalukyas. Their capital at Anhilwara (modern ]) was one of the largest cities in Classical India, with the population estimated at 100,000 in 1000&nbsp;CE.
	====Rashtrakuta Empire====
	{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}		{{Main|Rashtrakuta Empire}}
			Founded by ] around 753,{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=334}} the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at ] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=19–20}}</ref> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the ] in the north to ] in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=83, 85, 97}}<ref>{{cite book|title=Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians|last=Puttaswamy|first=T.K.|year=2012|chapter=Mahavira|pages=231|publisher=Elsevier Publications|place=London|isbn=978-0-12-397913-1}}</ref>
	] is one of the largest ] ancient ] temples located in ].]]
	Founded by ] around 753,{{sfn|Thapar|2003|p=334}} the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at ] for almost two centuries.<ref name="Chandra">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=19–20}}</ref> At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges River and Yamuna River doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions.<ref name="mahavira">Kamath (2001), p.89</ref><ref name="ganita">"Mathematical Achievements of Pre-modern Indian Mathematicians", Putta Swamy T.K., 2012, chapter=Mahavira, p.231, Elsevier Publications, London, {{ISBN|978-0-12-397913-1}}</ref>
	The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=380}} ] and ] were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha, who ruled for 64 years, was also an author and wrote ], the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<ref name="Chandra"/>{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=380–381}} Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at ] in Karnataka.		The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=380}} ] and ] were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote ], the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.<ref name="Chandra" />{{sfn|Sen|1999|pp=380–381}} Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at ] in Karnataka.
	The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.{{sfn|Daniélou|2003|p=170}} The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician ] lived in the Rashtrakuta Empire and his text had a huge impact on the medieval south Indian mathematicians who lived after him.<ref>The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry by William L. Hosch p.105</ref> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters, who wrote in a variety of languages from Sanskrit to the ]s.<ref name="Chandra"/>		The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.{{sfn|Daniélou|2003|p=170}} The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician ] had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians.<ref>''The Britannica Guide to Algebra and Trigonometry'' by William L. Hosch p. 105</ref> The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.<ref name="Chandra" />
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=180|File:Ellora Cave 16 si0308.jpg|], is one of the largest ] ancient ]s located in ]
			|File:Indra Sabha Ellora Temple Maharashtra India.jpg|] of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves
			|File:Ellora cave10 002.jpg|Statue of the ] seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).
			|File:Ellora Caves 86.jpg|] ] ] with ] Matanga and ] Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves
			}}
	====Gurjara-Pratihara Empire====		=== Gurjara-Pratihara Empire ===
	{{Main|Gurjara-Pratihara Empire}}		{{Main|Gurjara-Pratihara Empire}}
			The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ]. ] defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=283–284}}</ref> Under ], the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son ], who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, ]. Under Bhoja and his successor ], the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of ] in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the ] in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=204}} The expansion triggered a ] with the ] and ] empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
	| align = left
	| image1 = Khajuraho - Kandariya Mahadeo Temple.jpg|caption1=] in the ] was built by the ]s, who were feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. The complex is the greatest development of Gurjara-Pratihara style of temple building and famous for ]-style architectural symbolism and ].<ref>Philip Wilkinson (2008), India: People, Place, Culture and History, {{ISBN|978-1-4053-2904-0}}, pp 352–353</ref>
	| image2 = Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|caption2=One of the four entrances of the ]. This Hindu temple was built by the Pratihara emperor ].<ref name="Bajpai2006">{{cite book|author=K. D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref>
	}}
	The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Al-Hind: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, 7th–11th Centuries |first=André |last=Wink |location=Leiden |publisher=BRILL |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-391-04173-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA284 |p=284}}</ref> ] defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the ]. Under ], the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son ], who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, ]. Under Bhoja and his successor ], the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the ] stretching from the border of ] in the west to ] in the east and from the ] in the north to areas past the ] in the south.{{sfn|Avari|2007|p=303}}{{sfn|Sircar|1971|p=146}} The expansion triggered a ] with the ] and ] empires for control of the ]. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title of '']dhiraja of ]'' (''Great King of Kings of India'').
	By the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the ]s of Malwa, the ]s of ], the ] of ], the ] of ], and the ] of ].		By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the ], the ], the ] of ], and the ]<ref>{{cite book|last=Wink|first=André|author-link=André Wink|year=2002|orig-year=First published 1990|title=Al-Hind: The making of the Indo-Islamic World|volume=I|publisher=Brill Academic Publishers|isbn=978-0-391-04173-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA283|pages=285–286}}</ref> and the ].{{citation needed|date=February 2023}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
	====Pala Empire====
			|width=180|File:Teli ka Mandir (15702266503).jpg|One of the four entrances of the ], built by the Pratihara emperor ].<ref>{{cite book|author=K.D. Bajpai|title=History of Gopāchala|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q3KcwLKuRnYC&pg=PA31|year=2006|publisher=Bharatiya Jnanpith|isbn=978-81-263-1155-2|page=31}}</ref>
	{{Main|Pala Empire}}
			|File:Sculptures near Teli Mandir, Gwalior Fort.jpg|Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, ]
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
			|File:Jain statues, Gwalior.jpg|Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside ], Gwalior Fort
	| title = ] supported by the Palas
			|File:Baroli Temple Complex1.jpg|Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at ]. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure
	| image1 = Nalanda University India ruins.jpg|caption1=] is considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. It was the centre of Buddhist learning and research in the world from 450 to 1193 CE. It reached its height under the Palas.
	| image2 = VikramshilaRuins.jpg|caption2=Landscape of ] university ruins, the seating and meditation area. Established by Emperor ].
	}}		}}
	The ] was founded by ].<ref>], XXIV, p 43, Dr N. G. Majumdar</ref><ref name="Nitish2011">{{cite book | author=Nitish K. Sengupta | title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40 | date=1 January 2011 | publisher=Penguin Books India | isbn=978-0-14-341678-4 | pages=43–45 }}</ref><ref name="Biplab2005">{{cite book | author=Biplab Dasgupta | title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341 | date=1 January 2005 | publisher=Anthem Press | isbn=978-1-84331-029-7 | pages=341–}}</ref> It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of ]'s ].<ref>{{Citation|last=Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermund|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC&pg=PA104|title=A History of India|isbn=0203443454|year=1998}}</ref>
			=== Gahadavala dynasty ===
	The Palas were followers of the ] and ] schools of Buddhism,<ref>History of Buddhism in India, Translation by A Shiefner</ref> they also patronised ] and ].<ref name="ChandraPala">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan Private Limited|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=13–15}}</ref> The ] ''Pala'', meaning "protector", was used as an ending for the names of all the Pala monarchs. The empire reached its peak under ] and ]. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the northwest.<ref name="ChandraPala"/>
			{{Main|Gahadavala dynasty}}
			Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day ] of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at ].{{sfn|Niyogi|1959|p=38}}
			===Karnat dynasty===
	The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal in many ways.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}} Dharmapala founded the ] and revived Nalanda,<ref name="ChandraPala"/> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}}<ref name="PNChopra2003">{{cite book | title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201 | year=2003 |editor1=PN Chopra |editor2=BN Puri |editor3=MN Das |editor4=AC Pradhan | publisher=Sterling | isbn=978-81-207-2503-4 | pages=200–202}}</ref> The Palas also built many ]s. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and ]. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire. The Arab merchant Suleiman notes the enormity of the Pala army in his memoirs.<ref name="ChandraPala"/>
			{{Main|Karnat dynasty}}
	] and scenes from the Buddha's life. Folios were probably from the Pala period under ], considered the last great ruler of the Pala dynasty.</center>]]
			]]]
			In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in ] and ]. The dynasty was established by ], a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the ] language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the ] being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into ]. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of ].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sinha|first1=CPN|title=Origin of the Karnatas of Mithila - A Fresh Appraisal|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|date=1969|volume=31|pages=66–72|jstor=44138330}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Chakrabarty|first1=Dilip|title=The Geopolitical Orbits of Ancient India: The Geographical Frames of the Ancient Indian Dynasties|date=2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=47–48|isbn=978-0-19-908832-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIAyDwAAQBAJ&dq=the+focus+of+the+history+of+bihar+in+the+eleventh+and+twelfth+century+is+on+Mithila&pg=PT115}}</ref>
	====Chola Empire====		=== Pala Empire ===
			], a centre of Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193]]
	{{Main|Chola Empire}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
	| title = Chola Empire
	| image1 = Rajendra map new.svg|caption1=] under ], c. 1030 CE.
	| image2 = Big Temple-Temple.jpg|caption2=The granite ] of ], 1010 CE.
	}}
	Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century C.E. and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<ref>History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A. D. by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p.237</ref> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p.129"/> Under ] and his successors ], ], ] and ] the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.<ref name=kulke115>Kulke and Rothermund, p 115</ref><ref name=keay215>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=215}}: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.</ref> Rajendra Chola I's navies went even further, occupying the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php |title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty |publisher=En.articlesgratuits.com |date=22 August 2007 |accessdate=23 September 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php |archivedate=20 January 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> the ], the ] (Laccadive) islands, ], and the ] in Southeast Asia and the Pegu islands. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the ] which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of ] in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref name="sastri158">], ''A History of South India'', p 158</ref>
			{{Main|Pala Empire}}
	They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs in the west and with the Chinese empire in the east.<ref>Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations by Tansen Sen p.229</ref> ] and his equally distinguished son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<ref>History of Asia by B.V. Rao p.297</ref> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<ref>Indian Civilization and Culture by Suhas Chatterjee p.417</ref>
			The Pala Empire was founded by ].<ref>'']'', XXIV, p. 43, Dr N.G. Majumdar</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Nitish K. Sengupta|title=Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kVSh_TyJ0YoC&pg=PA40|date=2011|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-341678-4|pages=43–45}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Biplab Dasgupta|title=European Trade and Colonial Conquest|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRRnRK8lEYEC&pg=PA341|date=2005|publisher=Anthem Press|isbn=978-1-84331-029-7|pages=341–}}</ref> It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of ]'s ].{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|pp=112, 119}}
			The Palas were followers of the ] and ] schools of Buddhism,<ref>''History of Buddhism in India'', Translation by A Shiefner</ref> they also patronised ] and ].<ref name="ChandraPala">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Satish|title=History of Medieval India|date=2009|publisher=Orient Blackswan|location=New Delhi|isbn=978-81-250-3226-7|pages=13–15}}</ref> The empire reached its peak under ] and ]. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.<ref name="ChandraPala" />
	====Western Chalukya Empire====
	{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
	{{multiple image
	| align = right
	| image1 = Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district.JPG
	| width1 = 152
	| caption1 = <center>]</center>
	| image2 = Siddesvara Temple Shrine at Haveri.JPG
	| width2 = 170
	| caption2 = <center>]</center>
	| footer = <center>] and ] are examples of ].</center>
	}}
	The ] ruled most of the ], ], between the 10th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Medieval India p.24">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p.24</ref> Vast areas between the ] in the north and ] in the south came under Chalukya control.<ref name="Medieval India p.24"/> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the ], the ], the ] and the ], were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.<ref>Ancient Indian History and Civilization by Sailendra Nath Sen p. 403–405</ref>
			The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}} Dharmapala founded the ] and revived Nalanda,<ref name="ChandraPala" /> considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=278}}<ref>{{cite book|title=A Comprehensive History Of Ancient India (3 Vol. Set)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gE7udqBkACwC&pg=PA201|year=2003|editor1=PN Chopra|editor2=BN Puri|editor3=MN Das|editor4=AC Pradhan|publisher=Sterling|isbn=978-81-207-2503-4|pages=200–202}}</ref> The Palas also built many ]s. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and ]. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.
	The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the ] at ], the ] at Kuruvatti, the ] at Bagali, ] at Haveri, and the ] at Itagi.<ref>World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India, Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd p. 132–134</ref> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of ], and ] like the philosopher and statesman ] and the great mathematician ].<ref>History of Kannada Literature by E.P. Rice p.32</ref><ref>Bilhana by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29</ref>
			=== Cholas ===
	====Early Islamic intrusions into the Indian subcontinent====
			{{Main|Chola dynasty|Chola Empire}}
	{{main|Arab incursions into the Indian subcontinent|Umayyad campaigns in India|List of early Hindu Muslim military conflicts in the Indian subcontinent}}
			] under ], {{circa}} 1030]]
	{{see also|Muslim Rajputs}}
			Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen.<ref>''History of Ancient India: Earliest Times to 1000 A.D.'' by Radhey Shyam Chaurasia p. 237</ref> They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.<ref name="The Dancing Girl p. 129" /> Under ] and his successors ], ], ] and ] the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia.{{sfn|Kulke|Rothermund|2004|p=116}}<ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=215}}: The Cholas were in fact the most successful dynasty since the Guptas ... The classic expansion of Chola power began anew with the accession of Rajaraja I in 985.</ref> Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|title=The Last Years of Cholas: The decline and fall of a dynasty|publisher=En.articlesgratuits.com|date=22 August 2007|access-date=23 September 2009|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120085302/http://www.en.articlesgratuits.com/the-last-years-of-cholas-the-decline-and-fall-of-a-dynasty-id1804.php|archive-date=20 January 2010}}</ref> the ], the ] (Laccadive) islands, ], and the ]. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the ] which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of ] in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.<ref>], ''A History of South India'', p. 158</ref>
	The early Islamic literature indicates that the conquest of the Indian subcontinent was one of the very early ambitions of the Muslims, though it was recognised as a particularly difficult one.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wink |first=André |title=Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World |publisher=Brill |year=2002 |origyear=first published 1996 |isbn=0-391-04173-8 |p=192}}</ref> After conquering Persia, the Arab ] incorporated parts of what are now Afghanistan and Pakistan around 720.
			They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.<ref>''Buddhism, Diplomacy, and Trade: The Realignment of Sino-Indian Relations'' by Tansen Sen p. 229</ref> Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.<ref>''History of Asia'' by B.V. Rao p. 297</ref> Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.<ref>''Indian Civilization and Culture'' by Suhas Chatterjee p. 417</ref>
	The book ] chronicles the ]'s period, following the demise of the ] and the ascent of ] to the throne, down to the Arab conquest by ] in the early 8th century CE, by defeating the last Hindu monarch of ], ].
			] is the world's largest functioning Hindu temple<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5894/|title=Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam}}</ref> present in ], ] ]]
	{{multiple image
	| align = left		{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=180|File:Big Temple-Temple.jpg|The granite ] of ], 1010
	| image1 = Somnath temple ruins (1869).jpg
			|File:Chariot detail, Airavatesvara, Tamil Nadu.jpg|Chariot detail at ] built by ] in the 12th century
	| width1 = 150
			|File:Back view of Raja gopuram.jpg|The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at ].
	| caption1 = <center>Somnath temple in ruins, 1869 CE.</center>
			|File:Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams, Thanjavur.JPG|Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at ]
	| image2 = Somnath-current.jpg
	| width2 = 150
	| caption2 = <center>Front view of the present Somnath Temple.</center>
	| footer = <center>The ] was first attacked by Muslim Turkic invader ] and repeatedly demolished by successive Muslim invaders, each time being rebuilt by Hindu rulers.</center>
	}}		}}
			=== Western Chalukya Empire ===
	In 712, Arab Muslim general Muhammad bin Qasim conquered most of the Indus region in modern-day Pakistan for the Umayyad Empire, incorporating it as the "As-Sindh" province with its capital at Al-Mansurah, {{convert|72|km|0|abbr=on}} north of modern ] in Sindh, Pakistan. After several incursions, the Hindu kings east of Indus defeated the Arabs during the ], halting their expansion and containing them at Sindh in Pakistan. The south Indian ] under ], ] of the ] and ] of the ] dynasty repulsed the Arab invaders in the early 8th century.<ref>{{Citation |first=Wilhelm von |last=Pochhammer |title=India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1981 |isbn=81-7764-715-6 |p=198}}</ref>
			{{Main|Western Chalukya Empire}}
			The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the ], South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.<ref name="Medieval India p.24">A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: by Farooqui Salma Ahmed, Salma Ahmed Farooqui p. 24</ref> Vast areas between the ] in the north and ] in the south came under Chalukya control.<ref name="Medieval India p.24" /> During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the ], the ], the ] and the ], were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.<ref>''Ancient Indian History and Civilization'' by Sailendra Nath Sen pp. 403–405</ref>
	Several Islamic kingdoms (]ates) under both foreign and, newly converted, ] rulers were established across the Northwestern Indian subcontinent (Afghanistan and Pakistan) over a period of a few centuries. From the 10th century, Sindh was ruled by the Rajput ], and later, in the mid-13th century by the Rajput ]. Additionally, Muslim trading communities flourished throughout coastal south India, particularly on the western coast where Muslim traders arrived in small numbers, mainly from the Arabian peninsula. This marked the introduction of a third ]ic Middle Eastern religion, following Judaism and Christianity, often in puritanical form. ] in the early 11th century raided mainly the north-western parts of the Indian sub-continent 17 times, but he did not seek to establish "permanent dominion" in those areas.<ref>Richard M. Eaton, ''Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States'', Part I, '''Frontline''', 22 December 2000, p.63.</ref> While ] of ], who is said to have defeated and killed the ] general ] in the early 11th century.<ref>{{cite book |first=Badri |last=Narayan |title=Fascinating Hindutva: Saffron Politics and Dalit Mobilisation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9bmGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86 |year=2009 |publisher=SAGE Publications |isbn=978-81-321-0105-5 |page=86}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Gazetteer of the province of Oudh |volume=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8KQIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA111 |year=1877 |publisher=North-Western Provinces and Oudh Government Press |first=W. C. |last=Benett |pages=111–112}}</ref>
			The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the ] at ], the ] at Kuruvatti, the ] at Bagali, ] at Haveri, and the ] at Itagi.<ref>''World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India'', Band 1 by ʻAlī Jāvīd pp. 132–134</ref> This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of ], and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman ] and the great mathematician ].<ref>''History of Kannada Literature'' by E.P. Rice p. 32</ref><ref>''Bilhana'' by Prabhakar Narayan Kawthekar, p. 29</ref>
	====Hindu Shahi====
			{{Gallery|align=center
	{{Main|Hindu Shahi}}
			|width=180|File:Profile of the vimana (sanctum outerwall and tower) of the Siddhesvara temple at Haveri 2.JPG|Shrine outer wall and ''Dravida'' style superstructure ('']'') at ] at ]
	{{Infobox
			|File:Ornate entrance to closed mantapa in Kalleshvara temple at Bagali.JPG|Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at ]
	| title = ]s of ] and ]
			|File:Shrine wall frieze and relief in Mallikarjuna temple at Kuruvatti.JPG|Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in ]
	{{image array|perrow=2|width=200|height=200
			|File:Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district.JPG|Rear view showing lateral entrances of the ]
	| image1 = Kabul ganesh khingle.jpg|caption1=Sixth-century image of ], ], consecrated by the ] King Khingala (], Afghanistan).
	| image2 = Coins of the Shahis 8th century.jpg|caption2=Coins of the Hindu Shahis, which later inspired ] coins in the ].<ref name="Wink1991">{{cite book|author=André Wink|title=Al- Hind: The slave kings and the Islamic conquest. 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bCVyhH5VDjAC&pg=PA127|date=June 1991|publisher=BRILL|isbn=90-04-09509-8|pages=127–}}</ref>
	}}		}}
	}}
	The Kabul Shahis ruled the ] and ] (modern-day Pakistan and ]) from the decline of the ] in the 3rd century to the early 9th century CE.<ref name="EB">{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Shahi-family |title=Shahi Family |website=Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=2 January 2016}}</ref> The Shahis are generally split up into two eras: the ] Shahis and the ] Shahis, with the change-over thought to have occurred sometime around 870 CE. The kingdom was known as the Kabul Shahan or Ratbelshahan from 565 CE to 670 CE, when the capitals were located in ] and Kabul, and later ], also known as Hund,<ref>Sehrai, Fidaullah (1979). Hund: ''The Forgotten City of Gandhara'', p. 2. Peshawar Museum Publications New Series, Peshawar.</ref> for its new capital.<ref>The Shahi Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, pp 1, 45–46, 48, 80, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians; Country, Culture and Political life in early and medieval India, 2004, p 34, Daud Ali.</ref><ref>Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1954, pp 112 ff; The Shahis of Afghanistan and Punjab, 1973, p 46, Dr D. B. Pandey; The Úakas in India and Their Impact on Indian Life and Culture, 1976, p 80, Vishwa Mitra Mohan – Indo-Scythians.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Keay|2000|p=203}}: The Hindu Shahis, and in the late ninth century great was ... in 870 Kabul itself was captured ... But in the Panjab they consolidated their kingdom and established a new capital first at Hund.</ref>
			== Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526) ==
	The Hindu Shahis under ], is known for his struggles in defending his kingdom against the ] in the modern-day eastern ] and ] region. Jayapala saw a danger in the consolidation of the Ghaznavids and invaded their capital city of ] both in the reign of ] and in that of his son ], which initiated the ] Ghaznavid and ] Shahi struggles.<ref name="Lewis">{{Citation | title=The Cambridge history of Islam | editors=P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, ] | year=1977 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-29137-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5ccI0u5XDR0C | page=3 | quote=''... Jaypala of Waihind saw danger in the consolidation of the kingdom of Ghazna and decided to destroy it. He, therefore, invaded Ghazna, but was defeated ...''}}</ref> Sebuk Tigin, however, defeated him, and he was forced to pay an indemnity.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala defaulted on the payment and took to the battlefield once more.<ref name="Lewis"/> Jayapala, however, lost control of the entire region between the ] and ].<ref name="Ferishta">{{cite web |work=], History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India, Volume 1: Section 15 |url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/pf?file=06901021&ct=12 |title=Ameer Nasir-ood-deen Subooktugeen |publisher=Packard Humanities Institute|accessdate=30 December 2012}}</ref>
			{{Main|Medieval India}}
			{{see also|Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent}}
			The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=53}}
			=== Delhi Sultanate ===
	] was built between the 7th and 9th centuries CE during the reign of the ].<ref>{{cite book|title=Gazetteer of the Attock District, 1930, Part 1|date=1932|publisher=Sang-e-Meel Publications|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gfdtAAAAMAAJ&q=amb+temple&dq=amb+temple&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjWn8yqqbXWAhVByFQKHaW-DdoQ6AEIUTAI|accessdate=21 September 2017}}</ref>]]
			{{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
	Before Jayapala's struggle began, he had raised a large army of Punjabi Hindus. When Jayapala went to the ], his army was raised to 100,000 horsemen and an innumerable host of foot soldiers. According to ]:
			The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries.<ref name="delhi">, '']''</ref> The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html|title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India|last=Bartel|first=Nick|year=1999|website=The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html|archive-date=12 June 2010|url-status=dead}}</ref> The subsequent ] of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. The ] conquered much of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become ]s.<ref name="delhi" />
	{{quote|The two armies having met on the confines of ], ] ascended a hill to view the forces of Jayapala, which appeared in extent like the boundless ocean, and in number like the ants or the locusts of the wilderness. But Subooktugeen considered himself as a wolf about to attack a flock of sheep: calling, therefore, his chiefs together, he encouraged them to glory, and issued to each his commands. His soldiers, though few in number, were divided into squadrons of five hundred men each, which were directed to attack successively, one particular point of the Hindoo line, so that it might continually have to encounter fresh troops.<ref name="Ferishta"/>}}
			The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of ] was born during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, ] ({{reigned|1236|1240}}).
	However, the army was hopeless in battle against the western forces, particularly against the young Mahmud of Ghazni.<ref name="Ferishta"/> In the year 1001, soon after Sultan Mahmud came to power and was occupied with the ]s north of the ], Jayapala ] once more and upon suffering yet another defeat by the powerful Ghaznavid forces, near present-day ]. After the ], he committed suicide because his subjects thought he had brought disaster and disgrace to the Shahis.<ref name="Lewis"/><ref name="Ferishta"/>
			While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–52}} However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<ref>Richard Eaton (2000), , Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp. 283–319</ref>
	Jayapala was succeeded by his son ],<ref name="Lewis"/> who along with other succeeding generations of the Shahis took part in various unsuccessful campaigns against the advancing Ghaznavids but were unsuccessful. The Hindu rulers eventually exiled themselves to the ] ] Hills.<ref name="Ferishta"/>
			The ] were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of ]. A major factor in their success was their Turkic ] slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp=50–51}} By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders,{{sfn|Ludden|2002|p = 67}} the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|pp = 50–51}}
	==Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526 CE)==
	{{Main|Medieval India}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
	| title = ]
	| image1 = Walls of Kumbhalgarh.jpg|caption1=Built during the course of the 15th century by ], the walls of the fort of ] extend over 38 km, claimed to be the second-longest continuous wall after the ].
	| image2 = Mehrangarh Fort.jpg|caption2=The ] at ] was built by ] in 1459. The fort is gained through series of seven gates, one of the most famous gate being the Fateh Pol, which symbolises ] with the Rajput victory over the Mughals.
	}}
	The late ] is defined by the disruption to native Indian elites by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans;{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} leading to the ]. The growth of Hindu and Muslim dynasties and empires, built upon new military technology and techniques.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 53}} The rise of theistic devotional trend of the ] and the advent of ].
			A ] conqueror from Central Asia, ] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultan ] of the ] in Delhi.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|title=Timur – conquest of India|website=Gardenvisit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm|archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the ]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book|title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson|pages=445–446}}</ref> The sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the ] and ] dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi until the defeat of the last sultan, ], ] to the forces of ].<ref>{{Encyclopaedia Islamica|title=Delhi Sultanate|url=https://referenceworks.brill-com/display/entries/ISLO/COM-037181.xml?rskey=FlvuV6|first1=Huda Seyyed|last1=Hussein-zadeh|first2=Isabel|last2=Miller|translator-first=Mushegh|translator-last=Asatryan|date=2018}}</ref>
	===Growth of Muslim population===
	{{Main|Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic rulers in the Indian subcontinent|Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India}}
	], depicts the Muslim Turkic general ]'s massacre of Buddhist monks in ]. Khaliji destroyed the ] and ] universities during his raids across North Indian plains, massacring many ] and ] scholars.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sanyal|first=Sanjeev|title=Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xu-O9eNmQXMC&pg=PT130|date=15 November 2012|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|isbn=978-81-8475-671-5|pages=130–1}}</ref>]]
	Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the sub-continent, one must note that the northwestern Indian subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium.<ref>Richard M. Frye, "Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Cultures in Central Asia", in ''Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective'', ed. Robert L. Canfield (Cambridge U. Press c. 1991), 35–53.</ref> What does however, make the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their own laws and customs.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 47}}{{sfn|Metcalf|Metcalf|2006|p = 6}} They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture which was mixed in nature, though different from both the ancient Indian culture and later westernised modern Indian culture. At the same time it must be noted that overwhelming majority of Muslims in India are Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.<ref>Eaton, Richard M. The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1993 1993, accessed on 1 May 2007</ref>
			{{Gallery|align=center
	The growth of Muslim dominion resulted in the destruction and desecration of politically important temples of enemy states,<ref>{{cite book |author=Gerardo Eastburn |title=The Esoteric Codex: Zoroastrianism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NqJsCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA93 |date=February 2011 |publisher=Lulu.com |isbn=978-1-312-93584-6 |page=93 }}</ref>{{self-published inline|date=November 2018}} cases of forced conversions to Islam,<ref>der Veer, pg 27–29</ref> payment of ] tax,<ref name="google1">{{cite book|title=Islam in South Asia: A Short History|author=Malik, J.|date=2008|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-16859-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FduG_t2sxwMC&pg=PA190|page=190|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref> and loss of life for the non-Muslim population.<ref>Timur in the Political Tradition and Historiography of Mughal India, Irfan Habib, page 295–312</ref> As noted by ]:
			|width=180|File:Qutb minar ruins.jpg|], a ], whose construction was begun by ], the first Sultan of Delhi.
			|File:Nizamuddin Dargah and Jamaat Khana Masjid, Delhi.jpg|]s of ]-saint ], and poet and musician ] in Delhi.
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			}}
			=== Vijayanagara Empire ===
	{{Quote|From the time Muslims started arriving, around 632 AD, the history of India becomes a long, monotonous series of murders, massacres, spoliations, and destructions. It is, as usual, in the name of 'a holy war' of their faith, of their sole God, that the barbarians have destroyed civilizations, wiped out entire races.<ref name="BasuMiroshnik2017">{{cite book|author1=Dipak Basu|author2=Victoria Miroshnik|title=India as an Organization: Volume One: A Strategic Risk Analysis of Ideals, Heritage and Vision|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lhUwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA52|date=7 August 2017|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-53372-8|pages=52–}}</ref>}}
			{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire}}
			] of the ] ]]
			The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by ] and his brother ] of ],<ref>''History of Classical Sanskrit Literature'': by M. Srinivasachariar p. 211</ref> which originated as a political heir of the ], ],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=28–29}} and the ].{{sfn|Sastri|2002|p=239}} The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off ] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the ]. The empire is named after its capital city of ], whose ruins surround present day ], now a ] in Karnataka, India.<ref>''South India'' by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p. 32</ref>
			In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of ], the ]s of Kondavidu, and the ] and had gained control over ] in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna ] in the north.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=170–171}}{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=317}}
	===Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests===
	{{Main|Rajput resistance to Muslim conquests|Rajput Kingdoms}}
	{{multiple image
	| image1 = Kirti stambha.jpg|caption1=]|width1=60
	| image2 = Chittorgarh fort.JPG|caption2=] is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six ].|width2=280
	| image3 = Victory tower.jpg|caption3=]|width3=64
	}}
	Before the Muslim expeditions into the Indian subcontinent, much of North and West India was ruled by ]. The Rajputs and the south Indian ] were successful in containing Arab Muslim expansion during the ]; but later, Central Asian Muslim Turks were able to break through the Rajput defence into the Northern Indian heartland. However, the Rajputs held out against the Muslim Turkic empires for several centuries. They earned a reputation of fighting battles obeying a code of chivalrous conduct rooted in a strong adherence to tradition and Chi.<ref>{{cite book
	| title =A historical review of Hindu India: 300 B. C. to 1200 A. D.
	| author =Panchānana Rāya
	| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHEBAAAAMAAJ
	| publisher =I. M. H. Press
	| year =1939
	| page =125
	}}</ref>
			], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the ] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref>The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to {{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, ], emerged successful against the ] of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref>From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Bowman|editor-first=John Stewart|year=2000|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|publisher=Columbia University Press|page=271|isbn=0-231-11004-9}}</ref> ] succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.{{sfn|Sastri|1955|p=244}} He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the ] of ] and ] in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of ] at ] and ].<ref>From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire. ({{harvnb|Sastri|1955|p=245}})</ref>{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=173}}<ref>From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p. 11)</ref>
	The Rajput ] established its control over ] and ] in the 10th century. The most famous ruler of this dynasty was ]. His reign marked one of the most significant moments in Indian history; his battles with Muslim Sultan, ]. In the ], Ghori was defeated with heavy losses. However, the ] saw the Rajput army eventually defeated, laying the foundation of Muslim rule in mainland India.<ref name="Spencer">''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. I, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, (ABC-CLIO, 2010), 263.</ref>
			The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref>From the notes of Duarte Barbosa. ({{harvnb|Kamath|1980|p=189}})</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' (''literally'', "protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' (''lit'', "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sultan among Hindu Kings: Dress, Titles, and the Islamicization of Hindu Culture at Vijayanagara|first=Phillip B.|last=Wagoner|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|date=November 1996|volume=55|issue=4|pages=851–880|doi=10.2307/2646526|jstor=2646526|s2cid=163090404}}</ref> The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout ]s (worshippers of ]), but made grants to the ] order of ] with ] as their patron saint, and designated '']'' (an ] of Vishnu) as their emblem.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|pp=188-189}} Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|page=50|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> The later ] and ] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord ] (Vishnu) at ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fritz|first1=John M.|last2=Michell|first2=George|year=2015|orig-year=First published 2011|title=Hampi Vijayanagara|publisher=Jaico Publishing House|pages=41, 43|isbn=978-8 1-8495-602-3}}</ref> A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").<ref>{{cite book|last=Wagoner|first=Phillip B.|editor1-last=Fritz|editor1-first=John. M.|editor2-last=Michell|editor2-first=George|year=2001|chapter=Architecture and Royal Authority under the Early Sangamas|title=New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|publisher=Marg Publications|page=14|isbn=81-85026-53-X}}</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the ] order (philosophy of dualism) of ] at ].{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=189}}
	The ] under ] defeated and captured ] with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack ] for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as ] and north into the ]. The ] established themselves at ], and ] reconstructed the ] which still stands there.<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book |last=Sen |first=Sailendra |title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History |publisher=Primus Books |year=2013 |isbn=978-93-80607-34-4 |pages=116–117}}</ref> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and ] expanded his kingdom at the expense of the ]ates of ] and ].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>''Lectures on Rajput history and culture'' by Dr. ]. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. {{ISBN|0-8426-0262-3}}.</ref> The next great Rajput ruler, ] of Mewar, became the principal player in ]. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer the much sought after prize of the Muslim rulers of the time, ]. But, his defeat in the ], consolidated the new ] in India.<ref name="sen2" /> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana ] faced further defeat by Mughal emperor ], with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded ], which became the new capital of the ]. His son, ] of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the ].<ref name="Ap">John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</ref>
			{{Gallery|align=center
	The Chittor Fort is the largest fort in the Indian subcontinent. The fort became a symbol for Rajput resistance due to it being sacked three times during the 15th and 16th centuries by Muslim armies. In 1303 ] defeated Rana Ratan Singh; in 1535 Bahadur Shah, the ] defeated Bikramjeet Singh; and in 1567 ] defeated Maharana ], who left the fort and founded ]. Each time the men fought bravely rushing out of the fort walls charging the enemy, but lost. Following these defeats, ] was committed thrice by many of the wives and children of the Rajput soldiers who died in battles at Chittorgarh Fort. The first time, this was led by ] wife of Rana Rattan Singh who was killed in the battle in 1303, and later by ] in 1537.<ref name="saigan">{{cite web|url=http://www.saigan.com/heritage/states/rajasthan/chittor.html|title=Indian States and Union Territories|work=Places of Interest in Rajasthan: Chtiiorgarh |accessdate=24 June 2009}}</ref>
			|width=180|File:Ruins of Bala Krishna Temple Vijayanagara Hampi 1868 Edmund Lyon photo.jpg| Photograph of the ruins of the ] at ], now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868<ref>"The austere, grandiose site of Hampi was the last capital of the last great Hindu Kingdom of Vijayanagar. Its fabulously rich princes built ] temples and palaces which won the admiration of travellers between the 14th and 16th centuries. Conquered by the ] Muslim confederacy in 1565, the city was pillaged over a period of six months before being abandoned." From the brief description .</ref>
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
			|File:Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html|title=Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables|publisher=Vijayanagara.org|date=9 February 2014|access-date=21 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517222359/http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/Ele_Stables.html|archive-date=17 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
	Udaipur City Palace.jpg|] was constructed by ] ] after shifting his capital to ] due to Muslim invasion.
			|File:Krishna Pushkarani - Hampi Ruins.jpg|Vijayanagara marketplace at ], along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
	Amber Fort (आमेर का किला ).jpg|] and ] are connected by subterranean passages, and are known for their artistic ] Rajput style elements.
			|File:The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi
	Chaturbhuj Temple, Orchha.jpg|] built by the ] Rajputs, is one of the tallest pre-modern structure in the Indian subcontinent.{{Sfn|Asher|2003|p=57}}
	}}		}}
	</gallery>
			The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician ] founded the famous ] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like ], ] and ].<ref>''History of Science and Philosophy of Science'' by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p. 91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>''Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526)'' by Satish Chandra pp. 188–189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>''Art History'', Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p. 243</ref>
	===Delhi Sultanate===
	{{Main|Delhi Sultanate}}
			Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the ] (1565). After the death of ] in the Battle of Talikota, ] started the ], moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=100–101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC|year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=li–lii}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=101–115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the ], ], ], ], ] and ]&nbsp;– all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.{{sfn|Kamath|1980|p=185}}
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
	| title = Delhi Sultanate
	| image1 = Tughlaq dynasty 1321 - 1398 ad.PNG|caption1=] reached its zenith under the ]-] ].<ref name="malik">{{cite book|title=Islam in South Asia: A Short History|author=]|publisher=]|year=2008|page=104|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FduG_t2sxwMC&pg=PA104}}</ref>
	| image2 = Qutb minar ruins.jpg|caption2=] is the world's tallest brick ], commenced by ] of the ].
	}}
	The historian Dr. R.P. Tripathi noted:
			=== Other kingdoms ===
	{{Quote|The history of Muslim sovereignty in India begins properly speaking with ].<ref>Some Aspects of Muslim Administration, Dr. R.P.Tripathi, 1956, p.24</ref>}}
			{{Main|Guhila dynasty|Kingdom of Mewar}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=130|File:Tower of victory.jpg
			|] (Tower of Victory).
			|File:Temple in Rajasthan.jpg|Temple inside ]
			|File:Man Singh Palace as viewed in the early hours of the morning.JPG|Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the ]
			|File:Tribute Giraffe with Attendant.jpg|Chinese manuscript ''Tribute Giraffe with Attendant'', depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan ] of Bengal to the ] of ]
			|File:Complete view of Mahumad Gawan.JPG|Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education
			|||title=}}
			For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the ], and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the ] ruled much of Eastern ], ] and ] from the 12th to the 18th centuries.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=399UDwAAQBAJ&q=chero+dynasty&pg=PT71|title=Bihar General Knowledge Digest|isbn=9789352667697|last1=Singh|first1=Pradyuman|date=19 January 2021|publisher=Prabhat Prakashan}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Surendra Gopal|title=Mapping Bihar: From Medieval to Modern Times|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mCZFDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT289|date=2017|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-351-03416-6|pages=289–295}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Surinder Singh|author2=I. D. Gaur|title=Popular Literature and Pre-modern Societies in South Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QVA0JAzQJkYC&pg=PA77|year=2008|publisher=Pearson Education India|isbn=978-81-317-1358-7|pages=77–}}</ref> The ] successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from ] in the north to ] in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<ref>{{cite book|author=Gordon Mackenzie|title=A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10|year=1990|orig-year=First published 1883|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0544-2|pages=9–10, 224–}}</ref>
	The ] was a Muslim ] based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of ], Turko-Indian<ref name=whunter>William Hunter (1903), {{Google books|5IQqAAAAYAAJ|A Brief History of the Indian Peoples|page=124}}, 23rd Edition, pp. 124–127</ref> and ] origins.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Modern Review|volume=109|author=Ramananda Chatterjee|publisher=]|year=1961|page=84|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgPSAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> It ruled large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th century to the early 16th century.<ref name="delhi">, '']''</ref> The context behind the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the ]n continent, including the whole of southern and ]: the influx of nomadic ] from the ]n ]s. This can be traced back to the 9th century, when the Islamic ] began fragmenting in the ], where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic ] from the Central Asian steppes, and raising many of them to become loyal military slaves called ]s. Soon, ] to ] and becoming ]. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose up to become rulers, and conquered large parts of the ], establishing ]s from ] to ], before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp=19, 50–51}}
			In the north, the ] remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The ] under ] defeated and captured ] with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the ]. The ] established themselves at ], and ] reconstructed the ].<ref name="sen2">{{Cite book|last=Sen|first=Sailendra|title=A Textbook of Medieval Indian History|publisher=Primus Books|year=2013|isbn=978-93-80607-34-4|pages=116–117}}</ref> During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and ] expanded his kingdom at the expense of the ]ates of ] and ].<ref name="sen2" /><ref>''Lectures on Rajput history and culture'' by Dr. ]. Publisher: Motilal Banarsidass, Jawahar Nagar, Delhi 1970. {{ISBN|0-8426-0262-3}}.</ref> The next great Rajput ruler, ] of Mewar, became the principal player in ]. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the ] consolidated the new ] in India.<ref name="sen2" /> The Mewar dynasty under Maharana ] faced further defeat by Mughal emperor ], with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded ], which became the new capital of the ]. His son, ] of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the ].<ref>John Merci, Kim Smith; James Leuck (1922). "Muslim conquest and the Rajputs". The Medieval History of India pg 67–115</ref>
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
	| align = left
	| title = ] under the Delhi Sultanate
	| image1 = Warangal_fort.jpg|caption1=] (Warangal Gate) built by the ] in ruins; one of the many temple complexes destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name=re2000/>
	| image2 = Elevation of Kirtistambh Rudramahalaya Sidhpur Gujarat India.jpg|caption2=Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambh at ]. The temple was destroyed by ].
	| image3 = Rani ki vav1.jpg|caption3=] is a ], built by the ], located in ]; the city was sacked by ] ] between 1200 and 1210, and it was destroyed by the ] in 1298.<ref name=re2000/>
	| image4 = 12th-century carved pillar and dancer inside Shaivism Hindu temple Hoysaleswara arts Halebidu Karnataka India, inscription below.jpg|caption4=Pillar and ceiling carvings with a damaged ''madanakai'' at ]. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate.<ref name="Bradnock2000p959">{{cite book|author1=Robert Bradnock|author2=Roma Bradnock|title=India Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hCFDsTbmhoC|year=2000|publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-658-01151-1|page=959}}</ref>
	}}
	In the 12th and 13th centuries, Central Asian Turks invaded parts of northern India and established the Delhi Sultanate in the former Hindu holdings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Seven.html |title=Battuta's Travels: Delhi, capital of Muslim India |last=Bartel |first=Nick |date=1999 |website=The Travels of Ibn Battuta – A Virtual Tour with the 14th Century Traveler |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612001214/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Seven.html |archive-date=12 June 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The subsequent ] of ] managed to conquer large areas of northern India, while the ] conquered most of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become ]s.<ref name="delhi"/> However, they were ultimately unsuccessful in conquering and uniting the Indian subcontinent. The Sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of ] (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the intermingling of the local speakers of Sanskritic ]s with immigrants speaking ], ], and ] under the Muslim rulers. The Delhi Sultanate is the only Indo-Islamic empire to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, ] (1236–1240). However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.<ref name=re2000>Richard Eaton (2000), , Journal of Islamic Studies, 11(3), pp 283–319</ref>
			In the south, the ] in the Deccan, born from a ] in 1347 against the ],{{sfn|Eaton|2005|pp=41–42}} was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five ]; ] declared independence, followed by ] and ] in the same year; ] became independent in 1518 and ] in 1528.<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Majumdar|editor-first=R. C.|editor-link=R. C. Majumdar|year=1974|title=The Mughul Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/mughulempire00bhar/page/n6/mode/2up|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VII|location=Bombay|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|page=412}}</ref> Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mitchell|first1=George|first2=Mark|last2=Zebrowski|title=Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates (The New Cambridge History of India Vol. I:7)|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999|location=Cambridge|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ju1XvgAACAAJ|isbn=0-521-56321-6|page=10}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2005|p=98}}
	During the Delhi Sultanate, there was a synthesis between Indian civilization and ]. The latter was a ] civilization, with a ] and ] society, and wide-ranging international networks, including social and economic networks, spanning large parts of ], leading to escalating circulation of goods, peoples, technologies and ideas. While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp=50–52}}
			In the East, the ] remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under ], Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower ] in the north to the ] in the south.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Majumdar|editor1-first=R. C.|editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar|editor2-last=Pusalker|editor2-first=A. D.|editor3-last=Majumdar|editor3-first=A. K.|title=The Delhi Sultanate|url=https://archive.org/details/delhisultanate0006rcma/page/367/mode/1up|year=1980|orig-year=First published 1960|series=The History and Culture of the Indian People|volume=VI|edition=3rd|publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan|location=Bombay|oclc=664485|pages=367|quote= Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south.}}</ref> In ], the ] was a major power for six centuries;<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305|date=1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|page=305}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8|date=2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-8616-2|page=8}}</ref> led by ], the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the ] during the ].<ref>{{Citation|last=Sarkar|first=J.N.|contribution=Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations|editor-last=Barpujari|editor-first=H.K.|title=The Comprehensive History of Assam|volume=2|publisher=Assam Publication Board|place=Guwahati|year=1992|page=213}}</ref> Further east in Northeastern India was the ], which ruled from their seat of power at ] and developed a sophisticated Hindu ] culture.{{Sfn|Williams|2004|pp=83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela}}{{Sfn|Massey|2004|p=177}}{{Sfn|Devi|1990|pp=175–180}}
	In the 13th century, the ] had ] most of ] and ]. However, the ] were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate. A major factor in their success was their Turkic ] slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic ] warfare as the ], as a result of having similar ]ic Central Asian roots. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|pp=50–51}}
			The ] was the dominant power of the ], with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a ] monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and ] elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of ], including ] in the southwest, ] in the southeast, and ] in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over ] and ] in the northeast and ] and ] in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct ] The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the ]. Its decline began with an ] by the ], followed by ] ] and disintegration into petty kingdoms.
	A ] conqueror in Central Asia, ] (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the ] Dynasty in the north Indian city of Delhi.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm |title=Timur – conquest of India |website=Gardenvisit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012090047/http://gardenvisit.com/travel/clavijo/timurconquestofindia.htm |archive-date=12 October 2007}}</ref> The Sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the ]s, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were put to death in one day.<ref>{{cite book |title=The History of India As told By Its Own Historians Vol III|author=Elliot & Dawson |pages=445–446 }}</ref> The Sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi revived briefly under the Lodi Dynasty, but it was a shadow of the former.
	===Bhakti movement, Sikhism and Himalayan Buddhism===		=== Bhakti movement and Sikhism ===
	{{Main|Bhakti movement|Buddhism in India|Sikhism}}		{{Main|Bhakti movement|Buddhism in India|Sikhism}}
	{{See also|History of Sikhism}}		{{See also|History of Sikhism}}
			The Bhakti movement refers to the ] devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} and later revolutionised in ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johar|first1=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality|date=1999|publisher=MD Publications|isbn=978-81-7533-093-1|page=89}}</ref> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}}
	] (above) was composed by ] ]. The major narrative in the text is on ] (24 ] of Hindu god ]), ], ], the Hindu warrior goddess ] and a story of ] in ].<ref name=jdeol31>J Deol (2000), Sikh Religion, Culture and Ethnicity (Editors: AS Mandair, C Shackle, G Singh), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0-7007-1389-9}}, pages 31–33</ref>]]
			* The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as ] (Vishnu), ] (Shiva), ] (Shakti goddesses), and ].<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), ''An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies'' (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8146-5856-7}}, pp. 562–563</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), ''Bhakti – the Yoga of Love'', LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pp. 35–36</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), , Encyclopædia Britannica; Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic ] of ] to absolute ] of ].{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=2}}<ref>{{cite journal|last=Novetzke|first=Christian|s2cid=144065168|year=2007|title=Bhakti and Its Public|journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies|volume=11|issue=3|pages=255–272|jstor=25691067|doi=10.1007/s11407-008-9049-9}}</ref>
			* Sikhism is a ] and ] religion based on the spiritual teachings of ], the first Guru,<ref>Singh, Patwant (2000). ''The Sikhs''. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. p. 17. {{ISBN|0-375-40728-6}}.</ref> and the ten successive ]. After the death of the tenth Guru, ], the Sikh scripture, ], became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<ref>Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), ''Historical Dictionary of Sikhism'', 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-3600-4}}, p. 17</ref><ref>William James (2011), ''God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston'', McGill Queens University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-3889-4}}, pp. 241–242</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Gurinder Singh|year=2001|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture|url=https://archive.org/details/makingsikhscript00mann|url-access=limited|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9|page=}}</ref>
			* ] flourished in the ]n kingdoms of ] in ], ] in ], and ] in ] of the Late medieval period.
			{{Gallery|align=center
	The ] refers to the ] devotional trend that emerged in medieval ]{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} and later revolutionised in ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Johar|first1=Surinder|title=Guru Gobind Singh: A Multi-faceted Personality|date=1999|publisher=MD Publications|isbn=978-81-7533-093-1|page=89}}</ref> It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=1}} It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|pp=1–2}}
			|width=180|File:Rang Ghar Sibsagar.jpg|], built by ] in ]'s capital ], is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent
			|File: Chittorgarh fort.JPG| ] is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six ]
	*The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as ] (Vishnu), ] (Shiva), ] (Shakti goddesses), and ].<ref>Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8146-5856-7}}, pages 562–563</ref><ref>SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti – the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3-643-50130-1}}, pages 35–36</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), , Encyclopædia Britannica; Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic ] of ] to absolute ] of ].{{sfnp|Schomer|McLeod|1987|p=2}}<ref name=novetzke>{{cite journal |last=Novetzke |first=Christian |date=2007 |title=Bhakti and Its Public |journal=International Journal of Hindu Studies |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=255–272 |jstor=25691067 |doi=10.1007/s11407-008-9049-9}}</ref>
			|File:Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg|] was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of ]
	*Sikhism is based on the spiritual teachings of ], the first Guru,<ref>Singh, Patwant; (2000). The Sikhs. Alfred A Knopf Publishing. Pages 17. {{ISBN|0-375-40728-6}}.</ref> and the ten successive ]. After the death of the tenth Guru, ], the Sikh scripture, ], became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.<ref>Louis Fenech and WH McLeod (2014), Historical Dictionary of Sikhism, 3rd Edition, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-3600-4}}, page 17</ref><ref>William James (2011), God's Plenty: Religious Diversity in Kingston, McGill Queens University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-7735-3889-4}}, pages 241–242</ref><ref name="granthfinalguru">{{cite book|last=Mann|first=Gurinder Singh|year=2001|title=The Making of Sikh Scripture|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-513024-9|page=21}}</ref>
			|File:GolGumbaz2.jpg|] built by the ], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine ]
	*] flourished in the ]n kingdoms of ] in ], ] in ], and ] in ] of the Late medieval period.
	<gallery widths="200" heights="200">
	File:Ladakh Monastery.jpg|] is the largest ] in ], built in the 1500s.
	File:Tawang Monastery (Tibetan Buddhist).jpg|] in ], was built in the 1600s, is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the ] in ], ].
	File:Vikramjit-Kakati-Rumtek.jpg|] in ] was built under the direction of ] in the mid-1700s.<ref>Achary Tsultsem Gyatso; Mullard, Saul & Tsewang Paljor (Transl.): A Short Biography of Four Tibetan Lamas and Their Activities in Sikkim, in: Bulletin of Tibetology Nr. 49, 2/2005, p. 57. </ref>
	</gallery>
	===Vijayanagar Empire===
	{{Main|Vijayanagar Empire}}
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
	Elephant's stable or Gajashaale.JPG|''Gajashaala'' or elephant's stable, built by the Vijayanagar rulers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vijayanagara.org/html/ele_stables.html |title=Vijayanagara Research Project::Elephant Stables |publisher=Vijayanagara.org |date=2014-02-09 |accessdate=2018-05-21}}</ref>
	Krishna Pushkarani - Hampi Ruins.jpg|Vijayanagara marketplace at ], along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
	The Stone Chariot,Hampi.jpg|Stone ] in Vitthala Temple at Hampi.
	Hampi marketplace.jpg|Ancient market place and plantation at ].
	</gallery>
	The Vijayanagar Empire was established in 1336 by ] and his brother ] of ],<ref>History of Classical Sanskrit Literature: by M. Srinivasachariar p.211</ref> which originated as a political heir of the ], ],{{sfnp|Eaton|2005|pp=28–29}} and the ].<ref>{{cite book |last= Nilakanta Sastri|first= K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|origyear=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|page=239|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}</ref> The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off ] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the ]. The empire is named after its capital city of ], whose ruins surround present day ], now a ] in ], ].<ref>South India by Amy Karafin, Anirban Mahapatra p.32</ref>
	{{
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	| direction = vertical
	| header =
	| width = 200
	|image1 = Hoysala emblem.JPG
	|caption1 = "Sala fighting the Lion", the emblem of ]. Hoysala administration and architecture would influence ], their political heir.
	|image2 = Le temple de Chennakesava (Somanathapura, Inde) (14465165685).jpg
	|caption2 = ] is a model example of the ], later repaired in the 16th century with financial support and grants by the Vijayanagara Emperors.{{sfn|M.H. Krishna|1965|pp=18-19}}
	}}		}}
	In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of ], the ]s of Kondavidu, and the ] and had gained control over ] in the west and the Tungabhadra-] ] in the north.<ref name="femalepoet">Kamath (2001), p162</ref><ref name="vijayama1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=317}}</ref>
			== Early modern period (1526–1858) ==
	With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, ], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the ] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref name="umbrella">The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=242}}</ref> The next ruler, ], emerged successful against the ] of ] and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref name="aqueduct">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock ({{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=243}}).</ref> Italian traveler Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.<ref>Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, John Stewart Bowman p.271, (2013), Columbia University Press, New York, {{ISBN|0-231-11004-9}}</ref> ] (called ''Gajabetekara'')<ref name="hunter">Also deciphered as ''Gajaventekara'', a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants" (Kamath 2001, p163).</ref> succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the ] rulers.<ref name="hunter1">{{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=244}}</ref> He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the ] of ] and ] in the south. He invaded the island of ] and became overlord of the kings of ] at ] and ].<ref name="Burma">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire {{harvnb|Nilakanta Sastri|1955|p=245}}</ref><ref name="Burma1">Kamath (2001), p164</ref><ref name="Bidjanagar">From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p11)</ref>
			The ] of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the ], which inherited from the ]. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of ];{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} the growth of ] and ] enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.<ref name="exeter">{{cite web|title=India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526–1857|website=]|url=http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/}}</ref> With the discovery of the ] in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the ].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ITxsDwAAQBAJ&q=early+modern+India|title=Unwanted Neighbours: The Mughals, the Portuguese, and Their Frontier Zones|isbn=978-0-19-909368-7|last1=Flores|first1=Jorge|date=5 June 2018|publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref>
			=== Mughal Empire ===
	The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms using the local granite. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician ] founded the famous ] in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like ], ] and ] in medieval south India.<ref>History of Science and Philosophy of Science by Pradip Kumar Sengupta p.91</ref> Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.<ref>Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) by Satish Chandra p. 188–189</ref> The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.<ref>Art History, Volume II: 1400–present by Boundless p.243</ref>
			{{Main|Mughal Empire}}
			{{See also|Bengal Subah|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal architecture|Army of the Mughal Empire|Mughal clothing|Mughal painting}}
	The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor. The empire reached its peak during the rule of ] when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious. The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.<ref>World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia by Marshall Cavendish Corporation p.337</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.
			{{multiple image
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	Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the ] (1565). After the death of ] in the Battle of Talikota, ] started the ], moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=100-101}} Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.<ref name="capital">Kamath (2001), p174</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Vijaya Ramaswamy|title=Historical Dictionary of the Tamils|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H4q0DHGMcjEC |year=2007|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6445-0|pages=Li–Lii}}</ref>{{sfn|Eaton|2006|pp=101-115}} During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the ], ], ], ], ] and ]&nbsp;– all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.<ref name="capital1">Kamath (2001), p220, p226, p234</ref>
			| total_width = 450
	] from the top of the southern ], looking north. The temple was rebuilt by the Vijayanagar Empire.|alt=aerial image of a temple campus.</center>]]
			| caption_align = center
			| title = Mughal Empire
	===Regional powers===
			| image1 = Joppen1907India1700a.jpg
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center
			| caption1 = Map of the ] at its peak in year 1700
	| title = Regional powers
			| image2 = Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg
	| image1 = Chaumukha Jain temple at Ranakpur in Aravalli range near Udaipur Rajasthan India.jpg|caption1=] was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of ].
			| caption2 = ] is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India ] declaration, 1983.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/252/|title=Taj Mahal|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre}}</ref>
	| image2 = GolGumbaz2.jpg|caption2=] built by the ], has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine ].
	}}		}}
	For two and a half centuries from the mid 13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the ], and in Southern India by the ]. However, there were other regional powers present as well. The ] successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate; and extended their rule from ] in the north to ] in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.<ref name="Mackenzie1990">{{cite book|author=Gordon Mackenzie|title=A manual of the Kistna district in the presidency of Madras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=430nAMZz8LwC&pg=PA10|year=1990|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0544-2|pages=9,10,224–}}</ref> In the north, the ] remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. Their power reached its zenith under ], who was the ] of ] and head of a powerful Hindu Rajput confederacy in ]; during whose time Rajput armies were constantly victorious against the Sultanate armies.<ref>I. Austin, ''Mewar The World's Longest Serving Dynasty''</ref>
			In 1526, ] swept across the ] and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire)|website=University of Calgary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170951/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/|archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> However, his son ] was defeated by the Afghan warrior ] in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah's death, his son ] and his Hindu general ] established secular rule in North India from ] until 1556, when ] ({{Reign|1556|1605}}), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the ] on 6 November 1556 after winning ]. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the '']'' tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local '']'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique ] and ].
	In the south, the ], which was established either by a Brahman convert or patronised by a Brahman and from that source it was given the name ''Bahmani'',<ref>The Discovery of India, J.L.Nehru</ref> was the chief rival of the Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for the Vijayanagara.<ref>Farooqui Salma Ahmed, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd., 2011)</ref> In the early 16th century ] of the Vijayanagar Empire defeated the last remnant of Bahmani Sultanate power. After which, the Bahmani Sultanate collapsed,<ref>A Social History of the Deccan, 1300–1761: Eight Indian Lives, by Richard M. Eaton p.88</ref> resulting it being split into five small ].<ref>''The Five Kingdoms of the Bahmani Sultanate''</ref> In 1490, ] declared independence, followed by ] and ] in the same year; ] became independent in 1518 and ] in 1528.<ref>Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2007). ''The Mughul Empire'', Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, {{Listed Invalid ISBN|81-7276-407-1}}, p.412</ref> Although generally rivals, they did ally against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.
			Akbar married a ] princess, ], and they had a son, ] ({{Reign|1605|1627}}).<ref>Jeroen Duindam (2015), , Cambridge University Press</ref> Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of ] ({{Reign|1628|1658}}) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the ] at Agra.
	In the East, the ] remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under ], Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower ] in the north to the ] in the south.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Majumdar |editor1-first=Ramesh Chandra |editor1-link=R. C. Majumdar |editor2-last=Pusalker |editor2-first=A. D. |editor3-last=Majumdar |editor3-first=A. K. |date=1960 |title=] |volume=VI: The Delhi Sultanate|location=Bombay |publisher=Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan |page=367 |quote=" Kapilendra was the most powerful Hindu king of his time, and under him Orissa became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south."}}</ref> In ], the ] was a major power for six centuries;<ref name="Sen1999">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=Ancient Indian History and Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wk4_ICH_g1EC&pg=PA305|date=1 January 1999|publisher=New Age International|isbn=978-81-224-1198-0|page=305}}</ref><ref name="Saikia2004">{{cite book|author=Yasmin Saikia|title=Fragmented Memories: Struggling to be Tai-Ahom in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WfSmsuO6QugC&pg=PA8|date=19 October 2004|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=0-8223-8616-X|page=8}}</ref> led by ], the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the ] during the ].<ref>{{Citation |last=Sarkar |first=J. N. |contribution=Chapter VIII Assam-Mughal Relations |editor-last=Barpujari |editor-first=H. K. |title=The Comprehensive History of Assam |volume=2 |publisher=Assam Publication Board |place=Guwahati |year=1992|page=213}}</ref> Further east in Northeastern India was the ], which ruled from their seat of power at ] and developed a sophisticated Hindu ] culture.{{Sfn|Williams|2004|pp=83–84, the other major classical Indian dances are: Bharatanatyam, Kathak, Odissi, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Cchau, Satriya, Yaksagana and Bhagavata Mela}}{{Sfn|Reginald Massey|2004|p=177}}{{Sfn|Ragini Devi|1990|pp=175–180}}
	<gallery class="center" caption="Ahom Architecture" widths="180px" heights="145px">
	Rang Ghar Sibsagar.jpg|], built by ] in ]'s capital ], is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent.
	Gargaon'r Kareng Ghor.JPG|] is a seven-storied royal palace built by ] of the ].
	Talatal Ghar.jpg|] is a royal palace built by ].
	</gallery>
			It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turchin|first1=Peter|author-link=Peter Turchin|last2=Adams|first2=Jonathan M.|last3=Hall|first3=Thomas D|date=December 2006|title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires|url=https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|journal=]|volume=12|issue=2|page=223|issn=1076-156X|access-date=2 October 2021|archive-date=14 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914101602/https://peterturchin.com/PDF/Turchin_Adams_Hall_2006.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the ],<ref>] (2003): '''', ], {{ISBN|92-64-10414-3}}, p. 261</ref> and the world leader in manufacturing,<ref>{{Citation|title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850|given=Prasannan|surname=Parthasarathi|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2011|isbn=978-1-139-49889-0|page=2}}</ref> producing 25% of global industrial output.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India's Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=], David Clingingsmith|publisher=]|date=August 2005|access-date=18 May 2017}}</ref> The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal ]s that intensified agricultural production,<ref>{{cite book|last=Richards|first=John F.|author-link=John F. Richards|year=1995|orig-year=First published 1993|title=The Mughal Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHyVh29gy4QC&pg=PA190|publisher=]|page=190|isbn=978-0-521-56603-2}}</ref> and a relatively high degree of ].<ref>{{cite book|author=]|year=2007|title=The Mughal World: Life in India's Last Golden Age|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zpa8gyGW_twC&pg=PA5|publisher=Penguin Books|page=5|isbn=978-0-14-310262-5}}</ref>
	==Early modern period (c. 1526 – 1858 CE)==
	The ] of Indian history is dated from 1526–1858 CE, corresponding to the rise and fall of the ]. This period witnessed the cultural synthesis of Hindu and Muslim elements reflected in ];{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2008|p = 115}}{{sfn|Robb|2001|pp = 90–91}} the growth of ] and ] imperial powers over vast regions of the Indian subcontinent with the decline of the Mughals; and came to an end when the ] was founded.<ref name="exeter">{{cite web|title=India before the British: The Mughal Empire and its Rivals, 1526–1857|website=]|url=http://humanities.exeter.ac.uk/history/modules/hih1407/}}</ref>
			{{Gallery|align=center|title=Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites
	===Mughal Empire===
			|width=180|File:Agra Fort 20180908 143826.jpg|] showing ] river and Taj Mahal in the background
	{{Main|Mughal Empire}}
			|File:Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg|], near Agra, showing ], the complex built by ], the third Mughal emperor
	{{See also|Mughal Bengal|Muslin trade in Bengal|Mughal architecture|Mughal clothing|Mughal painting}}
			|||File:Red Fort in Delhi 03-2016 img1.jpg|], Delhi, constructed in the year 1648
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Mughal Empire
	|-
	|
	<gallery>
	Mughal1700.png|The Mughal Empire at its greatest extent in the early 18th century.
	Taj Mahal (Edited).jpeg|] is a ] built by ] ] to house the tomb of his favorite wife, ].
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	In 1526, ], a ] descendant of ] and ] from ] (modern day Uzbekistan), swept across the ] and established the ], which at its zenith covered modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |title=The Islamic World to 1600: Rise of the Great Islamic Empires (The Mughal Empire) |website=University of Calgary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927170951/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/mughals/ |archive-date=27 September 2013}}</ref> However, his son ] was defeated by the Afghan warrior ] in the year 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to ]. After Sher Shah's death, his son ] and his Hindu general ] had established secular rule in North India from ] till 1556. After winning ], ]'s forces defeated Hemu in the ] on 6 November 1556.
	The famous emperor ], who was the grandson of Babar, tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the '']'' tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local '']'', and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique ] and ]. Akbar married a ] princess, ], and they had a son, ], who was part-Mughal and part-Rajput, as were future Mughal emperors.<ref>Jeroen Duindam (2015), , ]</ref> Jahangir more or less followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of ] was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the ] at Agra, as well as the Moti Masjid, Agra, the Red Fort, the ], Delhi, and the Lahore Fort.
	{{
	multiple image
	| align = left
	| direction = vertical
	| header =
	| width = 250
	|image1 = Fatehput Sikiri Buland Darwaza gate 2010.jpg
	|caption1 = ] was built by ] to commemorate his victory over the ].
	|image2 = Red Fort in Delhi 03-2016 img3.jpg
	|caption2 = ] was the main residence of the ] for nearly 200 years, until 1856.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mukherjee |first1=Anisha |title=Whose fort is it anyway |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/express-sunday-eye/whose-fort-is-it-anyway-red-fort-controversy-5200389/ |publisher=The Indian Express |date=3 June 2018}}</ref>
	}}		}}
	The Mughal era is considered to be "India's last golden age".<ref name="eraly">] (2007), , ]</ref> It was the ],<ref name="Taagepera">{{cite journal|date=September 1997|title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia|journal=]|volume=41|issue=3|page=500|doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053|author=Rein Taagepera|authorlink=Rein Taagepera|jstor=2600793}}</ref> and surpassed ] to be become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the ],<ref name="maddison261">] (2003): '''', ], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, page 261</ref> and the world leader in manufacturing,<ref name="Parthasarathi">{{Citation |title=Why Europe Grew Rich and Asia Did Not: Global Economic Divergence, 1600–1850 |given=Prasannan |surname=Parthasarathi |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-139-49889-0 |page=2}}</ref> producing 25% of global industrial output.<ref name="williamson">{{Cite web|url=http://www.tcd.ie/Economics/staff/orourkek/Istanbul/JGWGEHNIndianDeind.pdf|title=India’s Deindustrialization in the 18th and 19th Centuries|author=], David Clingingsmith|publisher=]|date=August 2005|accessdate=2017-05-18}}</ref> The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal ]s that intensified agricultural production,<ref name="richards">] (1995), , ]</ref> a ] economy that began moving towards industrial ],<ref name="voss">{{cite book|title=The Ashgate Companion to the History of Textile Workers, 1650–2000|author=Lex Heerma van Voss, Els Hiemstra-Kuperus, Elise van Nederveen Meerkerk|chapter=The Long Globalization and Textile Producers in India|publisher=]|year=2010|page=255|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f95ljbhfjxIC&pg=PA255|isbn=9780754664284}}</ref> and a relatively high degree of ] for its time.<ref name="eraly"/>
	The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of ] and also started its terminal decline in his reign due to Maratha military resurgence under ]. Historian ] wrote "All seemed to have been gained by Aurangzeb now, but in reality all was lost."<ref>A History of Aurangzib (in 5 volumes) – J.N. Sarkar</ref> The same was echoed by ]: "The Deccan proved to be the graveyard not only of Aurangzeb's body but also of his empire".<ref name="ReferenceC"/> Aurangazeb is considered India's most controversial king.<ref name="Truschke">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|author=Audrey Truschke|publisher=]|year=2017|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781503602595}}</ref> He was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the ''jizya'' tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,<ref name="Copland2013">{{cite book|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|title=A History of State and Religion in India| year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45950-4|page=119|display-authors=3}}</ref> employing significantly more ]s in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and opposing ] bigotry against Hindus and ].<ref name="Truschke50">{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|author=Audrey Truschke|publisher=]|year=2017|pages=50–51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=9781503602595}}</ref> However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing brutality and centralisation, which may have played a large part in the dynasty's downfall after Aurangzeb, who unlike previous emperors, imposed relatively less pluralistic policies on the general population, which may have inflamed the majority Hindu population.		The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of ] ({{Reign|1658|1707}}), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.<ref>] (2003): '''', ], {{ISBN|9264104143}}, pages 259–261</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850|author=Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy|publisher=]|year=2009|page=174|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=niuwCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA174|isbn=9789047429975}}</ref> Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the ''jizya'' tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ian Copland|author2=Ian Mabbett|author3=Asim Roy|author4=Kate Brittlebank|author5=Adam Bowles|title=A History of State and Religion in India|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-45950-4|page=119|display-authors=3}}</ref> employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.<ref>{{cite book|title=Aurangzeb: The Life and Legacy of India's Most Controversial King|author=Audrey Truschke|author-link=Audrey Truschke|publisher=]|year=2017|pages=56, 58|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUUkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT50|isbn=978-1-5036-0259-5}}</ref> However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The ] suffered a defeat in the ].<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Conflict and Cooperation in Anglo-Mughal Trade Relations during the Reign of Aurangzeb|first=Farhat|last=Hasan|journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient|volume=34|issue=4|year=1991|pages=351–360|doi=10.1163/156852091X00058|jstor=3632456}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=John Company Armed: The English East India Company, the Anglo-Mughal War and Absolutist Imperialism, c. 1675–1690|first=James|last=Vaugn|journal=Britain and the World|volume=11|issue=1|date=September 2017}}</ref>
			]
	The empire went into decline thereafter. The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from ], ] and ]. During the decline of the Mughal Empire, several smaller states rose to fill the power vacuum and themselves were contributing factors to the decline. In 1737, the Maratha general ] of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao, however, easily routed the novice Mughal general and the rest of the imperial Mughal army fled. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While ] under ] ruler ], overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city taking with them the two great silver doors of the entrance of the famous Taj Mahal; which were then melted down by Suraj Mal in 1763.<ref name="Grewal2007">{{cite book|author=Royina Grewal|title=In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpFImGZdVEC&pg=PA220|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books India|isbn=978-0-14-310265-6|pages=220–}}</ref> In 1739, ], emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the ].<ref name="Dupuy711">Dupuy, R. Ernest and Trevor N. Dupuy, ''The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History'', 4th Ed., (HarperCollinsPublishers, 1993), 711.</ref> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away many treasures, including the ].<ref name="avalanchepress">{{cite web|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php|publisher=avalanchepress.com|title= Iran in the Age of the Raj |accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref> Mughal rule were further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; ] led the ] ] against Mughal religious oppression; ] ]s of ], ] and ] revolted; and ] ], of ] Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the ].<ref name="AsherTalbot2006">{{cite book | author1=Catherine Ella Blanshard Asher | author2=Cynthia Talbot | title=India before Europe | year= 2006 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-80904-7 | page=265}}</ref> The ] was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. ] took place under the Muslim provincial government based at ] to wipe out the ]s, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the ],<ref>A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy, , Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005</ref> and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.<ref>], A History of the Sikhs, Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129</ref> The remnants of the Mughal dynasty were finally defeated during the ], also called the 1857 War of Independence, and the remains of the empire were formally taken over by the British while the ] let the ] assume direct control of India in the form of the new ].
			The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from ], ]s, ] and ]. In 1737, the Maratha general ] of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire.{{citation needed|date=May 2024}} While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler ], overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=Royina Grewal|title=In the Shadow of the Taj: A Portrait of Agra|year=2007|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-310265-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATpFImGZdVEC&pg=PA220|page=220}}</ref> In 1739, ], emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the ].<ref>{{cite book|author1=Dupuy, R. Ernest|name-list-style=and|author2=Trevor N. Dupuy|title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History|edition=4th|publisher=Harper Collins Publishers|year=1993|page=711}}</ref> After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the ].<ref>{{cite web|website=avalanchepress.com|title=Iran in the Age of the Raj|url=http://www.avalanchepress.com/Soldier_Shah.php|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> ] commenced his own invasions as ruler of the ], eventually ].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gupta |first=Hari Ram |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=TmU9AAAAMAAJ&redir_esc=y |title=Marathas and Panipat |date=1961 |publisher=Panjab University |language=en|page=326}}</ref> Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; ] led the ] ] against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu ]s of Bengal, ] and ] revolted; and ] ], of ] Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the ].{{sfn|Asher|Talbot|2006|p=265}} The ] was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. ] took place under the Muslim provincial government based at ] to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the ],<ref>''A Popular Dictionary of Sikhism: Sikh Religion and Philosophy'', , Routledge, W. Owen Cole, Piara Singh Sambhi, 2005</ref> and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.<ref>], ''A History of the Sikhs'', Volume I: 1469–1839, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978, pp. 127–129</ref>
	===Maratha Empire===		=== Maratha Empire ===
	{{Main|Maratha Empire}}		{{Main|Maratha Empire}}
	{{Further|Maratha Army|Maratha Navy|Battles involving the Maratha Empire}}		{{Further|Maratha Army|Maratha Navy|Battles involving the Maratha Empire}}
			{{multiple image
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
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	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| Maratha Empire
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			| title = Maratha Empire
	<gallery>
			| image1 = India1760 1905.jpg
	File:India1760 1905.jpg|] at its zenith in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from ] to present-day ].
			| caption1 = Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from ] to present-day ]
	File:Shaniwarwada gate.JPG|] palace fort in ], the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818.
			| image2 = Shaniwarwada gate.JPG
	</gallery>
			| caption2 = ] palace fort in ], the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818
	|-
	|}		}}
			The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by ].<ref>''Shivaji and his Times'' (1919) – J.N. Sarkar</ref> However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to '']'' (chief minister) ]. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".<ref>'']'', Dr. K.K. Datta, p. 546</ref>
	In the early 18th century the ] extended suzerainty over the Indian subcontinent. Under the Peshwas, the ] consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending ] in India.<ref name="pearson">{{cite journal |last=Pearson |first=M. N. |date=February 1976 |title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=35 |issue=2 |pp=221–235 |doi=10.2307/2053980 |jstor=2053980}}</ref><ref name="google3">{{cite book|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|author=Capper, J.|date=1918|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|page=28|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref name="google4">{{cite book|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|author=Sen, S.N.|date=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|page=1941|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref>
			In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending ] in India.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Pearson|first=M.N.|date=February 1976|title=Shivaji and the Decline of the Mughal Empire|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|volume=35|issue=2|pages=221–235|doi=10.2307/2053980|jstor=2053980|s2cid=162482005}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Delhi, the Capital of India|author=Capper, J.|date=1918|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-1282-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aqqBPS1TDUgC&pg=PA28|page=28|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|author=Sen, S.N.|date=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PA1941-IA82|page=1941|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued ] against the Mughals, ], ] and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2023-12-01|title=Maratha empire {{!}} History, Definition, Map, & Facts {{!}} Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Maratha-Empire|access-date=2024-01-21|website=www.britannica.com|language=en}}</ref> The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting ] Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ghazi|first=Mahmood Ahmad|author-link=Mahmood Ahmed Ghazi|year=2002|title=Islamic Renaissance in South Asia 1707–1867: The Role of Shāh Walī Allāh and His Successors|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QO4KjzuJ52QC&q=vishwasrao+peshwa+throne+delhi&pg=PA129|publisher=Islamic Research Institute|pages=129–130|isbn=969-408-232-3}}</ref>
	] of the ].]]
	The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by ], a ] aristocrat of the ] clan who was determined to establish ]. ] described Shivaji as "the last great constructive genius and nation builder that the Hindu race has produced".<ref>Shivaji and his Times (1919) – J.N. Sarkar</ref> While, ], Shivaji's half-brother founded the ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tifhAAAAMAAJ&q=Venkoji,+Shahaji's+son+and+Shivaji's+half+brother,+was+the+founder+of+the+Thanjavur+dynasty.&dq=Venkoji,+Shahaji's+son+and+Shivaji's+half+brother,+was+the+founder+of+the+Thanjavur+dynasty.&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y|title=Journal of the Tanjore Maharaja Serfoji's Sarasvati Mahal Library|first=Tanjore Maharaja Serfoji's Sarasvati Mahal|last=Library|date=24 July 1979|publisher=|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa ]. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".<ref>], Dr. K.K. Datta, p.546</ref>
			The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from ] in the south,<ref>{{cite book|last=Mehta|first=Jaswant Lal|year=2005|title=Advanced Study in the History of Modern India, 1707–1813|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d1wUgKKzawoC&pg=PA204|publisher=New Dawn Press|page=204|isbn=978-1-932705-54-6|quote=The Maratha Governor of Trichinopoly}}</ref> to ] (modern-day ], ]<ref>{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PR22|year=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|page=16}}</ref> {{#tag:ref|Many historians consider ] to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire<ref>Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – '']: The Maratha supremacy''</ref>|group=note}}) in the north, and ] in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the ] (1761). However, the ] within a decade under Peshwa ].<ref>{{cite book|author=N.G. Rathod|title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8|year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-52-9|page=8}}</ref>
	By the early 18th century, the Maratha Kingdom had transformed itself into the Maratha Empire under the rule of the '']s'' (prime ministers). In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the ]. The Marathas continued ] against the ], ], ] and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. By 1760, the domain of the Marathas stretched across practically the entire Indian subcontinent.<ref name="ansar"/> The Marathas even discussed abolishing the ] and placing ] on the ] imperial throne in ].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QO4KjzuJ52QC&pg=PA130&dq=vishwasrao+peshwa+throne+delhi&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CCAQ6AEwAWoVChMIt4S2jOmUxgIVozimCh30bABN#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Islamic Renaissance In South Asia (1707-1867) : The Role Of Shah Waliallah & His Successors|first=|last=M.A.Ghazi|date=24 July 2018|publisher=Adam Publishers & Distributors|via=Google Books}}</ref>
			Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the ]s of ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and the ] of ] and ]. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in ], which led to the ], resulting in a Maratha victory.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Naravane|first=M.S.|title=Battles of the Honorourable East India Company|publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation|year=2014|isbn=978-81-313-0034-3|pages=63}}</ref> The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the ] and ]s (1805–1818).
	The empire at its peak stretched from ]{{sfnp|Mehta|2005|p=204}} in the south, to ] (modern-day ], ]<ref name="XWiACEwPR8C p.16">{{cite book|author=Sailendra Nath Sen|title=An Advanced History of Modern India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXWiACEwPR8C&pg=PR22|year=2010|publisher=Macmillan India|isbn=978-0-230-32885-3|page=16}}</ref> {{#tag:ref|Many historians consider ] to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire<ref>Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bharatiya Itihasa Samiti, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar – '']: The Maratha supremacy''</ref>|group=note}}) in the north, and ] in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the ] (1761). However, the ] within a decade under Peshwa ].<ref>{{cite book|author=N. G. Rathod|title=The Great Maratha Mahadaji Scindia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uPq640stHJ0C&pg=PA8|year=1994|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=978-81-85431-52-9|page=8}}</ref>
			=== Sikh Empire ===
	] was captured by Maratha general ] (]). The Scindias would later become the rulers of the semi-autonomous ] of the ].]]
			{{Main|Sikh Empire}}
	Under Madhavrao I, semi-autonomy was given to the strongest of the knights, which created a confederacy of Maratha states. They became known as the ]s of ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and ], the ]s of ] and the ] of ] and ]. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in ], which led to the ], resulting in a Maratha victory.<ref name=Naravane2>{{Cite book |last=Naravane |first=M.S. |title=Battles of the Honorourable East India Company |publisher=A.P.H. Publishing Corporation |year=2014 |isbn=9788131300343 |pages=63}}</ref> The Marathas remained the pre-eminent power in India until their defeat in the ] and ]s (1805-1818), which left the East India Company in control of most of India. As noted by Charles Metcalfe, one of the ablest of the British Officials in India and later acting Governor-General, wrote in 1806:
			{{See also|Sikh architecture}}
			The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the ], from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the ], under the leadership of ] (1780–1839).{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}
			Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his ], trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the ]. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Singh|first=Gulcharan|date=July 1981|title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War|journal=USI Journal|volume=111|issue=465|pages=184–192}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Grewal|first=J.S.|author-link=J. S. Grewal|year=1990|title=The Sikhs of the Punjab|publisher=Cambridge University Press|series=The New Cambridge History of India|volume=II.3|pages=101, 103–104|isbn=978-0-521-26884-4|quote=Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.}}</ref>
	{{quote|India contains no more than two great powers, British and Mahratta, and every other state acknowledges the influence of one or the other. Every inch that we recede will be occupied by them.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/selectionsfromp01metcgoog/selectionsfromp01metcgoog_djvu.txt|title=Full text of "Selections from the papers of Lord Metcalfe; late governor-general of India, governor of Jamaica, and governor-general of Canada"|work=archive.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url= https://archive.org/stream/DiscoveryOfIndia/TheDiscoveryOfIndia-jawaharlalNehru_djvu.txt | title = The Discovery Of India}}</ref>}}
			At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south, running along Sutlej river to ] in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The ] and ] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
	The Marathas also developed a potent ] circa the 1660s, which at its peak dominated the territorial waters of the western coast of India from ] to ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sridharan|first1=K|title=Sea: Our Saviour|publisher=New Age International (P) Ltd.|isbn=81-224-1245-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9PiwJF7V4EQC&pg=PA43|year=2000}}</ref> For a brief period, the Maratha Navy also established its base at the ] in the ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Padmanathan|first1=R|title=Tourist Guide to Andaman & Nicobar Islands|publisher=Sura Books Pvt. Ltd.|isbn=81-7478-419-5|page=3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rAWdvwl_1IC&pg=PT6|year=2002}}</ref> It would engage in attacking the ], ], ], and ] Naval ships and kept a check on their naval ambitions. The Maratha Navy dominated till around the 1730s, was in a state of decline by the 1770s, and ceased to exist by 1818.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sharma|first1=Yogesh|title=Coastal Histories: Society and Ecology in Pre-modern India|publisher=Primus Books|isbn=978-93-80607-00-9|page=66|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FTTGWSme30YC&pg=PA66|year=2010}}</ref>
	===Sikh Empire===		=== Other kingdoms ===
			]
	{{Main|Sikh Empire}}
			The ] in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under ] and his son ] in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The ] ended in April 1787, following the finalising of ''treaty of Gajendragad'', in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the ] took place, where the Mysoreans used the ]. The ] (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the ].
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
	| title = Sikh Empire under ]
	| image1 = Golden Temple India.jpg|caption1=] (''The Golden Temple'') is culturally the most significant place of worship for the ]. Maharaja Ranjit Singh rebuilt Harmandir Sahib in marble and copper in 1809, overlaid the sanctum with gold foil in 1830.{{sfn|Trudy Ring|Noelle Watson|Paul Schellinger|2012|pp=28–29}}
	| image2 = Benares- The Golden Temple, India, ca. 1915 (IMP-CSCNWW33-OS14-66).jpg|caption2=In 1835, Maharaja ] donated 1 tonne of gold for plating the ]'s dome.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=HlQOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA51 |title=The Sacred City of the Hindus: An Account of Benares in Ancient and Modern Times |author=] |publisher=Trübner & co. |year=1868 |page=51 }}</ref><ref name="Madhuri_2007">{{cite book |author=Madhuri Desai |title=Resurrecting Banaras: Urban Space, Architecture and Religious Boundaries |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdD3MYnYey8C&pg=PA30 |year=2007 |publisher=ProQuest |isbn=978-0-549-52839-5 }}</ref>
	}}
	The ], ruled by members of the ], was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent. The empire, based around the ], existed from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the ], under the leadership of ] (1780–1839) from an array of autonomous ] ].
			Hyderabad was founded by the ] of ] in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself ] in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the ].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ga-pmgxsWwoC&q=Bajirao+I&pg=PA12|title=History Modern India|first=S. N.|last=Sen|date=15 August 2006|publisher=New Age International|isbn=9788122417746|via=Google Books}}</ref> However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. ] became a princely state in British India in 1798.
	Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated many parts of northern India into an empire. He primarily used his ] that he trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He continuously defeated the Afghan armies and successfully ended the ]. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Singh |first=Gulcharan |date=July 1981 |title=Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Principles of War |journal=USI Journal |volume=111 |issue=465 |pages=184–192}}</ref><ref name="Grewal">{{cite book |last=Grewal |first=J. S. |author-link=J. S. Grewal |year=1990 |title=The Sikhs of the Punjab |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=The New Cambridge History of India |volume=II.3 |pages=101,103–104 |isbn=0-521-26884-2 |quote=Aggrandisement which made him the master of an empire ... the British recognized Ranjit Singh as the sole sovereign ruler of the Punjab and left him free to ... oust the Afghans from Multan and Kashmir ... Peshawar was taken over ... The real strength of Ranjit Singh's army lay in its infantry and artillery ... these new wings played an increasingly decisive role ... possessed 200 guns. Horse artillery was added in the 1820s ... nearly half of his army in terms of numbers consisted of men and officers trained on European lines ... In the expansion of Ranjit Singh's dominions ... vassalage proved to be nearly as important as the westernized wings of his army.}}</ref>
			The ] had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out ] from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, ], the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the ] by ]. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the ''Masnad'' (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chaudhury|first1=Sushil|last2=Mohsin|first2=KM|year=2012|chapter=Sirajuddaula|chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|editor1-last=Islam|editor1-first=Sirajul|editor1-link=Sirajul Islam|editor2-last=Jamal|editor2-first=Ahmed A.|title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh|edition=Second|publisher=]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula|archive-date=14 June 2015|access-date=15 August 2018}}</ref> In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the ''Nizamat'' (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the ].<ref>{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Vipul|date=2009|title=Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75avUTXB11AC&pg=PA29|publisher=Pearson Education India|pages=29–|isbn=978-8131728888}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|date=2009|title=Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnyaLNskRfEC&pg=PA11|publisher=Upkar Prakashan|pages=11–|isbn=978-81-7482-744-9}}</ref>
	At its peak, in the 19th century, the empire extended from the ] in the west, to ] in the north, to ] in the south, running along Sutlej river to ] in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The hard-fought ] and ] marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.
	] being recited near the ] and ], ].</center>]]
			In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The ] distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the ]s, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the ], and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha ] ruler of ] gave up the district of ] to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.<ref>{{Citation|title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present|first=Jeremy|last=Black|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99039-8|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&q=9780275990398|page=78}}</ref> Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the ], and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The ] contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being ], ], ] and ].
	===Other kingdoms===
	There were several other kingdoms that ruled over parts of India in the later medieval period prior to the British occupation. However, most of them were bound to pay regular tribute to the Marathas.<ref name="ansar"> Cite: ''"Swarming up from the Himalayas, the Marathas now ruled from the Indus and Himalayas in the north to the south tip of the peninsula. They were either masters directly or they took tribute."''</ref>
			After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many ] became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the ] in 1846, under the terms of the ], the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja ] and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the ].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|title=Treaty of Amritsar|access-date=25 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140826235201/http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf|archive-date=26 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rai|first=Mridu|title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2004|pages=27, 133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5azvT2hjW0C|isbn=978-0-691-11688-4}}</ref> While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of ], ] and ] were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
	].<ref>{{cite news|title=Missiles mainstay of Pak's N-arsenal|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-04-21/india/27784965_1_cruise-missile-missile-program-hatf-viii|work=The Times of India|accessdate=2011-08-30|date=21 April 2008}}</ref>]]
	The rule of the ], which established the ] in southern India in around 1400&nbsp;CE, was interrupted by ] and his son ] in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The ] ended in April 1787, following the finalizing of ''treaty of Gajendragad'', in which, Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the ] took place, where the Mysoreans used the ]. The ] (1798-1799) saw the death of Tipu Sultan and further reductions in Mysorean territory. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the ]. Tipu was killed during the defence of the city. Much of the remaining Mysorean territory was annexed by the British, the Nizam and the Marathas. The remaining core, around ] and ], was restored to the Indian prince belonging to the Wodeyar dynasty, whose forefathers had been the actual rulers before Hyder Ali became the de facto ruler. The Kingdom of Mysore became a ] of British India in 1799.
			After the fall of the ], ] states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the ], where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA114|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-8424-568-4|pages=C-114|year=1988}}</ref> Around the 18th century, the ] was formed by Rajput rulers.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|date=20 May 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8|pages=138–}}</ref>
	Hyderabad was founded by the ] of ] in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself ] in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the ].<ref></ref> However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vessels of the British. ] became princely state in British India 1798.
			=== European exploration ===
	The ] had become the de facto rulers of ] following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out ] from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, ], the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the ] by ]. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the ''Masnad'' (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.<ref name="sirajbanglaped2">{{cite book |last1=Chaudhury |first1=Sushil |last2=Mohsin |first2=KM |year=2012 |chapter=Sirajuddaula |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=] |deadurl=no |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150614191817/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sirajuddaula |archivedate=14 June 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the ''Nizamat'' (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the ].<ref name="british2">{{cite book |last=Singh |first=Vipul |date=2009 |title=Longman History & Civics (Dual Government in Bengal)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75avUTXB11AC&pg=PA29 |publisher=Pearson Education India |pages=29–}}</ref><ref name="dualgovernment2">{{cite book |date=2009 |title=Madhya Pradesh National Means-Cum-Merit Scholarship Exam (Warren Hasting's system of Dual Government) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QnyaLNskRfEC&pg=PA11 |publisher=Upkar Prakashan |pages=11– |isbn=978-81-7482-744-9}}</ref>
			{{Main|Colonial India}}
			]'s first voyage (1497–1499)p]]
			In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under ] discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in ], ], ], and ]. The Portuguese instituted the ], where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glenn Ames|editor=Ivana Elbl|title=Portugal and its Empire, 1250–1800 (Collected Essays in Memory of Glenn J. Ames).: Portuguese Studies Review, Vol. 17, No. 1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hld-AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12|year=2012|publisher=Trent University Press|pages=12–15 with footnotes, context: 11–32}}</ref> Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was ].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Praval|first=K. C.|year=2009|orig-year=First published 1987|title=Indian Army after Independence|location=New Delhi|publisher=Lancer|page=214|isbn=978-1-935501-10-7}}</ref>
	In the 18th century the whole of ] was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The ] distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterwards Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the ]s, raiders who were based in Maratha territory, which quickly became the ], and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha ] ruler of ] gave up the district of ] to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end.<ref>{{Citation|title=A Military History of Britain: from 1775 to the Present|first=Jeremy|last=Black|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|year=2006|isbn=978-0-275-99039-8|location=Westport, Conn.|url=https://books.google.com/?id=hNVtQY4sXYMC&dq=9780275990398|page=78}}</ref> Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the ], and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The ] contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being ], ], ] and ].
			The next to arrive ], with their main base in ]. They established ports in ]. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the ] by the ] during the ]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M.O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016}} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>
	After the fall of the ], many ] became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British, to form the largest bloc of princely states in the ], in terms of territory and population.<ref>{{cite book|author=L. K. Singh|title=Indian Cultural Heritage Perspective For Tourism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u21tp_JG9I0C&pg=PA58|date=February 2008|publisher=Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-475-2|pages=58–}}</ref> With the decline of the ], after the ] in 1846, under the terms of the ], the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja ] and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second largest princely state in British India, was created by the ].<ref>http://www.kashmir-issue.com/images3/treatyOfamritsar.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Rai |first=Mridu |title=Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects: Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004|pages=27, 133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5azvT2hjW0C |isbn=0-691-11688-1}}</ref> While in Eastern and Northeastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of ], ] and ] were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.
			The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of ] in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of ] and ], and the Portuguese colonies of ].<ref>{{Cite web|website=themaparchive.com|title=The British in India – The Map Archive|url=https://www.themaparchive.com/the-british-in-india/|access-date=2024-11-16|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Magedera|first=Ian H.|date=November 2010|title=Arrested Development: The Shape of ‘French India’ after the Treaties of Paris of 1763 and 1814|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|journal=Interventions|language=en|volume=12|issue=3|pages=331–343|doi=10.1080/1369801X.2010.516092|issn=1369-801X}}</ref>
	After the fall of the ], ] states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished till the ], where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.<ref>{{cite book|title=Indian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MazdaWXQFuQC&pg=SL3-PA114|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=978-81-8424-568-4|pages=3–}}</ref> Around the 18th century, the ] was formed by ] rulers.<ref name="Schmidt2015">{{cite book|author=Karl J. Schmidt|title=An Atlas and Survey of South Asian History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BqdzCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|date=20 May 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-47681-8|pages=138–}}</ref>
			=== East India Company rule in India ===
	<gallery widths="200px" heights="200px">
			{{Main|East India Company|Company rule in India}}
	File:H0KNKH19.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharana of ].
			{{multiple image
	File:Jaipur 03-2016 19 City Palace complex.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharana of ].
			| perrow = 1/2
	File:Laxmi Niwas Palace.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharana of ].
			| total_width = 225
	File:UmaidBhawan Exterior 1.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by Maharana of ].
			| caption_align = center
	File:Mysore palace illuminated.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharaja of ].
			| title = India under East India Company rule
	File:Baroda Lvp.JPG|], was commissioned by the Maharaja of ].
			| image1 = India1765and1805b.jpg
	File:Tripura State Museum Agartala Tripura India.jpg|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharaja of ].
			| caption1 = India in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pink
	File:Cooch Behar Palace in Cooch Behar.JPG|] in ], was commissioned by the Maharaja of ].
			| image2 = India1837to1857.jpg
	</gallery>
			| caption2 = India in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories
	===Early modern Indian traders===
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=350|caption_align=center
	| align = left
	| title = ]
	| image1 = Ateshgah temple inscription.png|caption1=An inscribed invocation to Lord ] in Sanskrit at the Ateshgah.
	| image2 = Ateshgah door 18 inscription.png|caption2=An inscribed invocation to the ] in ] at the Ateshgah.
	| footer = <center>] is a temple built by Indian traders before 1745, west of the ].</center>
	}}		}}
	Early modern Indian traders to West Asia and Eastern Europe were active between the 14th and 18th centuries.<ref name="hanway1753">{{Citation | title=An Historical Account of the British Trade Over the Caspian Sea | first=Jonas| last=Hanway | year=1753 | publisher=Sold by Mr. Dodsley | isbn= | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=etApAAAAYAAJ | quote=''...&nbsp;The Persians have very little maritime strength&nbsp;... their ship carpenters on the Caspian were mostly Indians&nbsp;... there is a little temple, in which the Indians now worship''}}</ref><ref name="dale2002">{{Citation | title=Indian Merchants and Eurasian Trade, 1600–1750 | author=Stephen Frederic Dale | year=2002 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=0-521-52597-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GqEWw_54uVUC | quote=''...&nbsp;The Russian merchant, F.A. Kotov&nbsp;... saw in Isfahan in 1623, both Hindus and Muslims, as Multanis.''}}</ref><ref name="levi2002">{{Citation | title=The Indian diaspora in Central Asia and its trade, 1550–1900 | author=Scott Cameron Levi | year=2002 | publisher=BRILL | isbn=90-04-12320-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9qVkNBge8mIC | quote=''...&nbsp;George Forster&nbsp;... On the 31st of March, I visited the Atashghah, or place of fire; and on making myself known to the Hindoo mendicants, who resided there, I was received among these sons of Brihma as a brother''}}</ref> During this period, Indian traders settled in ], a suburb of greater ], Azerbaijan. These traders built a ], which suggests commerce was active and prosperous for Indians by the 17th century.<ref name="jackson1911">{{Citation | title=From Constantinople to the home of Omar Khayyam: travels in Transcaucasia and northern Persia for historic and literary research | author=Abraham Valentine Williams Jackson | year=1911 | publisher=The Macmillan company | isbn= | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ }}</ref><ref name="forster1798">{{Citation | title=A journey from Bengal to England: through the northern part of India, Kashmire, Afghanistan, and Persia, and into Russia, by the Caspian-Sea | author=] | year=1798 | publisher=R. Faulder | isbn= | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSkQAAAAYAAJ | quote=''...&nbsp;A society of ] Hindoos, which has long been established in Baku, contributes largely to the circulation of its commerce; and with the Armenians they may be accounted the principal merchants of Shirwan&nbsp;...''}}</ref><ref name="morier1818">{{Citation | title=A Second Journey through Persia, Armenia, and Asia Minor, to Constantinople, between the Years 1810 and 1816 | author=James Justinian Morier | year=1818 | publisher=A. Strahan | isbn= | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjdtPAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref name="usgovt1887hd">{{Citation | title=Reports from the consuls of the United States, 1887 | author=United States Bureau of Foreign Commerce | year=1887 | publisher=United States Government |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBASAAAAYAAJ | quote=''...&nbsp;Six or 7&nbsp;miles southeast is Surakhani, the location of a very ancient monastery of the fire-worshippers of India&nbsp;...''}}</ref>
			The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a ] in ] on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in ] in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the ] farther south, a second factory was established in ] on the southeastern coast. The islet of '']'' in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese ] not far from Surat, it was presented to ] as ], in his marriage to ]; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a ] in the ] delta. During this time other companies established by the ], ], ], and ] were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.
	Further north, the ] and ] coasts played an important role in maritime trade, and the ] and the ] housed several centres of river-borne commerce. Most overland trade was carried out via the ] connecting the ] with Afghanistan and onward to the Middle East and Central Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Raychaudhuri|Habib|1982|pp=10–13}}</ref> Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, ] was prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue to the rulers, while their craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services.<ref name="Dutt-1">{{Harvnb|Datt|Sundharam|2009|page=14}}</ref>
			The company's victory under ] in the 1757 ] and another victory in the 1764 ] (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor ] to appoint it the '']'', or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and ]. The company thus became the ''de facto'' ruler of large areas of the ] by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The ] (1766–99) and the ] (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the ]. With the defeat of the ], no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.<ref>{{cite book|year=2004|orig-year=First published 1994 as ''Histoire de l'Inde Moderne''|editor-first=Claude|editor-last=Markovits|title=A History of Modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C&pg=PA271|edition=2nd|location=London|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=271–|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>
	===European exploration and colonialism===
	{{Main|Colonial India}}
			The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the ] (comprising ], ], and the ]) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (] 1828) and ] (1843). ], ], and ] were annexed after the ] in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the ] (1850) to the ] of ] and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, ] was annexed along with the state of ] two years later.{{citation needed|date=April 2024}}
	====Western explorers and traders====
	{{double image|right|Gama route 1.svg|200|De Lannoy Surrender.JPG|215|The route followed in ]'s first voyage (1497–1499).|] of the ] surrenders to Maharaja ] of the ] after the ]. (Depiction at ])}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
	In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under ] successfully discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in ], ], ] and ]. Goa became the main Portuguese base until it was ].<ref>Sanjay Subrahmanyam, ''The Portuguese empire in Asia, 1500–1700: a political and economic history'' (2012)</ref>
			|width=180 |File:Warren Hastings greyscale.jpg|], the first governor-general of ] who oversaw the company's territories in India
			|File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg|Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of ], king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ] in ]) issued during ]
			|File:Railway bridge bhor ghaut incline1855.jpg|Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay
			||}}
			The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's ] in return for limited internal ]. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up ''political'' underpinnings for its rule.<ref name="brown-p67">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=67}}</ref> The most important such support came from the '']s'' with Indian princes.<ref name="brown-p67" /> In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India.<ref name="brown-p67" /> When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.<ref name="brown-68">{{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=68}}</ref>
	The next to arrive ], with their main base in ]. They established ports in ]. However, their expansion into India was halted, after their defeat in the ] by the ], during the ]. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.<ref>{{cite book|first1=M. O.|last1=Koshy|title=The Dutch Power in Kerala, 1729–1758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ro8SLhyAc9AC|year=1989|publisher=Mittal Publications|isbn=978-81-7099-136-6|page=61}}</ref><ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312081154/http://mod.nic.in/samachar/april15-04/body.html |date=12 March 2016 }} 9th Madras Regiment</ref>
			In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor."<ref name="brown-68" /> Subsidiary alliances created the ] of the Hindu ]s and the Muslim ]s. Prominent among the princely states were ] (1791), ] (1794), ] (1795), ] (1798), ] (1799), ] (1815), ] (1819), ] and ] (1819), ] (1818),<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> and ] (1833).
	In the words of the noted historian, Professor ]:
			<!--The East India Company also concluded treaties with various Afghan rulers and with ] of the Punjab, to counterbalance Russia's support of ] plans in western ]. In 1839 the company's actions the ] (1839–42). However, as the British expanded their territory in India, so did Russia in Central Asia, with the taking of ] and ] in 1863 and 1868 respectively, thereby setting the stage for the ] of Central Asia.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=135}}</ref>-->
			==== Indian indenture system ====
	{{Quote|A disaster of the first magnitude for the Dutch, the ] shattered for all time their dream of the conquest of Kerala.}}
			{{Main|Indian indenture system}}
			The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5&nbsp;million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large ] that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large ] and ] populations.
			== Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947) ==
	The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the ]—who set up in the west coast port of ] in 1619—and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although these continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of ] and ],<ref>Holden Furber, ''Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800'', University of Minnesota Press, 1976, p. 201.</ref><ref>Philippe Haudrère, ''Les Compagnies des Indes Orientales'', Paris, 2006, p 70.</ref> and the Portuguese colonies of ], ].<ref>. Shvoong.com.</ref>
			=== Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences ===
			{{Main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=140|File:Rani of jhansi.jpg|], one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the ].
			|File:Bahadur Shah II of India.jpg|], the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.
			|File:Charles Canning, 1st Earl Canning - Project Gutenberg eText 16528.jpg|], the ] during the rebellion.
			|File:Dalhousie.jpg|], the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the ].
			}}
			The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was ].<ref>Saul David, p. 70, ''The Indian Mutiny'', Penguin Books 2003</ref> In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the ] and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as ] and the ] belonged to this group.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=172}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref>
	====Expansion of the British East India Company rule in India====
	{{Main|East India Company|Company rule in India}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"|British East India Company
	|-
	|
	<gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
	File:IGI1908India1857b-coloured.jpg|Map of India in 1857 at the end of ]'s rule.
	File:Opium godown store patna2.jpg|] storehouse in ]. Under British East India Company's rule, by the 1850s, opium constituted 40% of India's exports.<ref>{{Harvnb|Washbrook|2001|p=403}}</ref>
	</gallery><gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
	Gulabsingh1840.jpg|], the founder and the first Maharaja of the ] of ].
	Kangla3.jpg|''Kangla Uttra Sang'' at the Kangla Fort, the former residence of the ]. The two ''Kangla-Sa'' ] ]s standing at the gate were destroyed by the British.<ref name="Keen2015"/>
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	In 1617 the ] was given permission by Mughal Emperor Jahangir to trade in India.<ref name="Pant2012">{{cite book|author=Ashok Pant|title=The Truth of Babri Mosque|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39tW7k_0MI4C&pg=PA83|date=August 2012|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-1-4759-4289-7|pages=83–}}</ref> Gradually their increasing influence led the '']'' Mughal emperor ] to grant them ''dastaks'' or permits for duty-free trade in ] in 1717.<ref>{{cite web |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20070510193408/http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml |archivedate=10 May 2007|url=http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml |title=Kolkata (Calcutta) : History |publisher=Calcuttaweb.com |accessdate=10 March 2016}}</ref>
			After the outbreak of the mutiny in ], the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the ] and ] (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=177}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|2000|p=357}}</ref> However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly ], but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.<ref>Christopher Hibbert, ''The Great Mutiny: India 1857'' (1980)</ref>
	The ] ], the ''de facto'' ruler of the Bengal province, opposed British attempts to use these permits. This led to the ] on 23 June 1757, in which the ] of the British East India Company, led by ], defeated the French-supported Nawab's forces. This was the first real political foothold with territorial implications that the British acquired in India. Clive was appointed by the company as its first 'Governor of Bengal' in 1757.<ref>{{cite web
	|url=http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/people_cliveofindia.html| title = Robert Clive, Baron Clive, 'Clive of India', 1725–1774| accessdate = 7 May 2007| last = Rickard| first = J.| date = 1 November 2000| work = Military History Encyclopedia on the Web| publisher = historyofwar.org}}</ref> This was combined with British victories over the French at ], ] and ] that, along with wider ], reduced French influence in India. The British East India Company extended its control over the whole of Bengal. After the ] in 1764, the company acquired the rights of administration in Bengal from ] Mughal Emperor ]; this marked the beginning of its formal rule, which within the next century engulfed most of India.<ref>{{cite web
	|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHN%20PDF/Transformation%20from%20a%20Pre-Colonial%20-%20Om%20Prakash.pdf
	| title = The Transformation from a Pre-Colonial to a Colonial Order: The Case of India| accessdate = 7 May 2007| last = Prakash| first = Om| format = PDF| work = Global Economic History Network | publisher = Economic History Department, ]| pages = 3–40}}</ref> The British East India Company monopolised the trade of Bengal. They introduced a land taxation system called the ] which introduced a ]-like structure in Bengal, often with ]s and ]s set in place.
			In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the ], which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.<ref>{{Citation|first=Wilhelm von|last=Pochhammer|title=India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent|publisher=Allied Publishers|year=1981|isbn=978-81-7764-715-0}}</ref>
	As a result of the three Carnatic Wars, the British East India Company gained exclusive control over the entire ] of India.<ref>Lawrence James, ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (1997) pp 30–44</ref> The Company soon expanded its territories around its bases in Bombay and Madras; the ] (1766–1799) and later the ] (1772–1818) led to control of vast regions of India. ] of ] first fell to ] and then to the British after the ] in 1826; concurrently, the Burmese invasions also lead the ] to seek British protectorate in 1824, however, it was after the ] of 1891 did it become part of the British Empire.<ref name="Keen2015">{{cite book|author=Caroline Keen|title=An Imperial Crisis in British India: The Manipur Uprising of 1891|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gSnGCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=British Academic Press|isbn=978-1-78453-103-4}}</ref> ], the ], and ] were annexed after the ] in 1849; however, Kashmir was immediately sold under the ] to the ] of ] and thereby became a princely state. The border dispute between ] and British India, which sharpened after 1801, had caused the ] of 1814–16 and brought the defeated ] under British influence. In 1854, ] was annexed, and the state of Oudh was added two years later.
			=== British Raj (1858–1947) ===
	At the turn of the 19th century, Governor-General ] began what became two decades of accelerated expansion of Company territories.<ref name=ludden-expansion>{{Harvnb|Ludden|2002|p=133}}</ref> This was achieved either by ]s between the Company and local rulers or by direct military annexation. The subsidiary alliances created the ] or ''native states'' of the Hindu ]s and the Muslim ]s.
			{{Main|British Raj}}
			{{multiple image
			| perrow = 1/2
			| total_width = 300
			| caption_align = center
			| title = British Raj
			| image1 = British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg
			| caption1 = The British Indian Empire in 1909. ] is shown in pink; the ]s in yellow.
			| image2 = Victoriaterminus1903.JPG
			| caption2 = A 1903 stereographic image of ] a ], in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a ].
			}}
			After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The ] came into being.<ref>"Law Commission of India&nbsp;– Early Beginnings"</ref> In education, ] had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Suresh Chandra Ghosh|year=1995|title=Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India|journal=History of Education|volume=24|issue=1|pages=17–25|doi=10.1080/0046760950240102}}</ref> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<ref>{{cite journal|author=I.D. Derbyshire|year=1987|title=Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914|journal=Modern Asian Studies|volume=21|issue=3|pages=521–545|doi=10.1017/S0026749X00009197|jstor=312641|s2cid=146480332}}</ref> Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Robb|first=Peter|date=November 1981|title=British Rule and Indian 'Improvement'|journal=Economic History Review|volume=34|issue=4|pages=507–523|jstor=2595587|doi=10.2307/2595587}}</ref>
	By the 1850s, the British East India Company controlled most of the Indian subcontinent. Their policy was sometimes summed up as ], taking advantage of the enmity festering between various princely states and social and religious groups.<ref>H. V. Bowen, ''The Business of Empire: The East India Company and Imperial Britain, 1756–1833'' (2008)</ref>
			In 1905, ] ] into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India ] consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The ] provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<ref>S.A. Wolpert, ''Morley and India, 1906–1910'', (1967)</ref> Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the ] in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The ] and ] (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.<ref>''Democracy and Hindu nationalism'', Chetan Bhatt (2013)</ref> Sikhs founded the ] in 1920.<ref>Harjinder Singh Dilgeer. ''Shiromani Akali Dal (1920–2000)''. Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.</ref> However, the largest and oldest political party ], founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<ref>''The History of the Indian National Congress'', B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</ref>
	====Indian indenture system====
	{{Main|Indian indenture system}}
	The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5&nbsp;million Indians were transported to various colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of large ], which spread from the Indian Ocean (i.e. ] and ]) to Pacific Ocean (i.e. ]), as well as the growth of ] and ] population.
			{{Gallery|align=center
	==Modern period and independence (after c. 1850 CE)==
			|width=140|File:VictoriaQueen1862Empress1886.jpg|Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of ], the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became ] in 1876.
			|File:Sir R. Ross on steps of laboratory in Calcutta, 1898 Wellcome L0011943.jpg| ], left, at ] laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of ] by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second ] in 1902.
			|File:'552. Darjeeling. The loop No. 3, near Candaria', albumen print, c.1870.jpg| A ] train shown in 1870. The railway became a ] in 1999.
			|File:NewDelhiInaugurationSecondDayCancellation27Feb1931.jpg|A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of ] as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, ] had been the capital of the Raj.
			}}
			==== Indian Renaissance ====
	===The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences===
	{{Main|Indian rebellion of 1857}}		{{Main|British Raj|Bengali Renaissance}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
	{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=400|caption_align=center
			|width=140|File:Syed Ahmed Khan.jpg|Sir ] (1817–1898), the author of ''Causes of the Indian Mutiny'', was the founder of ], later the ]
	| title = ]
			|File:Pandita Ramabai Sarasvati 1858-1922 front-page-portrait.jpg|] (1858–1922) was a ], and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India
	| image1 = "Attack of the Mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, July 30th, 1857,.jpg|caption1=Attack of the mutineers on the Redan Battery at Lucknow, 30 July 1857.
			|File:Rabindranath Tagore unknown location.jpg|] (1861–1941) was a ] poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913
	| image2 = Vereshchagin-Blowing from Guns in British India.jpg|caption2=Execution of mutineers by ] by the British.
			|File:Srinivasa Ramanujan - OPC - 2 (cleaned).jpg|] (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to ]
	}}		}}
	The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the Company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the ], which was insensitive to local religious prohibition; key mutineer being ].<ref name="Saul David page 70">Saul David, page 70, "The Indian Mutiny", Penguin Books 2003</ref> In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops, and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the ], and felt that the Company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as ] and the ] belonged to this group.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=172}}, {{Harvnb|Bose|Jalal|2003|p=91}}, {{Harvnb|Brown|1994|p=92}}</ref>
			The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by ], in the ] of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian ] describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian ] (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate ] (1861–1941).<ref>{{cite book|author=Nitish Sengupta|author-link=Nitish Sengupta|year=2001|title=History of the Bengali-speaking People|publisher=UBS Publishers' Distributors|pages=210–213|isbn=978-81-7476-355-6|quote=Producing in about three quarters of a century so many creative stalwarts in literature, art, music, social and religious reform and also trading and industry ... The Bengal Renaissance can be said to have started with Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833) and ended with Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) ... On the whole, it remained an elitist movement restricted to Hindu ''bhadralok'' (gentry) and ''zamindars''.}}</ref> This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian ] as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kopf|first=David|author-link=David Kopf|date=December 1994|title=Amiya P. Sen. Hindu Revivalism in Bengal 1872|type=Book review|journal=American Historical Review|volume=99|issue=5|pages=1741–1742|doi=10.2307/2168519|jstor=2168519}}</ref>
	After the outbreak of the mutiny in ], the rebels very quickly reached ]. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the ] and ] (Oudh). Most notably in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=177}}, {{Harvnb|Bayly|2000|p=357}}</ref> However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly, with the assistance of friendly ]. But, it took the British remainder of 1857 and the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued by the British.<ref>Christopher Hibbert, ''The Great Mutiny: India 1857'' (1980)</ref>
			During this period, Bengal witnessed an ] awakening that is in some way similar to the ]. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the ] system, the ], and religion. One of the earliest ]s that emerged during this time was the ] movement, which espoused ] and ] as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sharma|first=Mayank|title=Essay on 'Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement'|date=January 2012|url=http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|access-date=9 August 2017|archive-date=14 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181114224008/http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
	In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the ], which began to administer most of India as a number of provinces. The Crown controlled the Company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.<ref>{{Citation |first=Wilhelm von |last=Pochhammer |title=India's road to nationhood: a political history of the subcontinent |publisher=Allied Publishers |year=1981 |isbn=81-7764-715-6 |ref=harv}}</ref>
			==== Famines ====
	===British Raj (c. 1858 – 1947)===
	{{main|British Raj}}
	{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; margin:0 0 1em 1em;"
	! style="background:#f8eaba; text-align:center;"| British Raj
	|-
	|
	<gallery mode="packed">
	British Indian Empire 1909 Imperial Gazetteer of India.jpg|The British Indian Empire at its greatest extent (in a map of 1909). The ]s under British suzerainty are in yellow.
	Victoria by nabarun.jpg|] was dedicated to the memory of the ] ] in ], which served as the capital of British-held territories in India until 1911.
	</gallery>
	|-
	|}
	After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The ] came into being.<ref>"Law Commission of India&nbsp;– Early Beginnings"</ref> In education, ] had made schooling a priority for the Raj in his famous minute of February 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English as the medium of instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated.<ref>Bentinck, Macaulay and the introduction of English education in India, Suresh Chandra Ghosh(1995)</ref> The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world.<ref>Economic Change and the Railways in North India, 1860–1914, I. D. Derbyshire(1987)</ref> The British Raj invested heavily in infrastructure, including canals and irrigation systems in addition to railways, telegraphy, roads and ports.<ref>Neil Charlesworth, British Rule and the Indian Economy, 1800–1914 (1981) pp 23–37</ref> However, historians have been bitterly divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer at the end of British rule than at the beginning and that impoverishment occurred because of the British.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Robb |first=Peter |date=November 1981 |title=British Rule and Indian 'Improvement' |journal=Economic History Review |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=507–523 |jstor=2595587}}</ref>
	] is a residence in ] built for the ].]]
	In 1905, ] ] into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be for efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India ] consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The ] provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government.<ref>S. A. Wolpert, ''Morley and India, 1906–1910'', (1967)</ref> Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the ] in 1906. It was not a mass party but was designed to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. It was internally divided by conflicting loyalties to Islam, the British, and India, and by distrust of Hindus.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mishra |first=Satya Narayan |date=January 2007 |title=Muslim Backwardness and Birth of the Muslim League |journal=Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society |volume=55 |issue=1/2 |pages=71–83}}</ref> The ] and ] (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation.<ref>''Democracy and Hindu nationalism'', Chetan Bhatt (2013)</ref> Sikhs founded the ] in 1920.<ref>Harjinder Singh Dilgeer. Shiromani Akali Dal (1920–2000). Sikh University Press, Belgium, 2001.</ref> However, the largest and oldest political party ], founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.<ref>''The History of the Indian National Congress'', B. Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1935)</ref>
	===Bengali Renaissance===
	{{Main|Bengali Renaissance}}
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
	File:Raja Ram Mohan Roy.jpg|] is regarded as the "''Father of the ]''".
	File:Rabindranath Tagore in 1909.jpg|] is Asia's first ], composer of ] and ], while inspired ].
	File:Swami Vivekananda-1893-09-signed.jpg|] was a key figure in introducing ] and ] in the ],<ref>{{Citation|last = Georg|first = Feuerstein|authorlink = Georg Feuerstein|title = The Yoga Tradition|publisher = Motilal Banarsidass|year = 2002|location =Delhi|page=600}}</ref> raising interfaith awareness and making Hinduism a world religion.<ref>{{Citation|last = Clarke|first = Peter Bernard|title = New Religions in Global Perspective|publisher = Routledge|year = 2006|page=209}}</ref>
	File:J.C.Bose.JPG|] was a ], ], ], ], and writer of science fiction.<ref> {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090203202750/http://frontlineonnet.com/fl2124/stories/20041203003009100.htm |date=3 February 2009 }}, '']'' '''21''' (24), 2004.</ref> He pioneered the investigation of radio and ] ], made very significant contributions to ], and laid the foundations of experimental science in the ].<ref>Chatterjee, Santimay and Chatterjee, Enakshi, ''Satyendranath Bose'', 2002 reprint, p. 5, National Book Trust, {{ISBN|81-237-0492-5}}</ref> He is considered one of the fathers of radio science,<ref>{{cite conference|title=Sir J.C. Bose and radio science|last1=Sen|first1=A. K.|date=1997|publisher=IEEE|book-title=Microwave Symposium Digest|pages=557–560|location=Denver, CO|conference=IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium|isbn=0-7803-3814-6|doi=10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602854}}</ref> and is also considered the father of ].
	File:SatyenBose1925.jpg|] was a ], specialising in ]. He is best known for his work on ] in the early 1920s, providing the foundation for ] and the theory of the ]. He is honoured as the namesake of the ].
	</gallery>
	The ]<ref name="auto">''History of the Bengali-speaking People'' by Nitish Sengupta, p 211, UBS Publishers' Distributors Pvt. Ltd. {{ISBN|81-7476-355-4}}.</ref><ref name="auto1">Sumit Sarkar, "Calcutta and the Bengal Renaissance", in ''], the Living City'' ed. Sukanta Chaudhuri, Vol I, p. 95.</ref><ref>''History of Bengali-speaking People'' by Nitish Sengupta, p 253.</ref> refers to a social reform movement during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries in the ] of the Indian subcontinent during the period of ] dominated by ]. The Hindu Renaissance can be said to have started with ] (1772–1833) and ended with ] (1861–1941), although many stalwarts thereafter continued to embody particular aspects of the unique intellectual and creative output of the region.<ref name="auto"/> Nineteenth-century Bengal was a unique blend of religious and social reformers, scholars, literary giants, journalists, patriotic orators, and scientists, all merging to form the image of a renaissance, and marked the transition from the 'medieval' to the 'modern'.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tagore.htm |first=Kathleen M. |last=O'Connell |title=Rabindranath Tagore on Education |website=infed.org |date=2003 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121024013104/http://www.infed.org/thinkers/tagore.htm |archivedate=2012-10-24}}</ref><ref name="Deb, Chitra, pp 64-65">Deb, Chitra, pp 64-65.</ref>
	During this period, Bengal witnessed an ] awakening that is in some way similar to the ]. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the ] system, the ], and religion. One of the earliest ]s that emerged during this time was the ] movement, which espoused ] and ] as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus.<ref>{{cite web|last=SHARMA|first=MAYANK|title=Essay on 'Derozio and the Young Bengal Movement'|url=http://www.preservearticles.com/2012010119327/essay-on-derozio-and-the-young-bengal-movement.html}}</ref> It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.
	===Famines===
	{{Main|Famine in India|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule}}		{{Main|Famine in India|Timeline of major famines in India during British rule}}
	{{See also|Demographics of India}}		{{See also|Demographics of India}}
			{{Gallery
	<gallery class="center" caption="Famines in British India" widths="180px" heights="145px">
			|align=center
	WWHooperFamine1876-78GroupOfEmaciaedMenandOneWoman.jpg
			|width=180 |File:FaminesMapOfIndia1800-1885.jpg|Map of famines in India during ] in year 1800–1885.
	India-famine-family-crop-420.jpg
			|File:Bellary Zilla,Great Famine of 1876–78..jpg|Engraving from '']'', October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in ], ], British India during the ]
	Bengal famine 1943 photo.jpg
			|File:FamineReliefAhmedabad1901.jpg|Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the ]
	Famine in India; five emaciated children; a girl sitting and Wellcome L0002224.jpg
			|File:OrphansWhoSurvivedBengalFamine1943.jpg|A picture of orphans who survived the ], a man-made disaster by the British government
	</gallery>
			}}
	During ] and the ], ], due to the failed policies of British colonial government, were some of the worst ever recorded, including the ] in which 6.1&nbsp;million to 10.3&nbsp;million people died,<ref>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} pg 7</ref> the ] where up to 10 million people died,<ref>{{cite book|author=Amartya Sen|title=Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOHnCwAAQBAJ|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-828463-5|page=39}}</ref> the ] in which 1.25 to 10&nbsp;million people died,<ref>Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} pg 173</ref> and the ] where up to 3.8 million people died.<ref>{{cite book |last=Greenough |first=Paul Robert |date=1982 |title=Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503082-2}}</ref> The ] in the mid-19th century killed 10&nbsp;million people in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html |title=Plague |accessdate=2014-07-05 |deadurl=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217172854/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html |archivedate=17 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }}. World Health Organisation.</ref> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200&nbsp;million in 1750,<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64}}</ref> had reached 389&nbsp;million by 1941.<ref>. ''Peterson Institute for International Economics''.</ref>
			During British East India Company and ] rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded ]. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government,<ref name="davis" /> included the ] in which 6.1&nbsp;million to 10.3&nbsp;million people died,<ref>Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 7</ref> the ] where between 1 and 10 million people died,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Datta|first=Rajat|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44927255|title=Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760-1800|date=2000|publisher=Manohar Publishers & Distributors|isbn=81-7304-341-8|location=New Delhi|pages=262, 266|oclc=44927255}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Amartya Sen|title=Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation|url=https://archive.org/details/povertyfamineses0000sena|url-access=registration|year=1981|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-828463-5|page=}}</ref> the ] in which 1.25 to 10&nbsp;million people died,<ref name="davis">Davis, Mike. ''Late Victorian Holocausts''. 1. Verso, 2000. {{ISBN|1-85984-739-0}} p. 173</ref> and the ] where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenough|first=Paul Robert|date=1982|title=Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-503082-2}}</ref> The ] in the mid-19th century killed 10&nbsp;million people in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|title=Plague|access-date=5 July 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090217172854/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html|archive-date=17 February 2009}}. World Health Organisation.</ref> Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200&nbsp;million in 1750,<ref>{{cite book|author=]|title=Population Growth and Land Use|publisher=]|year=1977|page=64|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KKvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64|isbn=978-1-349-15775-4}}</ref> had reached 389&nbsp;million by 1941.<ref>. Peterson Institute for International Economics.</ref>
	===The Indian independence movement===
	{{Main|Indian independence movement}}
	{{See also|Indian independence activists|Pakistan Movement}}
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
	File:Lal Bal Pal.jpg|] of ], ] of ], and ] of ], the triumvirate were popularly known as ], changed the political discourse of the Indian independence movement.
	File:Khudiram Bose 1905.jpg|] at the time of his hanging was 18 years old, making him one of the youngest ].<ref name=Guha>{{Harvnb|Guha|1971}}</ref>
	File:Bhagat Singh's execution Lahore Tribune Front page.jpg|Front page of the ''Tribune'' (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of ], ] and ] by the British. They are considered among the most influential revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement.
	File:Nehru gandhi.jpg|] (left) became India's first prime minister and ] (right) led the Indian independence movement.
	</gallery>
	The numbers of British in India were small,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/CensusOfIndia1931/Census+of+India+1931#page/n437/mode/2up|title=Census Of India 1931|website=archive.org}}</ref> yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the ] that accounted for 48% of the area.<ref name="Markovits2004">{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude |title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409}}</ref>
			==== World War I ====
	One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76">Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76</ref> leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76"/> "racial discriminations",<ref>India Awakening and Bengal, N.S.Bose,1976, p.237</ref> and "the revelation of India's past".<ref>British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance, Part-II, Dr.R.C.Majumdar, p.466</ref>
			{{Main|Indian Army during World War I}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=140|File:Hodsons Horse France 1917 IWM Q 2061.jpg|Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914
			|File:2nd Indian Cav Div.jpg|Indian cavalry from the ] during the ] in 1916.
			|File:Indian Army QF 3.7 inch gun battery Jerusalem 1917.jpg|Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with ]s, Jerusalem 1917
			|File:India Gate in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg|India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the ] who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War
			}}
			During ], over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.<ref>{{harvnb|Pati|1996|p=31}}</ref> The Army saw early action on the ] at the ]. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mgtrust.org/ind1.htm|title=Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War|website=Memorial Gates Trust|access-date=12 September 2009}}</ref>
			Indian Army and ] fought during the ]'s ] in 1915, at ] in 1916 and to ] in 1917. India units ] and after the ] they became the major force in the ] during the ] and in the ]' advance to ] and on to ]. Other divisions remained in India guarding the ] and fulfilling internal security obligations.
	The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of ]s to advise the British ] in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large ], with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as ]s from Nepal and ].<ref name="business-standard">{{cite web|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html|publisher=business-standard.com|title='India's well-timed diversification of army helped democracy' &#124; Business Standard News |accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref> The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<ref>Anil Chandra Banerjee, ''A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935'' (1978) p 171–3</ref>
			One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220138/http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub|archive-date=26 September 2007}}</ref> and another 67,000 were wounded.{{sfn|Sumner|2001|p=7}} The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the ] are commemorated by the ].
	], an Indian nationalist leader, declared ] as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"<ref name="google6">{{cite book|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj|author1=R, B.S.|author2=Bakshi, S.R.|date=1990|publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-7041-262-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOjhv5g629UC|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref> became the source of inspiration for Indians. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like ] and ], who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the ] involving the boycott of all imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as ]. Under them, India's three big provinces – ], ] and ] shaped the demand of the people and India's nationalism. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like ] and ], on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.<ref name="India 1989">India's Struggle for Independence – Chandra, Bipan; Mridula Mukherjee, Aditya Mukherjee, Sucheta Mahajan, K.N. Panikkar (1989), New Delhi: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|978-0-14-010781-4}}.</ref>
			==== World War II ====
	The ] further increased the ]. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action. One such revolutionary, ], planted bombs near British government officials, but was arrested and executed at the age of 18.<ref name=Guha>{{Harvnb|Guha|1971}}</ref>
			{{Main|India in World War II}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=140|File:Monty, wavvel, auk.jpg|General ] (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then ] ] (centre) and ] (left)
			|File:Indian women training for air raid precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay, 1942. IND1492.jpg|Indian women training for ] (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942
			|File:INDIAN TROOPS IN BURMA, 1944.jpg|Indian infantrymen of the ] about to go on patrol on the ] in Burma, 1944
			|File:VictoryWorldWar2BritishRaj.jpg|The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II
			}}
			British India officially declared war on ] in September 1939.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kux|first=Dennis|title=India and the United States: estranged democracies, 1941–1991|publisher=Diane Publishing|isbn=978-1-4289-8189-8|year=1992}}</ref> The British Raj, as part of the ], sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the ]. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the ].
	] premises during the ].]]
	The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the First World War and in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the ], which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.<ref>lbert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. The Government of India. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125</ref> In 1919, Colonel ] ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the ]; which lead to the ] of 1920–22. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Bond |first=Brian |date=October 1963 |title=Amritsar 1919 |magazine=History Today |volume=13 |issue=10 |pages=666–676}}</ref>
			Indians fought throughout the world, including in the ], ], against the Italians in ], in ] against the ], in the ]. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.
	From 1920 leaders such as ] began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like ], ] and ]. However, ] against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the ], founded by ], ], ] and others, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle. The ] was a major success in this regard.<ref name="India 1989"/>
			The ] denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the ] in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The ] rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
	===World War I===
	{{main article|Indian Army during World War I}}
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
	Hodsons Horse France 1917 IWM Q 2061.jpg|Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914.
	File:2nd Indian Cav Div.jpg|Indian cavalry from the ] during the ] in 1916.
	File:Indian Army QF 3.7 inch gun battery Jerusalem 1917.jpg|Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with ]s, Jerusalem 1917.
	File:India Gate in New Delhi 03-2016.jpg|India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the ] who died in the period 1914–21 in the ].
	</gallery>
	During ], over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men.<ref>Pati, p.31</ref> The Army saw action on the ] within a month of the start of the war at the ]. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.mgtrust.org/ind1.htm|title=Participants from the Indian subcontinent in the First World War|publisher=Memorial Gates Trust|accessdate=2009-09-12}}</ref>
			] (also called ''Netaji'') broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the ];{{sfn|Müller|2009|p=55}} however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the ] (INA), after the ] under ] was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=viii}}</ref> Bose also headed the ] (or ]), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1989|p=410}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyay|2004|p=426}}</ref>
	Indian Army and ] fought during the ]'s ] in 1915, at ] in 1916 and to ] in 1917. India units ] and after the ] they became the major force in the ] during the ] and in the ]' advance to ] and on to ]. Other divisions remained in India guarding the ] and fulfilling internal security obligations.
			By 1942, neighbouring ] was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of ]. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the ] on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as ] in ]. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the ] in June and from ] on 3 July 1944.
	One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died,<ref name="CWrepdirect">{{cite web |url=http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub |title=Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report 2007–2008 Online |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926220138/http://www.cwgc.org/document.asp?menuid=5&submenuid=24&id=6&menuname=%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20Annual%20report&menu=subsub |archivedate=2007-09-26}}</ref> and another 67,000 were wounded.<ref>Sumner, p.7</ref> The roughly 90,000 soldiers who lost their lives fighting in World War I and the ] are commemorated by the ].
			The region of Bengal in British India ]. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made",<ref>{{harvnb|Arnold|1991|pp=97–98}}</ref> with most sources asserting that wartime ] policies exacerbated the crisis.<ref>{{harvtxt|Devereux|2000|p=6}}</ref>
	===World War II===
	{{main|India in World War II}}
	<gallery mode="packed" style="font-size:88%; line-height:130%; border-bottom:1px #aaa solid;" heights="230">
	INDIAN TROOPS IN BURMA, 1944.jpg|Indian infantrymen of the ] about to go on patrol on the ] in Burma, 1944.
	Sikh soldier with captured Swastika flag.jpg|A Sikh soldier (of the 4th Division (the Red Eagles) of the Indian Army, attached to the British Fifth Army in Italy) holding a captured ] flag after the surrender of Nazi German forces in Italy. Photo circa May 1945.
	Bundesarchiv Bild 101I-263-1580-05, Atlantikwall, Soldaten der Legion "Freies Indien".jpg|Sikh soldiers of the ] guarding the ] in France in March 1944. ] initiated the legion's formation, intended to serve as a liberation force from the British occupation of India.
	Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.jpg|] revamped the ], presided over the ] in ] in India, and created popular Indian slogans, such as "]."
	</gallery>
	During the Second World War (1939–1945), ] was controlled by the United Kingdom, with the British holding territories in India including over five hundred autonomous ]; ] officially declared war on ] in September 1939.<ref name="Kux">{{cite book
	|last = Kux
	|first = Dennis
	|title = India and the United States: estranged democracies, 1941–1991
	|publisher = DIANE Publishing, 1992
	|isbn = 978-1-4289-8189-8}}</ref> The British Raj, as part of the ], sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the ]. Additionally, several Indian Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign during the War. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the ].
			=== Indian independence movement (1885–1947) ===
	Indians fought with distinction throughout the world, including in the ], ], against the Italians in ], in ] against the ], in the ]. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 Indian soldiers (including those from modern day ], ], and ]) died in World War II.
			{{Main|Indian independence movement}}
			{{See also|Indian independence activists|Pakistan Movement}}
			{{Gallery|align=center
			|width=140|File:1st INC1885.jpg|The first session of the ] in 1885. ], the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.<ref>{{citation|last=Marshall|first=P. J.|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire|url={{Google books|S2EXN8JTwAEC|page=PA179|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}}|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-00254-7|page=179}} Quote: "The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress."</ref>
			|||File:Bhagat Singh's execution Lahore Tribune Front page.jpg|Front page of the ''Tribune'' (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of ], ] and ] by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
			|File:Nehru gandhi.jpg|From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of ] (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the ].<ref>{{cite web|title=Information about the Indian National Congress|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/researchprojects/makingbritain/content/indian-national-congress|website=open.ac.uk|publisher=Arts & Humanities Research council|access-date=29 July 2015}}</ref> Gandhi is shown here with ], later the first prime minister of India.
			}}
			The numbers of British in India were small,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/CensusOfIndia1931/Census+of+India+1931#page/n437/mode/2up|title=Census Of India 1931|website=archive.org|year=1933}}</ref> yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the ] that accounted for 48% of the area.<ref>{{cite book|author=Markovits, Claude|title=A history of modern India, 1480–1950|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uzOmy2y0Zh4C|year=2004|publisher=Anthem Press|pages=386–409|isbn=978-1-84331-004-4}}</ref>
	The ], led by ], ] and ], denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the ] in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government was ready for this move. It immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders, and then moved to suppress the violent reaction of Congress supporters. Key leaders were kept in prison until June 1945, although Gandhi was released in May 1944 because of his health. Congress, with its leaders incommunicado, played little role on the home front. The ] rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.
			One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism,<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76">''Modern India'', Bipin Chandra, p. 76</ref> leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests",<ref name="Modern India, Bipin Chandra, p.76" /> "racial discriminations",<ref>''India Awakening and Bengal'', N.S. Bose, 1976, p. 237</ref> and "the revelation of India's past".<ref>''British Paramountcy and Indian Renaissance'', Part–II, Dr. R.C. Majumdar, p. 466</ref>
	] (also called ''Netaji'') broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the ];{{sfn|Müller|2009|p=55}} however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the ] (INA), after the ] under ] was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma.<ref name=Fayviiii>{{Harvnb|Fay|1993|p=viii}}</ref> Bose also headed the ] (or ]), a government-in-exile based in Singapore. The government of ] had its own currency, court, and civil code; and in the eyes of some Indians its existence gave a greater legitimacy to the independence struggle against the British.<ref name=Sarkar412>{{Harvnb|Sarkar|1983|p=412}}</ref><ref name=Bandyopadhyaya428>{{Harvnb|Bandyopadhyaya|2004|p=426}}</ref>
			The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of ]s to advise the British ] in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large ], with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as ]s from Nepal and ].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/india-s-well-timed-diversification-of-army-helped-democracy-115032000283_1.html|newspaper=Business Standard|title='India's well-timed diversification of army helped democracy' &#124; Business Standard News|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.<ref>Anil Chandra Banerjee, ''A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935'' (1978) pp. 171–173</ref>
	By 1942, neighbouring ] was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of ]. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the ] on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the ] with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as ] in ]. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the ] in June and from ] on 3 July 1944.
			], an Indian nationalist leader, declared ] (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it"<ref>{{cite book|title=Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj|author1=R, B.S.|author2=Bakshi, S.R.|date=1990|publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd|isbn=978-81-7041-262-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LOjhv5g629UC|access-date=6 January 2017}}</ref> became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like ] and ], who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the ] involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods;<ref name="Chandra2016p128" /> the triumvirate were popularly known as ]. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like ] and ], on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.<ref name="Chandra2016p128">{{cite book|last1=Chandra|first1=Bipan|author1-link=Bipan Chandra|last2=Mukherjee|first2=Mridula|author2-link=Mridula Mukherjee|last3=Mukherjee|first3=Aditya|last4=Mahajan|first4=Sucheta|last5=Panikkar|first5=K.N.|author5-link=K. N. Panikkar|year=2016|orig-year=First published 1987|title=India's Struggle for Independence|edition=Revised and updated|publisher=Penguin Books|page=128|isbn=978-0-14-010781-4}}</ref>
	The region of Bengal in India ].
			The ] further increased the ]. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.
	===After World War II (c. 1946 – 1947)===
	], which developed into pitched battles as ] and ] mobs rioted across ] in 1946, the year before independence.]]
			The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the ], which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power.<ref>Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. ''The Government of India''. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125</ref> In 1919, Colonel ] ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the ]; which led to the ] of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bond|first=Brian|date=October 1963|title=Amritsar 1919|magazine=History Today|volume=13|issue=10|pages=666–676}}</ref>
	In January 1946, a number of mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation to Britain. The mutinies came to a head with ] in ] in February 1946, followed by others in ], ], and ]. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. Also in early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.
			From 1920 leaders such as ] began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like ], ] and ]. However, ] against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the ], that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.
	Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 Britain announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an ].
			The ] gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an ].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Qasmi|first1=Ali Usman|last2=Robb|first2=Megan Eaton|title=Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan|date=2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-108-62123-6|page=2|language=en}}</ref> Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Haq|first1=Mushir U.|title=Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947|date=1970|publisher=Meenakshi Prakashan|page=114|language=en|quote=This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.}}</ref><ref name="Ahmed2016">{{cite web|last1=Ahmed|first1=Ishtiaq|title=The dissenters|url=https://www.thefridaytimes.com/tft/the-dissenters/|work=]|language=en|date=27 May 2016|quote=However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.}}</ref><ref name="Ali2017">{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Afsar|title=Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims|url=http://www.milligazette.com/news/15756-partition-of-india-and-patriotism-of-indian-muslims|work=]|language=en|date=17 July 2017}}</ref> The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion".<ref name="Ahmed2016" /><ref name="Ali2017" /> The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader ] also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.<ref name="Ali2017" />
	Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. The Muslims had always been a minority within the Indian subcontinent, and the prospect of an exclusively Hindu government made them wary of independence; they were as inclined to mistrust Hindu rule as they were to resist the foreign Raj, although Gandhi called for unity between the two groups in an astonishing display of leadership.
			==== After World War II (c. 1946–1947) ====
	Muslim League leader ] proclaimed 16 August 1946 as ], with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "]". The communal violence spread to ] (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), to ] in Bengal (where Hindus were targeted by Muslims), in ] in the ] (where Muslims were attacked by Hindus), and on to ] in March 1947 in which Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.
			{{Quote box
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			|quote="A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."
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			|source =&nbsp;— From, ], a speech given by ] to the ] on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/series/greatspeeches|title=Great speeches of the 20th century|work=The Guardian|date=8 February 2008}}</ref>
			}}
			In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with ] in ] in February 1946, followed by others in ], ], and ]. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and ] candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.
			Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an ].
	===Independence and partition (c. 1947–present)===
	{{Main|Partition of India|History of the Republic of India|History of Pakistan|History of Bangladesh}}
	] in 1947.]]
	The ]n territories gained independence in 1947, after being ] into the ] and ]. Following the controversial division of pre-partition ] and ], rioting broke out between Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims in these provinces and spread to several other parts of India, leaving some 500,000 dead.<ref name=symonds>{{cite book| last = Symonds | first = Richard | author-link=Richard Symonds (academic) | title = The Making of Pakistan | year = 1950 | publisher = Faber and Faber | location = London | oclc = 1462689 | page = 74| quote = At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations ever recorded in modern history, with a total of 12&nbsp;million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<ref name=symonds/> In 1971, ], formerly ] and ], seceded from Pakistan.
			Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader ] proclaimed 16 August 1946 as ], with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "]". The communal violence spread to ], ] in Bengal, ] in the ], and on to ] in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were ] by Muslims.
	==Historiography==
			] grew very slowly until independence in 1947. An acceleration in the rate of literacy growth occurred in the 1991–2001 period.]]
	In recent decades there have been four main schools of ] in how historians study India: Cambridge, Nationalist, Marxist, and subaltern. The once common "Orientalist" approach, with its image of a sensuous, inscrutable, and wholly spiritual India, has died out in serious scholarship.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Prakash | first = Gyan | author-link = Gyan Prakash | date = April 1990 | title = Writing Post-Orientalist Histories of the Third World: Perspectives from Indian Historiography | journal = Comparative Studies in Society and History | volume = 32 | issue = 2 | pages = 383–408 | doi=10.1017/s0010417500016534 | jstor = 178920}}</ref>
			== Independence and partition (1947–present) ==
	The "]", led by Anil Seal,<ref>Anil Seal'', The Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth Century'' (1971)</ref> Gordon Johnson,<ref>Gordon Johnson, ''Provincial Politics and Indian Nationalism: Bombay and the Indian National Congress 1880–1915'' (2005)</ref> Richard Gordon, and David A. Washbrook,<ref>Rosalind O'Hanlon and David Washbrook, eds. ''Religious Cultures in Early Modern India: New Perspectives'' (2011)</ref> downplays ideology.<ref>Aravind Ganachari, "Studies in Indian Historiography: 'The Cambridge School'", ''Indica'', March 2010, 47#1, pp 70–93</ref> However, this school of historiography is criticised for western bias or ].<ref name="google7">{{cite book|title=Eurocentrism: a marxian critical realist critique|author=Hostettler, N.|date=2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-135-18131-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XjozzN0ppEC&pg=PA33|page=33|accessdate=6 January 2017}}</ref>
			{{Main|Partition of India|South Asia#Contemporary era|History of India (1947–present)|History of Pakistan (1947–present)|History of Bangladesh}}
			{{Gallery
			|align=center
			|width=180 |File:Brit IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg|A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the ]. The partition of the ] and Bengal was based on such majorities.
			||Rural Sikhs in a long oxcart train headed towards India (1947)
			|File:Gandhi Badshah Khan in Bela Bihar 1947.jpg|Gandhi touring ], a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is ].
			|File:Lord Mountbatten swears in Jawaharlal Nehru as the first Prime Minister of free India on Aug 15, 1947.jpg|] being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy ] at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.
			}}
			In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the ] and ]. In particular, the partition of the ] and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies.<ref>Philip Ziegler, ''Mountbatten''(1985) p. 401.</ref><ref name="symonds">{{cite book|last=Symonds|first=Richard|author-link=Richard Symonds (academic)|title=The Making of Pakistan|year=1950|publisher=Faber and Faber|location=London|oclc=1462689|page=74|quote=At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Abid|first1=Abdul Majeed|title=The forgotten massacre|url=https://nation.com.pk/29-Dec-2014/the-forgotten-massacre|website=The Nation|date=29 December 2014|quote=On the same dates , Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)}}</ref> Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12&nbsp;million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively).<ref name="symonds" /> In 1971, ], formerly ] and ], seceded from Pakistan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Srinath Raghavan|title=1971|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2S-wAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-73129-5}}</ref>
	The Nationalist school has focused on Congress, Gandhi, Nehru and high level politics. It highlighted the Mutiny of 1857 as a war of liberation, and Gandhi's 'Quit India' begun in 1942, as defining historical events. This school of historiography has received criticism for ].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pages.ucsd.edu/~rfrank/class_web/ES-200C/Articles/Guha.pdf|title=Ranjit Guha, "On Some Aspects of Historiography of Colonial India"|publisher=}}</ref>
			== See also ==
	The Marxists have focused on studies of economic development, landownership, and class conflict in precolonial India and of deindustrialisation during the colonial period. The Marxists portrayed Gandhi's movement as a device of the bourgeois elite to harness popular, potentially revolutionary forces for its own ends. Again, the Marxists are accused of being "too much" ideologically influenced.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bagchi |first=Amiya Kumar |date=January 1993 |title=Writing Indian History in the Marxist Mode in a Post-Soviet World |journal=Indian Historical Review |volume=20 |issue=1/2 |pages=229–244}}</ref>
			{{col div|colwidth=18em}}
			* ]
	The "subaltern school", was begun in the 1980s by ] and ].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Prakash |first=Gyan |date=December 1994 |title=Subaltern studies as postcolonial criticism |journal=American Historical Review |volume=99 |issue=5 |pages=1475–1500 |doi=10.2307/2168385|jstor=2168385 }}</ref> It focuses attention away from the elites and politicians to "history from below", looking at the peasants using folklore, poetry, riddles, proverbs, songs, oral history and methods inspired by anthropology. It focuses on the colonial era before 1947 and typically emphasises caste and downplays class, to the annoyance of the Marxist school.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roosa |first=John |date=2006 |title=When the Subaltern Took the Postcolonial Turn |journal=Journal of the Canadian Historical Association |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=130–147 |doi=10.7202/016593ar}}</ref>
			* '']''
			* ]
	More recently, Hindu nationalists have created a version of history to support their demands for ] ("Hinduness") in Indian society. This school of thought is still in the process of development.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Menon |first=Latha |date=August 2004 |title=Coming to Terms with the Past: India |magazine=History Today |volume=54 |issue=8 |pages=28–30}}</ref> In March 2012, ], professor of Comparative Religion and Indian Studies at ], authored in her book "India: A Sacred Geography", that idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals and it wasn't just a cluster of regional identities and it wasn't ethnic or racial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scroll.in/article/802047/theres-an-idea-of-india-from-early-times-much-before-the-mughals-or-the-british-scholar-diana-eck|title=Harvard scholar says the idea of India dates to a much earlier time than the British or the Mughals}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/review-of-diana-l.eck-india-a-sacred-geography/1/199809.html|title=In The Footsteps of Pilgrims}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21550765 |title=India's spiritual landscape: The heavens and the earth |magazine =The Economist |date=24 March 2012}}</ref>
	<ref>{{cite news |last=Dalrymple |first=William |date=27 July 2012 |title=India: A Sacred Geography by Diana L Eck – review |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/jul/27/india-sacred-geography-eck-review |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>
	==See also==
	{{portal|History|India}}
	{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
			* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
	* ]		* ]
			* '']''
	* ]		* ]
			* ]
	{{colend}}		{{colend}}
	==References==		== References ==
	===Notes===
	{{reflist|group=note|2}}
	===Citations===		=== Notes ===
	{{Reflist|30em}}		{{reflist|group=note}}
	===Sources===		=== Citations ===
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	{{refend}}		{{refend}}
			== Further reading ==
	====Web-sources====
	{{reflist|group=web}}
	==Further reading==		=== General ===
			* ], ed. ''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)
			* Buckland, C.E. ''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp
	===General===
			* Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.
	* ], ed. ''The Illustrated Cultural History of India'' (Oxford University Press, 2007)
			* {{cite book|editor-surname=Chattopadhyaya|editor-given=D. P.|editor-link=D. P. Chattopadhyaya|title=]|volume=15-volum + parts Set|place=Delhi|publisher=]}}
	* Buckland, C.E. ''Dictionary of Indian Biography'' (1906) 495pp
			* Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
	* Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations
	* Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. ''The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751 – c. 1970'' (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
	* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947		* Guha, Ramachandra. ''India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy'' (2007), 890pp; since 1947
	* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000)		* James, Lawrence. ''Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India'' (2000)
	* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015)		* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War'' (2015); also published as ''India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War'' .
			* Khan, Yasmin. ''The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan'' (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017)
	* {{cite book |last1=Kulke |first1=Hermann |last2=Rothermund |first2=Dietmar |date=2004 |title=A History of India |url=https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108019139 |edition=4th |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080323155804/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108019139 |archive-date=23 March 2008}}
			* Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002)
	* ] : '']''. London, 1960. {{ISBN|0-333-90298-X}}		* ] : '']''. London, 1960. {{ISBN|0-333-90298-X}}
	* ] (ed.) : '']'', Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).		* ] (ed.) : '']'', Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
	* Mcleod, John. ''The History of India'' (2002)
	* Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia		* Mansingh, Surjit ''The A to Z of India'' (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
			* Markovits, Claude, ed. ''A History of Modern India, 1480–1950'' (2002) by a team of French scholars
	* Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. ''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006)		* Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. ''A Concise History of Modern India'' (2006)
	* Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885'' (2006), 192pp		* Peers, Douglas M. ''India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885'' (2006), 192pp
	* Richards, John F. ''The Mughal Empire'' (]) (1996)
	* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006)		* Riddick, John F. ''The History of British India: A Chronology'' (2006)
	* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries		* Riddick, John F. ''Who Was Who in British India'' (1998); 5000 entries
	* Rothermund, Dietmar. '''' (1993)		* Rothermund, Dietmar. '''' (1993)
	* ], '']'', (Oxford University Press, 2005)		* ], '']'', (Oxford University Press, 2005)
	* Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002)		* Sarkar, Sumit. ''Modern India, 1885–1947'' (2002)
			* {{cite book|last=Senior|first=R.C.|title=Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.|year=2006|publisher=Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.|isbn=978-0-9709268-6-9}}
	*{{cite book
	| last = Senior
	| first = R. C.
	| title = Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV.
	| year = 2006
	| publisher = Classical Numismatic Group, Inc.
	| isbn = 0-9709268-6-3
	}}
	* Singh, Upinder. ''A history of ancient and early medieval India : from the Stone Age to the 12th century'' (2008)
	* Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People'' (1983)		* Singhal, D.P. ''A History of the Indian People'' (1983)
	* Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned		* Smith, Vincent. ''The Oxford History of India'' (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
Line 1,248:		Line 954:
	* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)		* Thapar, Romila. ''Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300'' (2004)
	* Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. ''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933		* Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. ''Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India'' (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933
	* Tomlinson, B. R. ''The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)		* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970'' (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
			* Tomlinson, B.R. ''The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947'' (1979)
	* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (6th ed. 1999)
			* Wolpert, Stanley. ''A New History of India'' (8th ed. 2008)
	===Historiography===		=== Historiography ===
	* {{cite book |last=Bannerjee |first=Gauranganath |year=1921 |title=India as known to the ancient world|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up |location=London |publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press}}		* {{cite book|last=Bannerjee|first=Gauranganath|year=1921|title=India as known to the ancient world|url=https://archive.org/stream/indiaasknowntoan00banerich#page/n3/mode/2up|location=London|publisher=Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press}}
	* {{cite journal |last1=Bayly |first1=C. A. |date=November 1985 |title=State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years |url=http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x/full |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=583 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x |jstor=2597191}}		* {{cite journal|last1=Bayly|first1=C.A.|date=November 1985|title=State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years|journal=The Economic History Review|volume=38|issue=4|pages=583–596|doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x|jstor=2597191}}
	* Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp 34+.		* Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", ''History Today'' 57#9 (2007) pp.&nbsp;34–. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915152404/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5023376478 |date=15 September 2011 }}
	* Elliot, Henry Miers; John Dowson (1867–77). ''''. London: Trübner and Co.		* {{cite book|last1=Elliot|first1=Henry Miers|first2=John|last2=Dowson|year=1867|url=http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|title=The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period|publisher=London: Trübner and Co.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090825184925/http://persian.packhum.org/persian/main?url=pf%3Ffile%3D80201010%26ct%3D0|archive-date=25 August 2009}}
	* Kahn, Yasmin. "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War' in Martin Gegner and Bart Ziino, eds., ''The Heritage of War'' (Routledge, 2011) pp 177–193.		* {{cite book|last=Kahn|first=Yasmin|chapter=Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War|editor1=Martin Gegner|editor2=Bart Ziino|title=The Heritage of War|publisher=Routledge|year=2011|pages=177–193}}
	* Jain, M. The India They Saw : Foreign Accounts (4 Volumes) Delhi: Ocean Books, 2011.		* {{cite book|last=Jain|first=M.|title=The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts|chapter=4|publisher=]: Ocean Books|year=2011}}
	* Lal, Vinay, ''The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India'' (2003).		* {{cite book|last=Lal|first=Vinay|title=The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India|year=2003}}
	* Palit, Chittabrata, ''Indian Historiography'' (2008).		* {{cite book|last=Palit|first=Chittabrata|title=Indian Historiography|year=2008}}
	* ], Hinduism and Its Sense of History (Oxford University Press, 2003) {{ISBN|978-0-19-566531-4}}		* {{cite book|author-link=Arvind Sharma|title=Hinduism and Its Sense of History|publisher=]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-566531-4|last=Sharma|first=Arvind}}
	* E. Sreedharan, A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000 (2004)		* {{cite book|first=E.|last=Sreedharan|title=A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000|year=2004}}
	* Warder, A. K., ''An introduction to Indian historiography'' (1972).		* {{cite book|last=Warder|first=A.K.|title=An introduction to Indian historiography|year=1972}}
	===Primary===		=== Primary ===
	* ''The Imperial Gazetteer of India'' (26 vol, 1908–31), highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.		* {{cite book|title=The Imperial Gazetteer of India|date=1908–1931|url=https://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/}} Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.
	==External links==
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Latest revision as of 09:51, 20 January 2025

This article is about the pre-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent. For the post-1947 history of India, see History of India (1947–present). For the post-1947 history of the Indian subcontinent, see South Asia § Contemporary era. "Ancient India" and "Indian history" redirect here. For outline, see Outline of South Asian history.

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Timeline
Prehistoric Madrasian culture Soanian, c. 500,000 BCE Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE Bhirrana 7570 – 6200 BCE Jhusi 7106 BCE Lahuradewa 7000 BCE Mehrgarh 7000 – 2600 BCE South Indian Neolithic 3000 – 1000 BCE
Ancient Indus Valley Civilization, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE Post Indus Valley Period (Cemetery H Culture), c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE Vedic civilization, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE Kuru kingdom, c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE Early Vedic period Rise of Śramaṇa movement Later Vedic Period Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha Spread of Jainism – Mahavira Rise of Buddhism Kingdom of Magadha Brihadratha Dynasty 1700 – 682 BCE Haryanka Dynasty 544 – 413 BCE Shaishunaga Dynasty 413 – 345 BCE Nanda Dynasty, 345 – 322 BCE Mahajanapadas, c. 600 – 345 BCE
Classical Kingdom of Magadha Maurya Dynasty, 322 – 185 BCE Pandya Dynasty, 320 BCE - 280 CE Shunga Dynasty, 185 – 73 BCE Kanva Dynasty, 73 – 28 BCE Sangam period 300 BCE – 400 CE Kushan Dynasty, c. 30 – c. 375 CE Satavahana Dynasty, c. 228 BCE – c. 224 CE Gupta Dynasty, c. 240 – c. 550 CE
Early medieval Pallava dynasty, 275 CE - 897 CE Chalukya Dynasty, 543 – 753 CE Pandya Dynasty, 590 CE - 920 CE Harsha's Dynasty, c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE Karakota Dynasty, c. 724 – c. 760 CE Arab Invasion, c. 738 CE Tripartite Struggle, c. 760 – c. 973 CE Pratihara dynasty Rastrakuta Dynasty Pala Dynasty Chola Dynasty, c. 848 – c. 1251 CE 2nd Chalukya Dynasty, c. 973 – c. 1187 CE
Late medieval Delhi Sultanate, 1206 – 1526 CE Mamluk Dynasty Khalji Dynasty Tugluq Dynasty Sayyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty Pandyan Empire, 1251 – 1618 CE Vijayanagara, 1336 – 1646 CE Bengal Sultanate, 1342 – 1576 CE
Early modern Mughal Dynasty, 1526 – 1540 CE Suri Dynasty, 1538/40 – 1556 CE Mughal Dynasty, 1556 – 1857 CE Bengal Subah, c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE Maratha Empire, c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE Company Raj, c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE Kingdom of Mysore, c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE Sikh Empire, c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE
Modern The Great Rebellion, 1857 – 1858 CE British Raj, 1858 – 1947 CE Independence Movement Independent India, 1947 CE – present Dominion of India, 1947 – 1950 CE Republic of India, 1950 CE – present
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History of South Asia
Outline Palaeolithic (2,500,000–250,000 BC) Madrasian culture Soanian culture Neolithic (10,800–3300 BC) Bhirrana culture (7570–6200 BC) Mehrgarh culture (7000–3300 BC) Edakkal culture (5000–3000 BC) Chalcolithic (3500–1500 BC) Anarta tradition (c. 3950–1900 BC) Ahar-Banas culture (3000–1500 BC) Pandu culture (1600–750 BC) Malwa culture (1600–1300 BC) Jorwe culture (1400–700 BC) Bronze Age (3300–1300 BC) Indus Valley Civilisation (3300–1300 BC)  – Early Harappan culture (3300–2600 BC)  – Mature Harappan culture (2600–1900 BC)  – Late Harappan culture (1900–1300 BC) Vedic Civilisation (2000–500 BC)  – Ochre Coloured Pottery culture (2000–1600 BC)  – Swat culture (1600–500 BC) Iron Age (1500–200 BC) Vedic Civilisation (1500–500 BC)  – Janapadas (1500–600 BC)  – Black and Red ware culture (1300–1000 BC)  – Painted Grey Ware culture (1200–600 BC)  – Northern Black Polished Ware (700–200 BC) Pradyota dynasty (799–684 BC) Haryanka dynasty (684–424 BC) Three Crowned Kingdoms (c. 600 BC – AD 1600) Maha Janapadas (c. 600–300 BC) Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC) Ror Dynasty (450 BC – 489 AD) Shaishunaga dynasty (424–345 BC) Nanda Empire (380–321 BC) Macedonian Empire (330–323 BC) Maurya Empire (321–184 BC) Seleucid India (312–303 BC) Sangam period (c. 300 BC – c. 300 AD) Pandya Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1345) Chera Kingdom (c. 300 BC – AD 1102) Chola Empire (c. 300 BC – AD 1279) Pallava Empire (c. 250 AD – AD 800) Maha-Megha-Vahana Empire (c. 250 BC – c. AD 500) Parthian Empire (247 BC – AD 224) Middle Kingdoms (230 BC – AD 1206) Satavahana Empire (230 BC – AD 220) Kuninda Kingdom (200 BC – AD 300) Mitra Dynasty (c. 150 – c. 50 BC) Shunga Empire (185–73 BC) Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BC – AD 10) Kanva Empire (75–26 BC) Indo-Scythian Kingdom (50 BC – AD 400) Indo-Parthian Kingdom (AD 21 – c. 130) Western Satrap Empire (AD 35–405 ) Kushan Empire (AD 60–240) Bharshiva Dynasty (170–350) Nagas of Padmavati (210–340) Sasanian Empire (224–651) Indo-Sassanid Kingdom (230–360) Vakataka Empire (c. 250 – c. 500) Kalabhras Empire (c. 250 – c. 600) Gupta Empire (280–550) Kadamba Empire (345–525) Western Ganga Kingdom (350–1000) Kamarupa Kingdom (350–1100) Vishnukundina Empire (420–624) Maitraka Empire (475–767) Huna Kingdom (475–576) Rai Kingdom (489–632) Kabul Shahi Empire (c. 500 – 1026) Chalukya Empire (543–753) Maukhari Empire (c. 550 – c. 700) Harsha Empire (606–647) Tibetan Empire (618–841) Eastern Chalukya Kingdom (624–1075) Rashidun Caliphate (632–661) Gurjara-Pratihara Empire (650–1036) Umayyad Caliphate (661–750) Mallabhum kingdom (694–1947) Bhauma-Kara Kingdom (736–916) Pala Empire (750–1174) Rashtrakuta Empire (753–982) Paramara Kingdom (800–1327) Yadava Empire (850–1334) Somavamshi Kingdom (882–1110) Chaulukya Kingdom (942–1244) Western Chalukya Empire (973–1189) Lohara Kingdom (1003–1320) Hoysala Empire (1040–1347) Sena Empire (1070–1230) Eastern Ganga Empire (1078–1434) Kakatiya Kingdom (1083–1323) Zamorin Kingdom (1102–1766) Kalachuris of Tripuri (675–1210) Kalachuris of Kalyani (1156–1184) Chutiya Kingdom (1187–1673) Deva Kingdom (c. 1200 – c. 1300) Late medieval period (1206–1526) Ghaznavid Dynasty (977–1186) Ghurid Dynasty (1170–1206) Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526)  – Mamluk Sultanate (1206–1290)  – Khalji Sultanate (1290–1320)  – Tughlaq Sultanate (1320–1414)  – Sayyid Sultanate (1414–1451)  – Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526) Ahom Kingdom (1228–1826) Chitradurga Kingdom (1300–1779) Reddy Kingdom (1325–1448) Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646) Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) Garhwal Kingdom (1358–1803) Mysore Kingdom (1399–1947) Gajapati Empire (1434–1541) Ladakh Kingdom (1470–1842) Deccan sultanates (1490–1596)  – Ahmadnagar Sultanate (1490–1636)  – Berar sultanate (1490–1574)  – Bidar Sultanate (1492–1619)  – Bijapur Sultanate (1492–1686)  – Golkonda Sultanate (1518–1687) Keladi Kingdom (1499–1763) Koch Kingdom (1515–1947) Early modern period (1526–1858) Mughal Empire (1526–1858) Sur Empire (1540–1556) Madurai Kingdom (1529–1736) Thanjavur Kingdom (1532–1673) Bhoi dynasty (1541–1804) Bengal Subah (1576–1757) Marava Kingdom (1600–1750) Sikkim Kingdom (1642–1975) Thondaiman Kingdom (1650–1948) Maratha Empire (1674–1818) Sikh Confederacy (1707–1799) Travancore Kingdom (1729–1947) Sikh Empire (1799–1849) Colonial states (1510–1961) Portuguese India (1510–1961) Dutch India (1605–1825) Danish India (1620–1869) French India (1759–1954) Company Raj (1757–1858) British Raj (1858–1947)
National histories Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan India Maldives Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka
Regional histories Assam Balochistan Bengal Bihar Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Kabul Karnataka Kashmir Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Rajasthan Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Punjab Odisha Sindh South India Tamil Nadu Tibet
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Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; by 4500 BCE, settled life had spread, and gradually evolved into the Indus Valley Civilisation, one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World, which flourished between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE in present-day Pakistan and north-western India. Early in the second millennium BCE, persistent drought caused the population of the Indus Valley to scatter from large urban centres to villages. Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic Period of the Vedic people in northern India (1500–500 BCE) was marked by the composition of their extensive collections of hymns (Vedas). The social structure was loosely stratified via the varna system, incorporated into the highly evolved present-day Jāti system. The pastoral and nomadic Indo-Aryans spread from the Punjab into the Gangetic plain. Around 600 BCE, a new, interregional culture arose; then, small chieftaincies (janapadas) were consolidated into larger states (mahajanapadas). Second urbanization took place, which came with the rise of new ascetic movements and religious concepts, including the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The latter was synthesized with the preexisting religious cultures of the subcontinent, giving rise to Hinduism.

Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nanda Empire and established the first great empire in ancient India, the Maurya Empire. India's Mauryan king Ashoka is widely recognised for his historical acceptance of Buddhism and his attempts to spread nonviolence and peace across his empire. The Maurya Empire would collapse in 185 BCE, on the assassination of the then-emperor Brihadratha by his general Pushyamitra Shunga. Shunga would form the Shunga Empire in the north and north-east of the subcontinent, while the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom would claim the north-west and found the Indo-Greek Kingdom. Various parts of India were ruled by numerous dynasties, including the Gupta Empire, in the 4th to 6th centuries CE. This period, witnessing a Hindu religious and intellectual resurgence is known as the Classical or Golden Age of India. Aspects of Indian civilisation, administration, culture, and religion spread to much of Asia, which led to the establishment of Indianised kingdoms in the region, forming Greater India. The most significant event between the 7th and 11th centuries was the Tripartite struggle centred on Kannauj. Southern India saw the rise of multiple imperial powers from the middle of the fifth century. The Chola dynasty conquered southern India in the 11th century. In the early medieval period, Indian mathematics, including Hindu numerals, influenced the development of mathematics and astronomy in the Arab world, including the creation of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system.

Islamic conquests made limited inroads into modern Afghanistan and Sindh as early as the 8th century, followed by the invasions of Mahmud Ghazni. The Delhi Sultanate, established in 1206 by Central Asian Turks, ruled much of northern India in the 14th century. It was governed by various Turkic and Afghan dynasties, including the Indo-Turkic Tughlaqs. The empire declined in the late 14th century following the invasions of Timur and saw the advent of the Malwa, Gujarat, and Bahmani sultanates, the last of which split in 1518 into the five Deccan sultanates. The wealthy Bengal Sultanate also emerged as a major power, lasting over three centuries. During this period, multiple strong Hindu kingdoms, notably the Vijayanagara Empire and Rajput states, emerged and played significant roles in shaping the cultural and political landscape of India.

The early modern period began in the 16th century, when the Mughal Empire conquered most of the Indian subcontinent, signaling the proto-industrialisation, becoming the biggest global economy and manufacturing power. The Mughals suffered a gradual decline in the early 18th century, largely due to the rising power of the Marathas, who took control of extensive regions of the Indian subcontinent, and numerous Afghan invasions. The East India Company, acting as a sovereign force on behalf of the British government, gradually acquired control of huge areas of India between the middle of the 18th and the middle of the 19th centuries. Policies of company rule in India led to the Indian Rebellion of 1857. India was afterwards ruled directly by the British Crown, in the British Raj. After World War I, a nationwide struggle for independence was launched by the Indian National Congress, led by Mahatma Gandhi. Later, the All-India Muslim League would advocate for a separate Muslim-majority nation state. The British Indian Empire was partitioned in August 1947 into the Dominion of India and Dominion of Pakistan, each gaining its independence.

Prehistoric era (before c. 3300 BCE)

This section contains too many or overly lengthy quotations. Please help summarize the quotations. Consider transferring direct quotations to Wikiquote or excerpts to Wikisource. (July 2021)

Mesolithic rock art at the Bhimbetka rock shelters, Madhya Pradesh, showing a wild animal, perhaps a mythical one, attacking human hunters. Although the rock art has not been directly dated, it has been argued on circumstantial grounds that many paintings were completed by 8000 BCE, and some slightly earlier.A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur, Kerala, India.Stone Age (6,000 BCE) carvings of Edakkal Caves in Kerala, India.

Paleolithic

Main article: South Asian Stone Age

Hominin expansion from Africa is estimated to have reached the Indian subcontinent approximately two million years ago, and possibly as early as 2.2 million years ago. This dating is based on the known presence of Homo erectus in Indonesia by 1.8 million years ago and in East Asia by 1.36 million years ago, as well as the discovery of stone tools at Riwat in Pakistan. Although some older discoveries have been claimed, the suggested dates, based on the dating of fluvial sediments, have not been independently verified.

The oldest hominin fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent are those of Homo erectus or Homo heidelbergensis, from the Narmada Valley in central India, and are dated to approximately half a million years ago. Older fossil finds have been claimed, but are considered unreliable. Reviews of archaeological evidence have suggested that occupation of the Indian subcontinent by hominins was sporadic until approximately 700,000 years ago, and was geographically widespread by approximately 250,000 years ago.

According to a historical demographer of South Asia, Tim Dyson:

Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. It is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.

According to Michael D. Petraglia and Bridget Allchin:

Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonisation of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. ... Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73–55 ka.

Historian of South Asia, Michael H. Fisher, states:

Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.

Archaeological evidence has been interpreted to suggest the presence of anatomically modern humans in the Indian subcontinent 78,000–74,000 years ago, although this interpretation is disputed. The occupation of South Asia by modern humans, initially in varying forms of isolation as hunter-gatherers, has turned it into a highly diverse one, second only to Africa in human genetic diversity.

According to Tim Dyson:

Genetic research has contributed to knowledge of the prehistory of the subcontinent's people in other respects. In particular, the level of genetic diversity in the region is extremely high. Indeed, only Africa's population is genetically more diverse. Related to this, there is strong evidence of 'founder' events in the subcontinent. By this is meant circumstances where a subgroup—such as a tribe—derives from a tiny number of 'original' individuals. Further, compared to most world regions, the subcontinent's people are relatively distinct in having practised comparatively high levels of endogamy.

Neolithic

Settled life emerged on the subcontinent in the western margins of the Indus River alluvium approximately 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the Indus Valley Civilisation of the third millennium BCE. According to Tim Dyson: "By 7,000 years ago agriculture was firmly established in Baluchistan... slowly spread eastwards into the Indus valley." Michael Fisher adds:

The earliest discovered instance ... of well-established, settled agricultural society is at Mehrgarh in the hills between the Bolan Pass and the Indus plain (today in Pakistan) (see Map 3.1). From as early as 7000 BCE, communities there started investing increased labor in preparing the land and selecting, planting, tending, and harvesting particular grain-producing plants. They also domesticated animals, including sheep, goats, pigs, and oxen (both humped zebu and unhumped ). Castrating oxen, for instance, turned them from mainly meat sources into domesticated draft-animals as well.

Bronze Age (c. 3300 – 1800 BCE)

Indus Valley Civilisation

Main article: Indus Valley Civilisation See also: List of Indus Valley Civilisation sites

The Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent began around 3300 BCE. The Indus Valley region was one of three early cradles of civilisation in the Old World; the Indus Valley civilisation was the most expansive, and at its peak, may have had a population of over five million.

The civilisation was primarily centred in modern-day Pakistan, in the Indus river basin, and secondarily in the Ghaggar-Hakra River basin. The mature Indus civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE, marking the beginning of urban civilisation on the Indian subcontinent. It included cities such as Harappa, Ganweriwal, and Mohenjo-daro in modern-day Pakistan, and Dholavira, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi, and Lothal in modern-day India.

Inhabitants of the ancient Indus River valley, the Harappans, developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilisation is noted for its cities built of brick, and its roadside drainage systems, and is thought to have had some kind of municipal organisation. The civilisation also developed an Indus script, the earliest of the ancient Indian scripts, which is presently undeciphered. This is the reason why Harappan language is not directly attested, and its affiliation is uncertain.

After the collapse of Indus Valley civilisation, the inhabitants migrated from the river valleys of Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, towards the Himalayan foothills of Ganga-Yamuna basin.

Ochre Coloured Pottery culture

During the 2nd millennium BCE, Ochre Coloured Pottery culture was in Ganga Yamuna Doab region. These were rural settlements with agriculture and hunting. They were using copper tools such as axes, spears, arrows, and swords, and had domesticated animals.

Iron Age (c. 1800 – 200 BCE)

See also: Iron Age in India

Vedic period (c. 1500 – 600 BCE)

Main articles: Vedic period, Historical Vedic religion, and Vedas See also: Indo-Aryan peoples and Indo-Aryan migrations

Starting c. 1900 BCE, Indo-Aryan tribes moved into the Punjab from Central Asia in several waves of migration. The Vedic period is when the Vedas were composed of liturgical hymns from the Indo-Aryan people. The Vedic culture was located in part of north-west India, while other parts of India had a distinct cultural identity. Many regions of the Indian subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age in this period.

The Vedic culture is described in the texts of Vedas, still sacred to Hindus, which were orally composed and transmitted in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas are some of the oldest extant texts in India. The Vedic period, lasting from about 1500 to 500 BCE, contributed to the foundations of several cultural aspects of the Indian subcontinent.

Vedic society

Historians have analysed the Vedas to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab, and the upper Gangetic Plain. The Peepal tree and cow were sanctified by the time of the Atharva Veda. Many of the concepts of Indian philosophy espoused later, like dharma, trace their roots to Vedic antecedents.

Early Vedic society is described in the Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, believed to have been compiled during the 2nd millennium BCE, in the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent. At this time, Aryan society consisted of predominantly tribal and pastoral groups, distinct from the Harappan urbanisation which had been abandoned. The early Indo-Aryan presence probably corresponds, in part, to the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture in archaeological contexts.

At the end of the Rigvedic period, the Aryan society expanded from the north-western region of the Indian subcontinent into the western Ganges plain. It became increasingly agricultural and was socially organised around the hierarchy of the four varnas, or social classes. This social structure was characterised both by syncretising with the native cultures of northern India but also eventually by the exclusion of some indigenous peoples by labelling their occupations impure. During this period, many of the previous small tribal units and chiefdoms began to coalesce into Janapadas (monarchical, state-level polities).

Sanskrit epics

Main articles: Mahabharata and Ramayana See also: List of historic Indian texts and List of Hindu texts

The Sanskrit epics Ramayana and Mahabharata were composed during this period. The Mahabharata remains the longest single poem in the world. Historians formerly postulated an "epic age" as the milieu of these two epic poems, but now recognise that the texts went through multiple stages of development over centuries. The existing texts of these epics are believed to belong to the post-Vedic age, between c. 400 BCE and 400 CE.

Janapadas

Main article: Janapada See also: Battle of the Ten Kings and List of ancient Indo-Aryan peoples and tribes

The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent from about 1200 BCE to the 6th century BCE is defined by the rise of Janapadas, which are realms, republics and kingdoms—notably the Iron Age Kingdoms of Kuru, Panchala, Kosala and Videha.

The Kuru Kingdom (c. 1200–450 BCE) was the first state-level society of the Vedic period, corresponding to the beginning of the Iron Age in north-western India, around 1200–800 BCE, as well as with the composition of the Atharvaveda. The Kuru state organised the Vedic hymns into collections and developed the srauta ritual to uphold the social order. Two key figures of the Kuru state were king Parikshit and his successor Janamejaya, who transformed this realm into the dominant political, social, and cultural power of northern India. When the Kuru kingdom declined, the centre of Vedic culture shifted to their eastern neighbours, the Panchala kingdom. The archaeological PGW (Painted Grey Ware) culture, which flourished in north-eastern India's Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh regions from about 1100 to 600 BCE, is believed to correspond to the Kuru and Panchala kingdoms.

During the Late Vedic Period, the kingdom of Videha emerged as a new centre of Vedic culture, situated even farther to the East (in what is today Nepal and Bihar state); reaching its prominence under the king Janaka, whose court provided patronage for Brahmin sages and philosophers such as Yajnavalkya, Aruni, and Gārgī Vāchaknavī. The later part of this period corresponds with a consolidation of increasingly large states and kingdoms, called Mahajanapadas, across Northern India.

Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)

The period between 800 and 200 BCE saw the formation of the Śramaṇa movement, from which Jainism and Buddhism originated. The first Upanishads were written during this period. After 500 BCE, the so-called "second urbanisation" started, with new urban settlements arising at the Ganges plain. The foundations for the "second urbanisation" were laid prior to 600 BCE, in the Painted Grey Ware culture of the Ghaggar-Hakra and Upper Ganges Plain; although most PGW sites were small farming villages, "several dozen" PGW sites eventually emerged as relatively large settlements that can be characterised as towns, the largest of which were fortified by ditches or moats and embankments made of piled earth with wooden palisades.

The Central Ganges Plain, where Magadha gained prominence, forming the base of the Maurya Empire, was a distinct cultural area, with new states arising after 500 BCE. It was influenced by the Vedic culture, but differed markedly from the Kuru-Panchala region. "It was the area of the earliest known cultivation of rice in South Asia and by 1800 BCE was the location of an advanced Neolithic population associated with the sites of Chirand and Chechar". In this region, the Śramaṇic movements flourished, and Jainism and Buddhism originated.

Buddhism and Jainism

Main articles: Upanishads and Śramaṇa Further information: History of Hinduism, History of Buddhism, History of Jainism, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy Upanishads and Śramaṇa movementsA page of Isha Upanishad manuscript.Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism.Gautama Buddha's cremation stupa, Kushinagar (Kushinara).

The time between 800 BCE and 400 BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads, which form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism, and are also known as the Vedanta (conclusion of the Vedas).

The increasing urbanisation of India in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE led to the rise of new ascetic or "Śramaṇa movements" which challenged the orthodoxy of rituals. Mahavira (c. 599–527 BCE), proponent of Jainism, and Gautama Buddha (c. 563–483 BCE), founder of Buddhism, were the most prominent icons of this movement. Śramaṇa gave rise to the concept of the cycle of birth and death, the concept of samsara, and the concept of liberation. Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Śramaṇa religions.

Around the same time, Mahavira (the 24th Tirthankara in Jainism) propagated a theology that was to later become Jainism. However, Jain orthodoxy believes the teachings of the Tirthankaras predates all known time and scholars believe Parshvanatha (c. 872 – c. 772 BCE), accorded status as the 23rd Tirthankara, was a historical figure. The Vedas are believed to have documented a few Tirthankaras and an ascetic order similar to the Śramaṇa movement.

Mahajanapadas

Main article: Mahajanapadas

The period from c. 600 BCE to c. 300 BCE featured the rise of the Mahajanapadas, sixteen powerful kingdoms and oligarchic republics in a belt stretching from Gandhara in the north-west to Bengal in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent—including parts of the trans-Vindhyan region. Ancient Buddhist texts, like the Aṅguttara Nikāya, make frequent reference to these sixteen great kingdoms and republics—Anga, Assaka, Avanti, Chedi, Gandhara, Kashi, Kamboja, Kosala, Kuru, Magadha, Malla, Matsya (or Machcha), Panchala, Surasena, Vṛji, and Vatsa. This period saw the second major rise of urbanism in India after the Indus Valley Civilisation.

Early "republics" or gaṇasaṅgha, such as Shakyas, Koliyas, Mallakas, and Licchavis had republican governments. Gaṇasaṅghas, such as the Mallakas, centered in the city of Kusinagara, and the Vajjika League, centred in the city of Vaishali, existed as early as the 6th century BCE and persisted in some areas until the 4th century CE. The most famous clan amongst the ruling confederate clans of the Vajji Mahajanapada were the Licchavis.

This period corresponds in an archaeological context to the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Especially focused in the Central Ganges plain but also spreading across vast areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent, this culture is characterised by the emergence of large cities with massive fortifications, significant population growth, increased social stratification, wide-ranging trade networks, construction of public architecture and water channels, specialised craft industries, a system of weights, punch-marked coins, and the introduction of writing in the form of Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts. The language of the gentry at that time was Sanskrit, while the languages of the general population of northern India are referred to as Prakrits.

Many of the sixteen kingdoms had merged into four major ones by the time of Gautama Buddha. These four were Vatsa, Avanti, Kosala, and Magadha.

Early Magadha dynasties

Main articles: Magadha and Greater Magadha See also: Magadha period, Pradyota dynasty, Haryanka dynasty, and Shaishunaga dynasty Magadha dynastiesMagadha state c. 600 BCE, which is later expanded from its capital Rajagriha – under the Haryanka dynasty and the later Shishunaga dynasty.Indian warrior of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BCE, on the Tomb of Xerxes I.

Magadha formed one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (Sanskrit: "Great Realms") or kingdoms in ancient India. The core of the kingdom was the area of Bihar south of the Ganges; its first capital was Rajagriha (modern Rajgir) then Pataliputra (modern Patna). Magadha expanded to include most of Bihar and Bengal with the conquest of Licchavi and Anga respectively, followed by much of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Orissa. The ancient kingdom of Magadha is heavily mentioned in Jain and Buddhist texts. It is also mentioned in the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas. The earliest reference to the Magadha people occurs in the Atharva-Veda where they are found listed along with the Angas, Gandharis, and Mujavats. Magadha played an important role in the development of Jainism and Buddhism. Republican communities (such as the community of Rajakumara) are merged into Magadha kingdom. Villages had their own assemblies under their local chiefs called Gramakas. Their administrations were divided into executive, judicial, and military functions.

Early sources, from the Buddhist Pāli Canon, the Jain Agamas and the Hindu Puranas, mention Magadha being ruled by the Pradyota dynasty and Haryanka dynasty (c. 544–413 BCE) for some 200 years, c. 600–413 BCE. King Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty led an active and expansive policy, conquering Anga in what is now eastern Bihar and West Bengal. King Bimbisara was overthrown and killed by his son, Prince Ajatashatru, who continued the expansionist policy of Magadha. During this period, Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, lived much of his life in the Magadha kingdom. He attained enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, gave his first sermon in Sarnath and the first Buddhist council was held in Rajgriha. The Haryanka dynasty was overthrown by the Shaishunaga dynasty (c. 413–345 BCE). The last Shishunaga ruler, Kalasoka, was assassinated by Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE, the first of the so-called Nine Nandas (Mahapadma Nanda and his eight sons).

Nanda Empire and Alexander's campaign

Main article: Nanda Empire See also: Indian campaign of Alexander the Great

The Nanda Empire (c. 345–322 BCE), at its peak, extended from Bengal in the east, to the Punjab in the west and as far south as the Vindhya Range. The Nanda dynasty built on the foundations laid by their Haryanka and Shishunaga predecessors. Nanda empire have built a vast army, consisting of 200,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalry, 2,000 war chariots and 3,000 war elephants (at the lowest estimates).

Maurya Empire

Main article: Maurya Empire Maurya EmpireMaurya Empire at its peak under Ashoka the Great.Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd century BCE.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) unified most of the Indian subcontinent into one state, and was the largest empire ever to exist on the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the Mauryan Empire stretched to the north up to the natural boundaries of the Himalayas and to the east into what is now Assam. To the west, it reached beyond modern Pakistan, to the Hindu Kush mountains in what is now Afghanistan. The empire was established by Chandragupta Maurya assisted by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Magadha (in modern Bihar) when he overthrew the Nanda Empire.

Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied north-western India. The Mauryan Empire defeated Seleucus I, founder of the Seleucid Empire, during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus gained additional territory west of the Indus River. Chandragupta's son Bindusara succeeded to the throne around 297 BCE. By the time he died in c. 272 BCE, a large part of the Indian subcontinent was under Mauryan suzerainty. However, the region of Kalinga (around modern day Odisha) remained outside Mauryan control, perhaps interfering with trade with the south.

Bindusara was succeeded by Ashoka, whose reign lasted until his death in about 232 BCE. His campaign against the Kalingans in about 260 BCE, though successful, led to immense loss of life and misery. This led Ashoka to shun violence, and subsequently to embrace Buddhism. The empire began to decline after his death and the last Mauryan ruler, Brihadratha, was assassinated by Pushyamitra Shunga to establish the Shunga Empire.

Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia. After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peace and non-violence across India. Ashoka sponsored Buddhist missions across the Indo-Mediterranean, into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia, North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.

The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of Northern Black Polished Ware. The Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of merchandise was closely regulated by the government. Although there was no banking in the Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found, suggesting a prevalence thereof. During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.

Sangam period

Main articles: Sangam period, Sources of ancient Tamil history, Sangam literature, and Five Great Epics See also: Three Crowned Kings, Tamilakam, and List of Tamil monarchs Tamilakam, located at the tip of South India during the Sangam period, ruled by Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the Pandyan dynasty.Ilango Adigal, author of Silappatikaram, one of the five great epics of Tamil literature.

During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE. Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled parts of southern India.

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil people of this period. Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins, Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly non-Brahmins.

Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length book collections, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam, the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed. Also, during Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed. Ilango Adigal composed Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work, that revolves around Kannagi, and Manimekalai, composed by Chithalai Chathanar, is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan and Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bhikkhuni.

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE)

Main article: Classical India

• Ancient India during the rise of the Shunga Empire from the North, Satavahana dynasty from the Deccan, and Pandyan dynasty and Chola dynasty from the southern part of India.
• Great Chaitya in the Karla Caves. The shrines were developed over the period from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE.
• Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves is home to the Hathigumpha inscription, which was inscribed under Kharavela, then Emperor of Kalinga of the Mahameghavahana dynasty.
• Relief of a multi-storied temple, 2nd century CE, Ghantasala Stupa.

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the "Classical" period of India. The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the Golden Age of India, although a host of kingdoms ruled over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India. During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.

Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)

Shunga Empire

Main article: Shunga Empire Shunga EmpireEast Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Stupa, 2nd century BCE.Shunga art Ancient vina, 1st century BCE.Royal family, 1st century BCE in West Bengal.

The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled large areas of the central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last Maurya emperor. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated; inscriptions and coins indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony. The empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous powers. They fought with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at Bharhut and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art. The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.

Satavahana Empire

Main article: Satavahana Empire Satavahana EmpireSanchi Stupa Two and Southern Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO World Heritage Site).Indian ship on lead coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, testimony to the naval, seafaring and trading capabilities of the Sātavāhanas during the 1st–2nd century CE.

The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar (Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with its decline.

The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern tip of India.

They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular, their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.

Trade and travels to India

Further information: Silk Road transmission of Buddhism

The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to Sumerian records. Jewish traders arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE. The Greco-Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes. During the 2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden. During the first millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the maritime trading power of the Red Sea.

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and curries became popular with the native inhabitants. Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road in the 1st or 2nd century CE. Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.

Kushan Empire

Main article: Kushan Empire Kushan EmpireKushan territories (full line) and maximum extent of Kushan dominions under Kanishka (dotted line), according to the Rabatak inscriptionDepiction of the Buddha in Kanishka's coinage, Mathura art, 2nd century CE

The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian speaking tribe, one of five branches of the Yuezhi confederation. By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of Afghanistan, and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect its new Hindu majority. Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:

He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which reached its peak during Kushan rule. The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax Kushana. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great emperor was Vasudeva I.

Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE)

Gupta Empire

Main article: Gupta Empire Further information: Meghadūta, Abhijñānaśākuntala, Kumārasambhava, Panchatantra, Aryabhatiya, Indian numerals, and Kama Sutra Gupta EmpireGupta Empire around 420 CE at its peak territorial extent under Kumaragupta I.Current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple built during the Gupta era, 5th century CE. The location are marked where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment.

The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of India under their leadership. Science and political administration reached new heights during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions. The period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century CE, with their capital at Bamiyan. However, much of the southern India including Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.

Vakataka Empire

Main article: Vakataka Empire

The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.

• Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.
• Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
• Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or prayer hall, with a seated Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves.
• Many foreign ambassadors, representatives, and travelers are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa Heaven; painting from Cave 17 of the Ajanta Caves.

Kamarupa Kingdom

Main article: Kamarupa Kingdom

Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam) and Davaka (Central Assam) as frontier kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West Bengal.

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties claimed their descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties. The Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks, and established the Kamata kingdom.

Pallava Empire

Main article: Pallava Empire

The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called Grantha. Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.

Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.

Kadamba Empire

Main article: Kadamba Empire

Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal).

Empire of Harsha

Main articles: Harsha and Pushyabhuti dynasty

Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-day Haryana.

After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April 606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja. At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars, artists and religious visitors. During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya worship. The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable account of him, praising his justice and generosity. His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).

Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)

Main articles: Medieval India, Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent, and Tripartite Struggle

Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE. This period also covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in the 7th century, and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India; the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and the end of the Later Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century.

From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and support for Shaivism, Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined. Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical Hinduism formed in the Hindu synthesis, and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.

In the 7th century, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal, and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into various states, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Kingdom of Dahala, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom of Sambhar, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms; while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas. During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav in the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in c. 1000.

The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century. Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty, which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.

• Martand Sun Temple Central shrine, dedicated to the deity Surya, and built by the third ruler of the Karkota dynasty, Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the 8th century
• Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Orissa, built by Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264) of the Eastern Ganga dynasty
• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in the Khajuraho complex was built by the Chandelas
• Jagannath Temple at Puri, built by Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga dynasty

Later Gupta dynasty

Main article: Later Gupta dynasty

The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families. The Later Guptas are so-called because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.

Chalukya Empire

Main article: Chalukya dynasty

The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada Rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

• Galaganatha Temple at Pattadakal complex (UNESCO World Heritage) is an example of Badami Chalukya architecture
• Bhutanatha temple complex at Badami, next to a waterfall, during the monsoon.
• Vishnu image inside the Badami Cave Temple Complex. Example of Indian rock-cut architecture
• 8th century Durga temple exterior view at Aihole complex. It includes Hindu, Buddhist and Jain temples and monuments

Rashtrakuta Empire

Main article: Rashtrakuta Empire

Founded by Dantidurga around 753, the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries. At its peak, the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary achievements.

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism. Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest known Kannada work on poetics. Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world. The Rashtrakuta period marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on medieval south Indian mathematicians. The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.

• Kailasa temple, is one of the largest rock-cut ancient Hindu temples located in Ellora
• Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Ellora Caves
• Statue of the Buddha seated. A part of the Carpenter's cave (Buddhist Cave 10).
• Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

Main article: Gurjara-Pratihara Empire

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the south. The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.

By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their independence, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom of Sambhar and the Kingdom of Dahala.

• One of the four entrances of the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Pratihara emperor Mihira Bhoja.
• Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Gwalior Fort
• Jainism-related cave monuments and statues carved into the rock face inside Siddhachal Caves, Gwalior Fort
• Ghateshwara Mahadeva temple at Baroli Temples complex. Complex of eight temples, built by the Gurjara-Pratiharas, within a walled enclosure

Gahadavala dynasty

Main article: Gahadavala dynasty

Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was located at Varanasi.

Karnat dynasty

Main article: Karnat dynasty

In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained capitals in Darbhanga and Simraongadh. The dynasty was established by Nanyadeva, a military commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the Maithili language started to develop with the first piece of Maithili literature, the Varna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into Nepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Pala Empire

Main article: Pala Empire

The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I. It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal. The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.

The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism, they also patronised Shaivism and Vaishnavism. The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala. Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of India in the north-west.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Dharmapala founded the Vikramashila and revived Nalanda, considered one of the first great universities in recorded history. Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire. The Palas also built many viharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet. Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.

Cholas

Main articles: Chola dynasty and Chola Empire

Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest empire South India had seen. They successfully united the South India under their rule and through their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and South-East Asia. Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire. Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established the Chola Empire as a respected sea power. Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before achieved in India.

• The granite gopuram (tower) of Brihadeeswarar Temple, 1010
• Chariot detail at Airavatesvara Temple built by Rajaraja Chola II in the 12th century
• The pyramidal structure above the sanctum at Brihadisvara Temple.
• Brihadeeswara Temple Entrance Gopurams at Thanjavur

Western Chalukya Empire

Main article: Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries. Vast areas between the Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control. During this period the other major ruling families of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi. This was an important period in the development of fine arts in Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.

• Shrine outer wall and Dravida style superstructure (shikhara) at Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri
• Ornate entrance to the closed hall from the south at Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali
• Shrine wall relief, molding frieze and miniature decorative tower in Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti
• Rear view showing lateral entrances of the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi

Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526)

Main article: Medieval India See also: Muslim kingdoms in the Indian subcontinent

The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans, the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.

Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries. The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings. The subsequent Mamluk dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. The Khalji dynasty conquered much of central India while forcing the principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.

The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the period of the Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240).

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant impact on Indian culture and society. However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the Indian subcontinent.

The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them. By repeatedly repulsing the Mongol raiders, the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the north.

A Turco-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi. The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the "other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day. The sultanate suffered significantly from the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi until the defeat of the last sultan, Ibrahim Khan Lodi, in 1526 to the forces of Babur.

• Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, whose construction was begun by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the first Sultan of Delhi.
• Dargahs of Sufi-saint Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet and musician Amir Khusro in Delhi.

Vijayanagara Empire

Main article: Vijayanagara Empire

The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama Dynasty, which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire, and the Pandyan Empire. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates. The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.

Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation. Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India. Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers. He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show. The kings used titles such as Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress. The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem. Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire"). The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.

• Photograph of the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire at Hampi, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1868
• Gajashaala, or elephant's stable, was built by the Vijayanagar rulers for their war elephants.
• Vijayanagara marketplace at Hampi, along with the sacred tank located on the side of Krishna temple.
• Stone temple car in Vitthala Temple at Hampi

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the 14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota, Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire. Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others. During this period, more kingdoms in South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.

Other kingdoms

Main articles: Guhila dynasty and Kingdom of Mewar

• Vijaya Stambha (Tower of Victory).
• Temple inside Chittorgarh fort
• Man Singh (Manasimha) palace at the Gwalior fort
• Chinese manuscript Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys in the name of Sultan Saifuddin Hamza Shah of Bengal to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China
• Mahmud Gawan Madrasa was built by Mahmud Gawan, the Wazir of the Bahmani Sultanate as the centre of religious as well as secular education

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from the 12th to the 18th centuries. The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding Vijayanagara Empire.

In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort. During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat. The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the Battle of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.

In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, born from a rebellion in 1347 against the Tughlaq dynasty, was the chief rival of Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them. Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent states composing the five Deccan sultanates; Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528. Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.

In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the south. In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries; led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts. Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.

The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

Main articles: Bhakti movement, Buddhism in India, and Sikhism See also: History of Sikhism

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism and later revolutionised in Sikhism. It originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.

• The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism. The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.
• Sikhism is a monotheistic and panentheistic religion based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru, and the ten successive Sikh gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.
• Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia Kingdom in Arunachal Pradesh of the Late medieval period.

• Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Singha in Ahom kingdom's capital Rangpur, is one of the earliest pavilions of outdoor stadia in the Indian subcontinent
• Chittor Fort is the largest fort on the Indian subcontinent; it is one of the six Hill Forts of Rajasthan
• Ranakpur Jain temple was built in the 15th century with the support of the Rajput state of Mewar
• Gol Gumbaz built by the Bijapur Sultanate, has the second largest pre-modern dome in the world after the Byzantine Hagia Sophia

Early modern period (1526–1858)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited from the Timurid Renaissance. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period witnessed the further development of Indo-Islamic architecture; the growth of Marathas and Sikhs enabled them to rule significant regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire. With the discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by sea and establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.

Mughal Empire

Main article: Mughal Empire See also: Bengal Subah, Muslin trade in Bengal, Mughal architecture, Army of the Mughal Empire, Mughal clothing, and Mughal painting Mughal EmpireMap of the Mughal Empire at its peak in year 1700Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim architecture in India UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration, 1983.

In 1526, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia. However, his son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in 1540, and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya established secular rule in North India from Delhi until 1556, when Akbar (r. 1556–1605), grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6 November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar tried to establish a good relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo-Saracenic architecture.

Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627). Jahangir followed his father's policy. The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic power, controlling 24.4% of the world economy, and the world leader in manufacturing, producing 25% of global industrial output. The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production, and a relatively high degree of urbanisation.

Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

• Agra Fort showing Yamuna river and Taj Mahal in the background
• Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, showing Buland Darwaza, the complex built by Akbar, the third Mughal emperor
• Red Fort, Delhi, constructed in the year 1648

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign India surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy. Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed, employing significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion. However, he is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and centralisation. The English East India Company suffered a defeat in the Anglo-Mughal War.

The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city. In 1739, Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal. After this victory, Nader captured and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the Peacock Throne. Ahmad Shah Durrani commenced his own invasions as ruler of the Durrani Empire, eventually sacking Delhi in 1757. Mughal rule was further weakened by constant native Indian resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression; Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs, fought the Mughals and established the Panna State. The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with 30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara, and lasted several decades under its Muslim successor states.

Maratha Empire

Main article: Maratha Empire Further information: Maratha Army, Maratha Navy, and Battles involving the Maratha Empire Maratha EmpireMaratha Empire at its peak in 1760 (yellow area), covering much of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from South India to present-day PakistanShaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha Empire until 1818

The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji. However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to Peshwa (chief minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".

In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending Mughal rule in India. In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military campaigns against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most of the Indian subcontinent. The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal emperor.

The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south, to Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan ) in the north, and Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao I.

Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the Gaekwads of Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In 1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in a Maratha victory. The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–1818).

Sikh Empire

Main article: Sikh Empire See also: Sikh architecture

The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the Punjab, from 1799 to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his Sikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for his army. He successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the Peshawar Valley to his empire.

At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India Company. The First Anglo-Sikh War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms

The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787, following the finalising of treaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to the Marathas. Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).

Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule, Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed. However, the Nizams maintained their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals of the British. Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.

The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire. However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to 1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal. In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away, they remained as mere pensioners of the British East India Company.

In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to an end. Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State, Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.

After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the decline of the Sikh Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created by the Dogra dynasty. While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces. Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was formed by Rajput rulers.

European exploration

Main article: Colonial India

In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island, and Bombay. The Portuguese instituted the Goa Inquisition, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned. Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was annexed by India in 1961.

The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.

The internal conflicts among Indian kingdoms gave opportunities to the European traders to gradually establish political influence and appropriate lands. Following the Dutch, the British — who set up in the west coast port of Surat in 1619 — and the French both established trading outposts in India. Although continental European powers controlled various coastal regions of southern and eastern India during the ensuing century, they eventually lost all their territories in India to the British, with the exception of the French outposts of Pondichéry and Chandernagore, and the Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman and Diu.

East India Company rule in India

Main articles: East India Company and Company rule in India India under East India Company ruleIndia in 1765 and 1805 showing East India Company Territories in pinkIndia in 1837 and 1857 showing East India Company (pink) and other territories

The English East India Company was founded in 1600. It gained a foothold in India with the establishment of a factory in Masulipatnam on the Eastern coast of India in 1611 and a grant of rights by the Mughal emperor Jahangir to establish a factory in Surat in 1612. In 1640, after receiving similar permission from the Vijayanagara ruler farther south, a second factory was established in Madras on the southeastern coast. The islet of Bom Bahia in present-day Mumbai (Bombay), was a Portuguese outpost not far from Surat, it was presented to Charles II of England as dowry, in his marriage to Catherine of Braganza; Charles in turn leased Bombay to the Company in 1668. Two decades later, the company established a trade post in the River Ganges delta. During this time other companies established by the Portuguese, Dutch, French, and Danish were similarly expanding in the subcontinent.

The company's victory under Robert Clive in the 1757 Battle of Plassey and another victory in the 1764 Battle of Buxar (in Bihar), consolidated the company's power, and forced emperor Shah Alam II to appoint it the diwan, or revenue collector, of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The company thus became the de facto ruler of large areas of the lower Gangetic plain by 1773. It also proceeded by degrees to expand its dominions around Bombay and Madras. The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–99) and the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1772–1818) left it in control of large areas of India south of the Sutlej River. With the defeat of the Marathas, no native power represented a threat for the company any longer.

The expansion of the company's power chiefly took two forms. The first of these was the outright annexation of Indian states and subsequent direct governance of the underlying regions that collectively came to comprise British India. The annexed regions included the North-Western Provinces (comprising Rohilkhand, Gorakhpur, and the Doab) (1801), Delhi (1803), Assam (Ahom Kingdom 1828) and Sindh (1843). Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, and Kashmir were annexed after the Anglo-Sikh Wars in 1849–56 (Period of tenure of Marquess of Dalhousie Governor General). However, Kashmir was immediately sold under the Treaty of Amritsar (1850) to the Dogra Dynasty of Jammu and thereby became a princely state. In 1854, Berar was annexed along with the state of Oudh two years later.

• Warren Hastings, the first governor-general of Fort William (Bengal) who oversaw the company's territories in India
• Gold coin, minted 1835, with obverse showing the bust of William IV, king of United Kingdom from 26 June 1830 to 20 June 1837, and reverse marked "Two mohurs" in English (do ashrafi in Urdu) issued during Company rule in India
• Photograph (1855) showing the construction of the Bhor Ghaut incline bridge, Bombay; the incline was conceived by George Clark, the Chief Engineer in the East India Company's Government of Bombay

The second form of asserting power involved treaties in which Indian rulers acknowledged the company's hegemony in return for limited internal autonomy. Since the company operated under financial constraints, it had to set up political underpinnings for its rule. The most important such support came from the subsidiary alliances with Indian princes. In the early 19th century, the territories of these princes accounted for two-thirds of India. When an Indian ruler who was able to secure his territory wanted to enter such an alliance, the company welcomed it as an economical method of indirect rule that did not involve the economic costs of direct administration or the political costs of gaining the support of alien subjects.

In return, the company undertook the "defense of these subordinate allies and treated them with traditional respect and marks of honor." Subsidiary alliances created the Princely States of the Hindu maharajas and the Muslim nawabs. Prominent among the princely states were Cochin (1791), Jaipur (1794), Travancore (1795), Hyderabad (1798), Mysore (1799), Cis-Sutlej Hill States (1815), Central India Agency (1819), Cutch and Gujarat Gaikwad territories (1819), Rajputana (1818), and Bahawalpur (1833).

Indian indenture system

Main article: Indian indenture system

The Indian indenture system was an ongoing system of indenture, a form of debt bondage, by which 3.5 million Indians were transported to colonies of European powers to provide labour for the (mainly sugar) plantations. It started from the end of slavery in 1833 and continued until 1920. This resulted in the development of a large Indian diaspora that spread from the Caribbean to the Pacific Ocean and the growth of large Indo-Caribbean and Indo-African populations.

Late modern period and contemporary history (1857–1947)

Rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

Main article: Indian Rebellion of 1857

• Lakshmibai, the Rani of Jhansi, one of the principal leaders of the rebellion who earlier had lost her kingdom as a result of the Doctrine of lapse.
• Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal Emperor. Crowned Emperor of India by the rebels, he was deposed by the British and died in exile in Burma.
• Charles Canning, the Governor-General of India during the rebellion.
• Lord Dalhousie, the Governor-General of India from 1848 to 1856, who devised the Doctrine of Lapse.

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion by soldiers employed by the British East India Company in northern and central India against the company's rule. The spark that led to the mutiny was the issue of new gunpowder cartridges for the Enfield rifle, which was insensitive to local religious prohibition. The key mutineer was Mangal Pandey. In addition, the underlying grievances over British taxation, the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops and land annexations played a significant role in the rebellion. Within weeks after Pandey's mutiny, dozens of units of the Indian army joined peasant armies in widespread rebellion. The rebel soldiers were later joined by Indian nobility, many of whom had lost titles and domains under the Doctrine of Lapse and felt that the company had interfered with a traditional system of inheritance. Rebel leaders such as Nana Sahib and the Rani of Jhansi belonged to this group.

After the outbreak of the mutiny in Meerut, the rebels very quickly reached Delhi. The rebels had also captured large tracts of the North-Western Provinces and Awadh (Oudh). Most notably, in Awadh, the rebellion took on the attributes of a patriotic revolt against British presence. However, the British East India Company mobilised rapidly with the assistance of friendly Princely states, but it took the British the better part of 1858 to suppress the rebellion. Due to the rebels being poorly equipped and having no outside support or funding, they were brutally subdued.

In the aftermath, all power was transferred from the British East India Company to the British Crown, which began to administer most of India as provinces. The Crown controlled the company's lands directly and had considerable indirect influence over the rest of India, which consisted of the Princely states ruled by local royal families. There were officially 565 princely states in 1947, but only 21 had actual state governments, and only three were large (Mysore, Hyderabad, and Kashmir). They were absorbed into the independent nation in 1947–48.

British Raj (1858–1947)

Main article: British Raj British RajThe British Indian Empire in 1909. British India is shown in pink; the princely states in yellow.A 1903 stereographic image of Victoria Terminus a terminal train station, in Mumbai, completed in 1887, and now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

After 1857, the colonial government strengthened and expanded its infrastructure via the court system, legal procedures, and statutes. The Indian Penal Code came into being. In education, Thomas Babington Macaulay had made schooling a priority for the Raj in 1835 and succeeded in implementing the use of English for instruction. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated. The Indian economy grew at about 1% per year from 1880 to 1920, and the population also grew at 1%. However, from 1910s Indian private industry began to grow significantly. India built a modern railway system in the late 19th century which was the fourth largest in the world. Historians have been divided on issues of economic history, with the Nationalist school arguing that India was poorer due to British rule.

In 1905, Lord Curzon split the large province of Bengal into a largely Hindu western half and "Eastern Bengal and Assam", a largely Muslim eastern half. The British goal was said to be efficient administration but the people of Bengal were outraged at the apparent "divide and rule" strategy. It also marked the beginning of the organised anti-colonial movement. When the Liberal party in Britain came to power in 1906, he was removed. Bengal was reunified in 1911. The new Viceroy Gilbert Minto and the new Secretary of State for India John Morley consulted with Congress leaders on political reforms. The Morley-Minto reforms of 1909 provided for Indian membership of the provincial executive councils as well as the Viceroy's executive council. The Imperial Legislative Council was enlarged from 25 to 60 members and separate communal representation for Muslims was established in a dramatic step towards representative and responsible government. Several socio-religious organisations came into being at that time. Muslims set up the All India Muslim League in 1906 to protect the interests of the aristocratic Muslims. The Hindu Mahasabha and Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) sought to represent Hindu interests though the latter always claimed it to be a "cultural" organisation. Sikhs founded the Shiromani Akali Dal in 1920. However, the largest and oldest political party Indian National Congress, founded in 1885, attempted to keep a distance from the socio-religious movements and identity politics.

• Two silver rupee coins issued by the British Raj in 1862 and 1886 respectively, the first in obverse showing a bust of Victoria, Queen, the second of Victoria, Empress. Victoria became Empress of India in 1876.
• Ronald Ross, left, at Cunningham's laboratory of Presidency Hospital in Calcutta, where the transmission of malaria by mosquitoes was discovered, winning Ross the second Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1902.
• A Darjeeling Himalayan Railway train shown in 1870. The railway became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1999.
• A second-day cancellation of the stamps issued in February 1931 to commemorate the inauguration of New Delhi as the capital of the British Indian Empire. Between 1858 and 1911, Calcutta had been the capital of the Raj.

Indian Renaissance

Main articles: British Raj and Bengali Renaissance

• Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898), the author of Causes of the Indian Mutiny, was the founder of Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, later the Aligarh Muslim University
• Pandita Ramabai (1858–1922) was a social reformer, and a pioneer in the education and emancipation of women in India
• Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941) was a Bengali language poet, short-story writer, and playwright, and in addition a music composer and painter, who won the Nobel prize for Literature in 1913
• Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920) was an Indian mathematician who made seminal contributions to number theory

The Bengali Renaissance refers to a social reform movement, dominated by Bengali Hindus, in the Bengal region of the Indian subcontinent during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, a period of British rule. Historian Nitish Sengupta describes the renaissance as having started with reformer and humanitarian Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1775–1833), and ended with Asia's first Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941). This flowering of religious and social reformers, scholars, and writers is described by historian David Kopf as "one of the most creative periods in Indian history."

During this period, Bengal witnessed an intellectual awakening that is in some way similar to the Renaissance. This movement questioned existing orthodoxies, particularly with respect to women, marriage, the dowry system, the caste system, and religion. One of the earliest social movements that emerged during this time was the Young Bengal movement, which espoused rationalism and atheism as the common denominators of civil conduct among upper caste educated Hindus. It played an important role in reawakening Indian minds and intellect across the Indian subcontinent.

Famines

Main articles: Famine in India and Timeline of major famines in India during British rule See also: Demographics of India

• Map of famines in India during British Empire in year 1800–1885.
• Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in Bellary district, Madras Presidency, British India during the Great Famine of 1876–1878
• Government famine relief, Ahmedabad, India, during the Indian famine of 1899–1900
• A picture of orphans who survived the Bengal famine of 1943, a man-made disaster by the British government

During British East India Company and British Crown rule, India experienced some of deadliest ever recorded famines. These famines, usually resulting from crop failures and often exacerbated by policies of the colonial government, included the Great Famine of 1876–1878 in which 6.1 million to 10.3 million people died, the Great Bengal famine of 1770 where between 1 and 10 million people died, the Indian famine of 1899–1900 in which 1.25 to 10 million people died, and the Bengal famine of 1943 where between 2.1 and 3.8 million people died. The Third plague pandemic in the mid-19th century killed 10 million people in India. Despite persistent diseases and famines, the population of the Indian subcontinent, which stood at up to 200 million in 1750, had reached 389 million by 1941.

World War I

Main article: Indian Army during World War I

• Indian Cavalry on the Western front 1914
• Indian cavalry from the Deccan Horse during the Battle of Bazentin Ridge in 1916.
• Indian Army gunners (probably 39th Battery) with 3.7-inch mountain howitzers, Jerusalem 1917
• India Gate is a memorial to 70,000 soldiers of the British Indian Army who died in the period 1914–21 in the First World War

During World War I, over 800,000 volunteered for the army, and more than 400,000 volunteered for non-combat roles, compared with the pre-war annual recruitment of about 15,000 men. The Army saw early action on the Western Front at the First Battle of Ypres. After a year of front-line duty, sickness and casualties had reduced the Indian Corps to the point where it had to be withdrawn. Nearly 700,000 Indians fought the Turks in the Mesopotamian campaign. Indian formations were also sent to East Africa, Egypt, and Gallipoli.

Indian Army and Imperial Service Troops fought during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign's defence of the Suez Canal in 1915, at Romani in 1916 and to Jerusalem in 1917. India units occupied the Jordan Valley and after the German spring offensive they became the major force in the Egyptian Expeditionary Force during the Battle of Megiddo and in the Desert Mounted Corps' advance to Damascus and on to Aleppo. Other divisions remained in India guarding the North-West Frontier and fulfilling internal security obligations.

One million Indian troops served abroad during the war. In total, 74,187 died, and another 67,000 were wounded. The roughly 90,000 soldiers who died fighting in World War I and the Afghan Wars are commemorated by the India Gate.

World War II

Main article: India in World War II

• General Claude Auchinleck (right), Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army, with the then Viceroy Wavell (centre) and General Montgomery (left)
• Indian women training for Air Raid Precautions (ARP) duties in Bombay in 1942
• Indian infantrymen of the 7th Rajput Regiment about to go on patrol on the Arakan front in Burma, 1944
• The stamp series "Victory" issued by the Government of British India to commemorate allied victory in World War II

British India officially declared war on Nazi Germany in September 1939. The British Raj, as part of the Allied Nations, sent over two and a half million volunteer soldiers to fight under British command against the Axis powers. Additionally, several Princely States provided large donations to support the Allied campaign. India also provided the base for American operations in support of China in the China Burma India Theatre.

Indians fought throughout the world, including in the European theatre against Germany, in North Africa against Germany and Italy, against the Italians in East Africa, in the Middle East against the Vichy French, in the South Asian region defending India against the Japanese and fighting the Japanese in Burma. Indians also aided in liberating British colonies such as Singapore and Hong Kong after the Japanese surrender in August 1945. Over 87,000 soldiers from the subcontinent died in World War II.

The Indian National Congress denounced Nazi Germany but would not fight it or anyone else until India was independent. Congress launched the Quit India Movement in August 1942, refusing to co-operate in any way with the government until independence was granted. The government immediately arrested over 60,000 national and local Congress leaders. The Muslim League rejected the Quit India movement and worked closely with the Raj authorities.

Subhas Chandra Bose (also called Netaji) broke with Congress and tried to form a military alliance with Germany or Japan to gain independence. The Germans assisted Bose in the formation of the Indian Legion; however, it was Japan that helped him revamp the Indian National Army (INA), after the First Indian National Army under Mohan Singh was dissolved. The INA fought under Japanese direction, mostly in Burma. Bose also headed the Provisional Government of Free India (or Azad Hind), a government-in-exile based in Singapore.

By 1942, neighbouring Burma was invaded by Japan, which by then had already captured the Indian territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Japan gave nominal control of the islands to the Provisional Government of Free India on 21 October 1943, and in the following March, the Indian National Army with the help of Japan crossed into India and advanced as far as Kohima in Nagaland. This advance on the mainland of the Indian subcontinent reached its farthest point on Indian territory, retreating from the Battle of Kohima in June and from that of Imphal on 3 July 1944.

The region of Bengal in British India suffered a devastating famine during 1940–1943. An estimated 2.1–3 million died from the famine, frequently characterised as "man-made", with most sources asserting that wartime colonial policies exacerbated the crisis.

Indian independence movement (1885–1947)

Main article: Indian independence movement See also: Indian independence activists and Pakistan Movement

• The first session of the Indian National Congress in 1885. A. O. Hume, the founder, is shown in the middle (third row from the front). The Congress was the first modern nationalist movement to emerge in the British Empire in Asia and Africa.
• Front page of the Tribune (25 March 1931), reporting the execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev by the British for the murder of 21-year-old police officer J. P. Saunders. Bhagat Singh quickly became a folk hero of the Indian independence movement.
• From the late 19th century, and especially after 1920, under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi (right), the Congress became the principal leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi is shown here with Jawaharlal Nehru, later the first prime minister of India.

The numbers of British in India were small, yet they were able to rule 52% of the Indian subcontinent directly and exercise considerable leverage over the princely states that accounted for 48% of the area.

One of the most important events of the 19th century was the rise of Indian nationalism, leading Indians to seek first "self-rule" and later "complete independence". However, historians are divided over the causes of its rise. Probable reasons include a "clash of interests of the Indian people with British interests", "racial discriminations", and "the revelation of India's past".

The first step toward Indian self-rule was the appointment of councillors to advise the British viceroy in 1861 and the first Indian was appointed in 1909. Provincial Councils with Indian members were also set up. The councillors' participation was subsequently widened into legislative councils. The British built a large British Indian Army, with the senior officers all British and many of the troops from small minority groups such as Gurkhas from Nepal and Sikhs. The civil service was increasingly filled with natives at the lower levels, with the British holding the more senior positions.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, an Indian nationalist leader, declared Swaraj (home rule) as the destiny of the nation. His popular sentence "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point of view, notably they advocated the Swadeshi movement involving the boycott of imported items and the use of Indian-made goods; the triumvirate were popularly known as Lal Bal Pal. In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions: The radicals, led by Tilak, advocated civil agitation and direct revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates, led by leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale, on the other hand, wanted reform within the framework of British rule.

The partition of Bengal in 1905 further increased the revolutionary movement for Indian independence. The disenfranchisement lead some to take violent action.

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in response to renewed nationalist demands. The means of achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which elected Indian legislators and appointed British officials shared power. In 1919, Colonel Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire their weapons on peaceful protestors, including unarmed women and children, resulting in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre; which led to the Non-cooperation Movement of 1920–1922. The massacre was a decisive episode towards the end of British rule in India.

From 1920 leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi began highly popular mass movements to campaign against the British Raj using largely peaceful methods. The Gandhi-led independence movement opposed the British rule using non-violent methods like non-co-operation, civil disobedience and economic resistance. However, revolutionary activities against the British rule took place throughout the Indian subcontinent and some others adopted a militant approach like the Hindustan Republican Association, that sought to overthrow British rule by armed struggle.

The All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for an independent and united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1,400 nationalist Muslim delegates. The pro-separatist All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those nationalist Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro also made it easier for the pro-separatist All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of a Pakistan.

After World War II (c. 1946–1947)

"A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new; when an age ends; and when the soul of a nation long suppressed finds utterance."

 — From, Tryst with destiny, a speech given by Jawaharlal Nehru to the Constituent Assembly of India on the eve of independence, 14 August 1947.

In January 1946, several mutinies broke out in the armed services, starting with that of RAF servicemen frustrated with their slow repatriation. The mutinies came to a head with mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay in February 1946, followed by others in Calcutta, Madras, and Karachi. The mutinies were rapidly suppressed. In early 1946, new elections were called and Congress candidates won in eight of the eleven provinces.

Late in 1946, the Labour government decided to end British rule of India, and in early 1947 it announced its intention of transferring power no later than June 1948 and participating in the formation of an interim government.

Along with the desire for independence, tensions between Hindus and Muslims had also been developing over the years. Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah proclaimed 16 August 1946 as Direct Action Day, with the stated goal of highlighting, peacefully, the demand for a Muslim homeland in British India, which resulted in the outbreak of the cycle of violence that would be later called the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946". The communal violence spread to Bihar, Noakhali in Bengal, Garhmukteshwar in the United Provinces, and on to Rawalpindi in March 1947 in which Sikhs and Hindus were attacked or driven out by Muslims.

Independence and partition (1947–present)

Main articles: Partition of India, South Asia § Contemporary era, History of India (1947–present), History of Pakistan (1947–present), and History of Bangladesh

• A map of the prevailing religions of the British Indian empire based on district-wise majorities based on the Indian census of 1909, and published in the Imperial Gazetteer of India. The partition of the Punjab and Bengal was based on such majorities.
• Gandhi touring Bela, Bihar, a village struck by religious rioting in March 1947. On the right is Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan.
• Jawaharlal Nehru being sworn in as the first prime minister of independent India by viceroy Lord Louis Mountbatten at 8:30 AM 15 August 1947.

In August 1947, the British Indian Empire was partitioned into the Union of India and Dominion of Pakistan. In particular, the partition of the Punjab and Bengal led to rioting between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in these provinces and spread to other nearby regions, leaving some 500,000 dead. The police and army units were largely ineffective. The British officers were gone, and the units were beginning to tolerate if not actually indulge in violence against their religious enemies. Also, this period saw one of the largest mass migrations anywhere in modern history, with a total of 12 million Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims moving between the newly created nations of India and Pakistan (which gained independence on 15 and 14 August 1947 respectively). In 1971, Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan and East Bengal, seceded from Pakistan.

See also

• Adivasi
• Early Indians
• List of Indian periods
• Economic history of India
• Historiography of India
• Foreign relations of India
• Indian maritime history
• Linguistic history of India
• Military history of India
• Outline of ancient India
• Taxation in medieval India
• The Cambridge History of India
• Timeline of Indian history
• Traditional games of South Asia

References

Notes

1. The "First urbanisation" was the Indus Valley Civilisation.
2. Many historians consider Attock to be the final frontier of the Maratha Empire

Citations

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3. ^ Wright 2010, p. 1.
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394. Anil Chandra Banerjee, A Constitutional History of India 1600–1935 (1978) pp. 171–173
395. R, B.S.; Bakshi, S.R. (1990). Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Struggle for Swaraj. Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-7041-262-5. Retrieved 6 January 2017.
396. ^ Chandra, Bipan; Mukherjee, Mridula; Mukherjee, Aditya; Mahajan, Sucheta; Panikkar, K.N. (2016) . India's Struggle for Independence (Revised and updated ed.). Penguin Books. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-14-010781-4.
397. Albert, Sir Courtenay Peregrine. The Government of India. Clarendon Press, 1922. p. 125
398. Bond, Brian (October 1963). "Amritsar 1919". History Today. Vol. 13, no. 10. pp. 666–676.
399. Qasmi, Ali Usman; Robb, Megan Eaton (2017). Muslims against the Muslim League: Critiques of the Idea of Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-108-62123-6.
400. Haq, Mushir U. (1970). Muslim politics in modern India, 1857–1947. Meenakshi Prakashan. p. 114. This was also reflected in one of the resolutions of the Azad Muslim Conference, an organization which attempted to be representative of all the various nationalist Muslim parties and groups in India.
401. ^ Ahmed, Ishtiaq (27 May 2016). "The dissenters". The Friday Times. However, the book is a tribute to the role of one Muslim leader who steadfastly opposed the Partition of India: the Sindhi leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro. Allah Bakhsh belonged to a landed family. He founded the Sindh People's Party in 1934, which later came to be known as 'Ittehad' or 'Unity Party'. ... Allah Bakhsh was totally opposed to the Muslim League's demand for the creation of Pakistan through a division of India on a religious basis. Consequently, he established the Azad Muslim Conference. In its Delhi session held during April 27–30, 1940 some 1,400 delegates took part. They belonged mainly to the lower castes and working class. The famous scholar of Indian Islam, Wilfred Cantwell Smith, feels that the delegates represented a 'majority of India's Muslims'. Among those who attended the conference were representatives of many Islamic theologians and women also took part in the deliberations ... Shamsul Islam argues that the All-India Muslim League at times used intimidation and coercion to silence any opposition among Muslims to its demand for Partition. He calls such tactics of the Muslim League as a 'Reign of Terror'. He gives examples from all over India including the NWFP where the Khudai Khidmatgars remain opposed to the Partition of India.
402. ^ Ali, Afsar (17 July 2017). "Partition of India and Patriotism of Indian Muslims". The Milli Gazette.
403. "Great speeches of the 20th century". The Guardian. 8 February 2008.
404. Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten(1985) p. 401.
405. ^ Symonds, Richard (1950). The Making of Pakistan. London: Faber and Faber. p. 74. OCLC 1462689. At the lowest estimate, half a million people perished and twelve millions became homeless.
406. Abid, Abdul Majeed (29 December 2014). "The forgotten massacre". The Nation. On the same dates , Muslim League-led mobs fell with determination and full preparations on the helpless Hindus and Sikhs scattered in the villages of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha. The murderous mobs were well supplied with arms, such as daggers, swords, spears and fire-arms. (A former civil servant mentioned in his autobiography that weapon supplies had been sent from NWFP and money was supplied by Delhi-based politicians.)
407. Srinath Raghavan (2013). 1971. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-73129-5.

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Further reading

General

• Basham, A.L., ed. The Illustrated Cultural History of India (Oxford University Press, 2007)
• Buckland, C.E. Dictionary of Indian Biography (1906) 495pp full text
• Chakrabarti D.K. 2009. India, an archaeological history : palaeolithic beginnings to early historic foundations.
• Chattopadhyaya, D. P. (ed.). History of Science, Philosophy and Culture in Indian Civilization. Vol. 15-volum + parts Set. Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilizations.
• Dharma Kumar and Meghnad Desai, eds. The Cambridge Economic History of India: Volume 2, c. 1751–1970 (2nd ed. 2010), 1114pp of scholarly articles
• Guha, Ramachandra. India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy (2007), 890pp; since 1947
• James, Lawrence. Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) online
• Khan, Yasmin. The Raj At War: A People's History Of India's Second World War (2015); also published as India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War India At War: The Subcontinent and the Second World War.
• Khan, Yasmin. The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2n d ed. Yale UP 2017) excerpt
• Mcleod, John. The History of India (2002) excerpt and text search
• Majumdar, R.C. : An Advanced History of India. London, 1960. ISBN 0-333-90298-X
• Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) : The History and Culture of the Indian People, Bombay, 1977 (in eleven volumes).
• Mansingh, Surjit The A to Z of India (2010), a concise historical encyclopedia
• Markovits, Claude, ed. A History of Modern India, 1480–1950 (2002) by a team of French scholars
• Metcalf, Barbara D. and Thomas R. Metcalf. A Concise History of Modern India (2006)
• Peers, Douglas M. India under Colonial Rule: 1700–1885 (2006), 192pp
• Riddick, John F. The History of British India: A Chronology (2006) excerpt
• Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India (1998); 5000 entries excerpt
• Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
• Sharma, R.S., India's Ancient Past, (Oxford University Press, 2005)
• Sarkar, Sumit. Modern India, 1885–1947 (2002)
• Senior, R.C. (2006). Indo-Scythian coins and history. Volume IV. Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9709268-6-9.
• Singhal, D.P. A History of the Indian People (1983)
• Smith, Vincent. The Oxford History of India (3rd ed. 1958), old-fashioned
• Spear, Percival. A History of India. Volume 2. Penguin Books. (1990)
• Stein, Burton. A History of India (1998)
• Thapar, Romila. Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300 (2004) excerpt and text search
• Thompson, Edward, and G.T. Garratt. Rise and Fulfilment of British Rule in India (1934) 690 pages; scholarly survey, 1599–1933 excerpt and text search
• Tomlinson, B.R. The Economy of Modern India, 1860–1970 (The New Cambridge History of India) (1996)
• Tomlinson, B.R. The political economy of the Raj, 1914–1947 (1979) online
• Wolpert, Stanley. A New History of India (8th ed. 2008) online 7th edition

Historiography

• Bannerjee, Gauranganath (1921). India as known to the ancient world. London: Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press.
• Bayly, C.A. (November 1985). "State and Economy in India over Seven Hundred Years". The Economic History Review. 38 (4): 583–596. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.1985.tb00391.x. JSTOR 2597191.
• Bose, Mihir. "India's Missing Historians: Mihir Bose Discusses the Paradox That India, a Land of History, Has a Surprisingly Weak Tradition of Historiography", History Today 57#9 (2007) pp. 34–. online Archived 15 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
• Elliot, Henry Miers; Dowson, John (1867). The History of India, as told by its own historians. The Muhammadan Period. London: Trübner and Co. Archived from the original on 25 August 2009.
• Kahn, Yasmin (2011). "Remembering and Forgetting: South Asia and the Second World War". In Martin Gegner; Bart Ziino (eds.). The Heritage of War. Routledge. pp. 177–193.
• Jain, M. (2011). "4". The India They Saw: Foreign Accounts. Delhi: Ocean Books.
• Lal, Vinay (2003). The History of History: Politics and Scholarship in Modern India.
• Palit, Chittabrata (2008). Indian Historiography.
• Sharma, Arvind (2003). Hinduism and Its Sense of History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-566531-4.
• Sreedharan, E. (2004). A Textbook of Historiography, 500 B.C. to A.D. 2000.
• Warder, A.K. (1972). An introduction to Indian historiography.

Primary

• The Imperial Gazetteer of India. 1908–1931. Highly detailed description of all of India in 1901.

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